LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, V LIETUVOS TSR MOKSLŲ AKADEMIJA

TAUTOLOGICAL VERB DEFINITIONS IN THE “LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE DICTIONARY”

A. KUČINSKAITĖ

A definition is called tautological when a word from the same root is used in defining the meaning of the word being explained.

In the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, as in many other language dictionaries, the meanings of prefixed verbs are most often explained tautologically. For example:

sujusti to begin moving.

prakepti to bake a little, in a hurry.

perkir̃sti to divide into two parts by cutting¹.

In the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language, tautological definitions are also often used to explain unprefixed verbs. This article aims specifically to draw attention to such cases, in which the meanings of unprefixed verbs can be revealed quite clearly and relatively precisely through tautological descriptions of actions.

A. VERBS OF NOMINAL ORIGIN

I. Verbs derived from nouns

1. A verb derived from a noun denotes not only an action but also indicates the object toward which that action is directed or which it aims to obtain. In a tautological definition of such a verb, a verb with a broader meaning is given together with an accusative or genitive form of a noun from the same root, indicating the object of the action. For example:

aviečiauti to gather raspberries.

grybauti to gather mushrooms.

kirmėliauti to collect worms, to look for worms.

kiškiauti to hunt, catch hares.

¹ Cf.: поговорить — to speak for some time; докупать — to buy something in addition to what was previously bought; перегрызать — to divide into parts by gnawing. Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of the Russian Language (hereinafter — СССРЯ); abwerfen — to throw a load to the ground, to throw down; anfliegen — to approach flying. Wörterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache, German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Institute for German Language and Literature, fasc. 1—2, Berlin, 1961 (hereinafter — WDG).

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to saddle to put a saddle on a horse.

to bridle to put a bridle on a horse².

2. A verb derived from a noun denotes not only an action but also suggests the result or manner of the action. It is explained using a verb of broader meaning with the accusative of a noun from the same root (sometimes with the preposition “out of”) or the instrumental (sometimes with the preposition “with”). E.g.:

to make loops to make loops.

to curl to make curls.

to form loaves to shape dough into loaves.

to stir feelings to arouse, awaken feelings.

to ball up to turn oneself into a ball.

to heap to pour with a heap.

to grow in clumps to grow in clumps.

to sip to drink slowly, in small sips.

to form cloudbanks clouds to form in banks³.

3. A verb derived from a noun denoting a tool, implement, or material denotes an action performed with that tool, implement, or material. Its meaning is expressed using a verb of broader meaning with the instrumental of that noun (sometimes with the preposition “with”). E.g.:

to whip with a strap to beat with a strap.

to hoe to hill potatoes and vegetables with a hoe.

to manure with a dung fork to unload manure from a cart with a dung fork.

to feed with small fish to feed kiulkiai (small fish).

to play the kanklės to play the kanklės.

to sugar to sprinkle with sugar.

to salt to add salt.

to gild to cover with gold⁴.

4. A verb derived from a noun denotes a process indicating that the subject acquires properties similar to those of the thing (person) denoted by that noun, or becomes that thing (person). The meaning is usually defined by the formula “to become something” or “to acquire certain properties,” “to become like something.” For example:

to turn to coal to become coal.

to become bone to become bone.

to turn to amber to become amber.

to become a townsman to acquire the qualities of a townsman.

to become iron to become like iron.

² Cf.: сделать to put a saddle on an animal’s back and fasten it there (a horse, donkey, etc.). Dictionary of the Russian Language in Four Volumes, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of the Russian Language (hereafter СРЯ); adressieren to write the address on a postal item WDG.

³ Cf.: периться to become covered with feathers; петлять to go, move not in a straight line, making loops ССРЯ; ржаветь to become covered with rust СРЯ; adeln to raise someone to the nobility WDG.

⁴ Cf.: пилить to cut various materials (wood, metal, etc.) with a saw; маслить to smear or pour oil on something; крахмалить to soak before ironing in a starch solution to give stiffness and a sheen (of linen, a dress) ССРЯ; сахарить to sprinkle with sugar, солить to put salt into or on a dish, to season with salt СРЯ; angeln to catch fish with a fishing rod WDG.

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galvijėti to become like cattle.

kempėti to turn into something resembling a sponge⁵.

5. A verb derived from a noun denotes a state showing that the subject is undergoing the harmful action of an agent expressed by that noun. It is explained by formulas such as “to be eaten, gnawed, pecked... by something.” For example:

kirmelėti to be eaten by worms.

kirmgraužoti to be gnawed by woodworms.

kandėti to be pecked by moths.

6. Verbs derived from nouns indicate that an agent performs certain duties, engages in some occupation, or belongs to a particular profession or social status. They are explained by the formula “to be a [something], to pursue [something] as an occupation; to hold or perform the corresponding duties.” For example:

girininkauti to be a forest ranger.

kalviauti to be a blacksmith, to work as a blacksmith.

kareiviauti to be a soldier, to perform military service.

karininkauti to be an officer, to hold an officer’s post.

dailidžiauti to work as a carpenter.

kerdžiauti to perform the duties of a shepherd.

kampininkauti to be a kampininkas⁶.

