119s aipsniai / a icles
icha d coa es
uni e si y o he Wes o england, b is ol
ields o esea ch: his o ical linguis ics, e ymology, philology o
wes e n and no he n eu opean languages, heo e ical phonology, he
his o y o dialec ology, cul u al aspec s o he his o y o english, and
local his o y.
eigh issues in he
P agMa ic heo y
o P oPe hood
aš uonios p agma inės ik inių
žodžių eo ijos p oblemos
anno a ion
his a icle de elops an app oach o he unde s anding o p ope names called he P ag-
ma ic heo y o P ope hood ( P P), which is buil on wo cen al ideas:
(1) P ope names ha e no sense
(2) he essence o being a p ope name is o be ound in e e ence, no in deno a ion
i ou lines he elemen s o P P, i s p emises and consequences, and p oceeds o examine
a selec ion o eigh o he issues which emain, o which appea o emain.
o some yea s now i ha e been p oposing an app oach o he unde s anding
o p ope names called he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood ( P P). di e -
en aspec s o i ha e been p esen ed in a se ies o pape s (coa es 2000, 2005a,
2005b, 2006a, 2006b, 2009, 2011a, 2011b, 2012). he poin o he p esen pape
is o ou line he elemen s o he heo y, i s p emises and consequences, and o
examine some o he p oblems which emain, o which appea o emain. i is
he e o e la gely exposi o y a he han a gumen a i e, and he lis o e e ences
is co espondingly small. he in ellec ual his o y o he heo y will no be deal
wi h he e, since ha was co e ed ho oughly in coa es (2006a and 2009), bu i
is good o ecall ha my bigges deb s a e o john s ua Mill (1843), u h ba can
keyWo ds: name heo y, p ope hood, “ ag heo y” o p ope names, e e ence,
seman ics, p agma ics.
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Ma cus (1961), and o he s in he same adi ion, o poin (1), essen ially wha is
now called he “ ag” heo y o p ope names,1 and o Pe e ede ick s awson
(1950) – o some ex en – o poin (2). o he ull his o y, coa es (2006a) and
i s e y subs an ial lis o e e ences should be consul ed.
P P is buil a ound hese wo ideas:
(3) P ope names ha e no sense
(4) he essence o being a p ope name is o be ound in e e ence, no in deno a ion
some consequences o hese wo a e:
(5) P ope names do no o m a de e mina e se
(6) P ope names do no all in o logically secu e ca ego ies
(7) P ope names canno be ansla ed
(8) heo izing he in e ace be ween p ope and non-p ope exp essions has neu o-
physiological (and psycholinguis ic) implica ions
Whils he ollowing a e no s ic ly consequences o he wo key ideas, hey
suppo and ampli y hem:
(9) Whils p ope names do no ha e sense, hey a e no meaningless
(10) he meanings o p ope names which can be accessed a e ancilla y, and o be dis in-
guished om sense
(11) he p ope names o cha ac e s in li e a y wo ks may be a special case
he e is one bone o con en ion which keeps esu acing in wo ks o heo e ic al
onomas ics, iz. ha names a e ei he maximally meaning ul o minimally meaning-
ul. i sugges ha i is no an ma e o al e na i es, bu ha :
(12) P ope names a e bo h maximally and minimally meaning ul
and ha he de ail o he iew one ough o ake is de e mined by exac ly wha one
means by meaning. Pu ing i ano he way: he supposed issue is a non-issue.
nei he o he wo key ideas (1) and (2) is new in i sel , bu i con end ha
ou side o P P nei he o hem has been ollowed h ough igo ously, and ha
hei in e ac ion has no been p ope ly unde s ood. b inging hem oge he in o
a slogan, we can say ha p ope hood (unde s ood as ‘ he s a e o being a p ope
name’) is senseless e e ing. ha is impo an , because many app oaches o
name heo y de end he iew ha p ope hood is senseless deno ing, a iew ha i
1 he “ ag” heo y is gene ally iewed as being in opposi ion o be and ussell’s “desc ip ion” heo y
and john . sea le’s “clus e ” heo y. since he “ ag” heo y is widely hough no uni e sally accep ed,
i shall no engage in he de ail o ha pa icula deba e in his pape . My posi ion ex ends he “ ag”
heo y o linguis ically well- o med exp essions which a e ambiguous wi h espec o being names.