It should be noted that some verbs explained by tautological definitions cannot be grouped into any semantic categories. These are individual cases of tautological explanation, for example: kerštauti to intend to take revenge, to threaten revenge; giminiuotis to regard people as relatives, etc.

II. Verbs derived from adjectives

1. A verb derived from an adjective denotes an action by which a property expressed by that adjective is imparted to an object. It is explained by the formula “to make [something] [adjective].” E.g.:

kartinti to make bitter.

gelsvinti to make yellowish.

jauninti to make young.

kietinti to make hard, harder.

gilinti to make deeper.

gardinti to make more delicious⁷.

2. A verb derived from an adjective denotes a state showing that the subject truly or apparently possesses the property expressed by that adjective. It is explained by the formula “to be, appear [adjective].” E.g.:

giedruoti to be clear.

juoduoti to be, appear black.

5 Cf.: леденеть to turn into ice; костенеть to become hard like bone СССРЛЯ.

6 Cf.: кузнечить to work as a blacksmith (colloquial); плотничать to do a carpenter’s work; to be a carpenter СССРЛЯ; служить to serve as a servant, domestic servant (archaic) СРЯ; amtieren to hold an office, function WDG.

7 Cf.: коротить to make shorter СССРЛЯ; равнять to make equal, equivalent СРЯ; altern to make someone or something prematurely old; aktivieren to make someone or something active WDG.

14. Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai, V

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to turn yellow to be yellow, to look yellow. to level to be level⁸.

3. A verb derived from an adjective denotes a process by which an object acquires the property expressed by that adjective. The explanation uses the verb to become with the dative of that adjective, or the verb to go with an adverb derived from an adjective of the same root and bearing the suffix -yn. E.g.:

to grow bitter to become bitter.

to turn yellow to become yellowish, yellow.

to harden to become hard.

to improve to become better.

to become noble to become nobler, to become more noble.

to clear up to become clearer.

to grow lively to grow more lively⁹.

B. ONOMATOPOEIC VERBS

Verbs derived from sound-imitative interjections that denote the calls of animals or birds are explained using a verb with a broader meaning and the interjection itself. For example:

karkti to cry out “kar, kar, kar” (of a hen).

čirikštėrėti to cry out “čirikšt.”

gagėti to cry out “ga, ga, ga” (of a goose).

kukuoti to call “kukū” (of a cuckoo)¹⁰.

In the Lithuanian Dictionary, other interjection-derived verbs are sometimes also explained tautologically, for example:

kėpterti to fall with a “kėpt” sound.

keperkšči(u)oti to walk “keperkšt, keperkšt.”

karkšėti to strike with a “karkš karkš” sound.

kabulinti to beat or do something else with a “kabuldi, kabuldi” sound.

The foregoing examples of explanations of interjection-derived verbs seem somewhat amusing¹¹. Moreover, many interjections and the verbs derived from them are familiar only in particular dialects. Verbs that have not entered the literary language should not be explained using equally unfamiliar interjections from which the verbs themselves are derived. Dictionary users would benefit much more if the sound or acoustic image of interjection-derived verbs were described (sometimes by means of a synonym), with a comparative reference to the corresponding interjection given in parentheses. For example:

⁸ Cf.: равняться to be or consider oneself equal to someone. СРЯ; горчить to have a bitter or slightly bitter taste. ССРЛЯ; ähneln to be similar to someone. WDG.

⁹ Cf.: краснеть to become red, to acquire a red color; молодеть to become young, younger; плотнеть to become denser. ССРЛЯ; твердеть to become hard or harder; яснеть to become clear or clearer. СРЯ; altern to grow old. WDG.

¹⁰ Cf.: куковать to make the call “куку” (of a cuckoo); мяукать to make “мяу” sounds (of a cat or other felid). ССРЛЯ.

¹¹ A. Juška has provided similar explanations in the illustration of words, for example: Kersnoti is to ride while clattering — kers, kers, kers (А. Юушкевич, Литовский словарь съ толкованіемъ словъ на русскомъ и польскомъ языкахъ, вып. III (т. II, вып. I), Петроградъ, 1922).

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klibinkštuoti to walk with a limp (cf. klibinkšt).

žnektelėti to fall to the ground with a muffled sound, said of something heavy and flabby (cf. žnekt).

šlumštelėti to fall to the ground, said of something soft and squishy (cf. šlumšt).

kliunktelėti to fall into some liquid (cf. kliunkt).

C. VERBS DERIVED FROM VERBS

Verbs belonging to certain semantic categories—so-called diminutive, frequentative, causative, and benefactive verbs—are usually explained in the Lithuanian Language Dictionary by references to the primary verb. In individual cases, when those references are insufficient, the meanings of diminutive, frequentative, and causative verbs are explained using tautological definitions.