eigh issues in he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood
121s aipsniai / a icles
conside incohe en and demons ably alse. he co e meaning o a p ope name
is i s e e en in he con ex o i s u e ance;2 names, once es ablished, a e igid
designa o s (k ipke 1980: 48). o he kinds o meaning, which may be iewed om
ei he he speake ’s o he add essees’s pe spec i e, can be accessed in he ac o
e e ence. bu hese emain ancilla y o he basic ac . hey include, o ins ance,
an exp ession’s e ymology, p obabilis ic ca ego iza ion, conno a ions, and encyclo-
pedic de ini ion. bu since none o hese need o be accessed in o de o pe o m
e e ence success ully, hey do no o m pa o he de ini ion o p ope hood. ha
does no mean ha hey a e unimpo an , bu hei ela ionship o he key no ions
needs o be unde s ood p ecisely, and we shall in es iga e hem below. om now
on, he simple e m name will be used ins ead o he ulle p ope name .
i s ly, he key seman ic e ms in (1) and (2) need o be de ined. he exis -
ence o di e ing e minological adi ions in philosophy and linguis ics makes
his necessa y.
Re e ence is he ac o picking ou an indi idual e e en in a con ex o u e -
ance; indi idual means a single on, i.e. single ins ance o any ype o ca ego y, no
jus an indi idual pe son
Deno a ion is he ange o po en ial e e en s o a wo d o o he exp ession (i s
ex ension), ha is, i is an abs ac ion om e e ence and mus no be con used wi h
i , and i is a no ion ha applies ou side any speci ic con ex ; ha ange o po en ial
e e en s may o may no sha e any de ining ea u e o ea u es (in ension)
[ he deno a ion o a name is ini ially es ablished h ough ac s o e e ence
(among which, o p esen pu poses, i include name-bes owal; on his no ion, see
u he below), bu i is a p ac ical consequence o such ac s o e e ence and no
a p econdi ion o he success o such ac s. e e ence is he e o e p ima y and he
deno a ion o a name epiphenomenal upon epea ed success ul e e ence achie ed
h ough u e ing i . no ice ha i do no claim ha names ha e no deno a ion, as
some ha e hough .]
Sense is he ne wo k o seman ic ela ions in which lexical wo ds and mo e complex
exp essions pa icipa e, such as synonymy, hyponymy, an onymy, me onymy, con e -
si y, and so on
[Sense is dis inc om in ension. names canno no ha e sense by he abo e
de ini ion, whe eas all and only he e e en s sha ing some name may, con in-
gen ly, sha e an in ension, e.g. jus in case all indi iduals called Ba ack a e male
human beings.]
My use o hese e ms is essen ially ha o Lyons (1977).
2 such a iew is espoused pa icula ly clea ly by he philosophe bu ge (1973: 438–439).
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now le us in oduce and de elop a simple example, aken a andom om he
websi e o he bbc on 22 decembe 2011.
howa d a che [an economis , c] said he el ha mo e ac ion om he bank o
england was likely in he new yea .
he name consis ing o he i s wo wo ds e e s (mo e accu a ely, he u -
e e o he i s wo wo ds e e s by u e ing hem) o an indi idual called Howa d
A che , who, in he con ex o u e ance, is likely o be uniquely iden i iable, ei he
as pa o he common g ound, o ha ing al eady been in oduced as a discou se
e e en , o because he is wea ing a lapel badge.3 o cou se, i is always possible
ha some add essees may know mo e han one pe son wi h ha name, and ha is
an una oidable isk which may esul in communica ion ailu e. con ex will usu-
ally be enough o decide which pe son is being e e ed o, and indeed o decide
ha a pe son is being e e ed o a he han some hing else which can bea a name,
like a dog, a lake, o a spo s club, bu success ul e e ence can ne e be gua an eed:
only aspi ed o and a emp ed. decon ex ualized, he name Howa d A che deno es
any indi idual which bea s ha name; he consequences o his will be assessed in
(3’). hose indi iduals ha e no hing necessa ily in common apa om hei name;
any hing non- andom ha hey migh ha e in common could be due o gene ic
ac o s, and hen only i he su name had a single o igin, which seems unlikely in
his case.4 he name can he e o e be de ined ex ensionally bu no in ension-
ally. Mo eo e , Howa d A che has no sense. i con ains a wo d which we know
o be used as an english su name, bu i does no ca y he sense o ha wo d,
‘soldie a med wi h a bow and a ows’. i s e ymology is o no impo ance o help
in iden i ying an indi idual in a con ex o u e ance; M a che is an economis ,
no a soldie . A che , used as a name, is no a synonym o bowman, no a co-hyp-
onym, wi h e.g. bake , d ape , smi h, o ade o occupa ion. o cou se, i is also no
a synonym o ano he su name, Bowman, no is i a co-hyponym wi h e.g. Bake ,
D ape , Smi h, o ade o occupa ion. so i A che is used o e e success ully o
an indi idual, i does so wi hou eso o sense and only i ially wi h eso o
deno a ion: i elies on he add essees’ p io knowledge ha A che migh deno e a
ange o indi iduals who bea ha name, and ha he indi idual p o isionally
iden i ied (mo e closely speci ied by he gi en name Howa d) is one o hem.