1. Diminutive verbs. Their tautological definitions give a verb with the same root, accompanied by adverbs such as a little, slightly, gradually, slowly, gently, etc. For example:

gaštelėti to be a little startled.

kapstelėti to dig a little.

kapstenti to dig slowly.

kedelenti to card gently.

2. Frequentative verbs. Their tautological explanations use adverbs such as at intervals, intermittently, constantly, often, here and there. For example:

karkšėti to croak intermittently.

kaukuoti to howl intermittently.

kiloti to lift something constantly, often.

lekčioti to fly here and there.

3. Frequentative-diminutive verbs. Their tautological definitions use adverbs denoting the repetition, ease, or low intensity of an action, or adverbials of manner expressed by other parts of speech. E.g.:

keplioti to bake often, a little at a time.

kalinėti to hammer slowly, lightly, one after another.

4. Causative verbs. They are explained using the formula “to make [someone/something]” followed by the third-person conditional form of a verb with the same root. E.g.:

kepinti to make [something] bake.

kirmydyti to make [something] worm.

girgždinti to make [something] creak.

jukdyti to make [someone] laugh.

In the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language,” verb meanings are also explained by tautological definitions in other cases not mentioned here. For instance, such definitions are also used for the few verbs derived from numerals, pronouns, and adverbs: ketvertinti to increase fourfold; vienodėti to become more alike; ganėti to be sufficient, and so on. Two-root verbs are also most often explained tautologically, e.g.: gardžiakąsniauti to eat tasty morsels; kiškiakopūstauti to gather wood sorrel.

Finally, the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” uses tautological definitions to explain not only verbs but also words from other parts of speech, for example, nouns

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(guardian one who protects; naturalist a specialist in the natural sciences; young man a young person), adjectives (humped having humps; long-tusked having long tusks). Cases of tautological interpretation of other parts of speech are not discussed in this article.

Although tautological definitions of meanings are considered inadequate by some lexicologists¹², as we have seen, in certain cases they are entirely justified and acceptable for several reasons:

1) A tautological definition is concise (e.g., garuoti to emit steam); 2) it is sufficiently clear (e.g., kainoti to set a price); 3) a tautological definition explains not only a word’s meaning but also reveals its origin or its relationship to another word with the same root (e.g., kairiuoti to work with the left hand).

Of course, tautological interpretations are justified only when the same-root word used in the definition is explained in the dictionary descriptively or by a widely used synonym. Interpretations using narrowly used synonyms make things difficult for dictionary users. Sometimes one must go through several “stages” before the meaning of the word being defined finally becomes clear¹³.

When appropriately used, tautological interpretations are almost equal in value to non-tautological descriptive definitions and reveal word meanings much better than synonyms or cross-references.

TAUTOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF VERBS IN THE “DICTIONARY OF THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE”

А. КУЧИНСКАЙТЕ

Abstract

Tautological definitions are used in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” to explain various derived verbs: 1) those derived from nouns (e.g., kilpoti daryti kilpas — “to make loops”; from adjectives, e.g., juodinti daryti juo-

¹² For example, J. Galkina-Fedoruk, criticizing the tautological definitions in S. Ozhegov’s dictionary, says that the definition of merka, “определенный размер” (“a certain size”), is indeed brief, but does not sufficiently reveal the word’s meaning because it is tautological in content. Cf. E. M. Галкина-Федорук, Современный русский язык, Лексика, М., 1954, p. 191.

¹³ A striking example of such impermissible “stages” appears in Volume V of the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language”:

kabarzuoti kabarzu, to bark in a kabarzu-like way.

kabarzu kepersu.

kepersu kiverzai.

kiverzai keverzai.

keverzai used to describe awkward, unattractive movement.

In addition, care must be taken that a word with the same root used in a tautological definition is not explained, even indirectly, by “idem per idem” (“in a circle”), e.g.:

galėti to feel capable.

galestis ability.

galėjimas → to be able.

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da — “to blacken — to make black”), 2) interjectional verbs (e.g., mjaūkti rėkti miau — apie katę — “to meow — to cry ‘meow’ — of a cat”), 3) verbs of verbal origin: diminutives (e.g., kąstelėti kiek įkasti, truputį atsikasti — “to take a bite — to bite slightly, to bite off a little”), iterative verbs (e.g., karkseti tarpais karti — “to caw from time to time”), causative verbs (e.g., judyti daryti, kad juoktųs — “to amuse — to make people laugh”).

Some groups of derived verbs in the “Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language” are defined according to specific formulas. For example, verbs formed from adjectives that express a process in which an object acquires the properties denoted by the adjective are defined using the verb daryti — “to become” and the dative case of that adjective (kietėti daryti kietam — “to harden — to become hard”) or the verb eiti “to go” with an adverb of the same root, formed from the adjective (aiškėti · eiti aiškyn — “to become clearer — to grow clearer”).

Aptly used, a tautological definition is equivalent to non-tautological descriptive definitions of words. Tautological definitions are brief and sufficiently clear. Moreover, a tautological definition not only explains the meaning of a word, but also indicates its origin or its connection with another word of the same root.