he e is appa en ly no hing e y new he e. bu i p ope hood is g ounded in
e e ence a he han in deno a ion, some in e es ing hings ollow. i pick up poin s
(3–6) made ea lie , in u n.
3 he web-page in ques ion, h p://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-16300104, explains exac ly who he is.
4 i has been shown ha many su names, a leas in england, can be aced back o a single o iginal
bea e ( edmonds 2002), bu o cou se ha is no ue o all o hem.
eigh issues in he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood
123s aipsniai / a icles
(3’) P oPe naMes do no o M
a de e Mina e se
he e may be exp essions whose p ope hood migh be con es ed. i is un-
likely ha anyone would con es Nep une, Isabella, Cambodia, Vilnius, and so on:
hese a e p o o ypical p ope names in ha by common consen hey ha e no
lexical con en , i.e. no sense .5 bu wha abou complex exp essions ha a e ce -
ainly candida es o be conside ed as names, especially such geog aphical exp es-
sions as The Uni ed S a es, The Wes Bank, The No h Sea, The Sou he n Ocean,
The Rocky Moun ains, and Huang He ‘ he yellow i e ’, and exp essions deno -
ing a single deno a um, like The Pope?6 i is a e y in e es ing ma e o decide
whe he use s o hese exp essions in pa icula con ex s iden i y hei e e en s
by using he lexical meaning (sense) o he wo ds in ol ed. We will lea e aside
he appa en gene ic e m ill (4’); bu as ega ds he speci ics, we can be p e y
con iden ha hey do no use hei appa en senses. We do no need o eso o
psycholinguis ic specula ion abou p ocessing o come o a conclusion. We can
simply ask linguis ically ocused ques ions such as: is he sen ence The Rocky
Moun ains a e no ( eally) ocky, o The Yellow Ri e is no ( eally) yellow, a con-
adic ion? i sugges ha hey a e no con adic o y. hey may be inaccu a e, bu
an un u h is no he same as a con adic ion.7 as o he second one, huang he
is so called om he loessy sil i ca ies in i s lowe cou se, bu i is said o ha e
been known as (The) Black Ri e in old Mongolian (Pa ke 1917: 11, “[ ]he
Mongols s yle i he black i e ”), om i s appea ance in i s uppe cou se, all o
which demons a es a leas ha he e is no simple ela ion be ween names and
hei appa en lexical con en . i hese sen ences a e no con adic o y, hen he
exp essions in ques ion mus be names. i hey a e names, we can immedia ely
see ha some names and some exp essions which a e no names a e homonymous
(The Rocky Moun ains e sus he ocky moun ains, wi h he name dis inguished
con en ionally in w i ing by capi aliza ion). i ha is ue, hen he e is no ool-
5 hey may gain a sense by opes ( he o ical igu es), as in We all hope he e will ne e be ano he Cam-
bodia (alluding me onymically o he massac es he e in he 1970s), bu ha is i ele an he e.
6 i am e e ing o he leade o he oman ca holic chu ch, hough i am awa e ha o he denomin-
a ions, such as he cop ic ch is ians, also ha e a pope. he impo an poin he e is ha he ele an
denomina ions each ha e only one pe son deno ed by his exp ession. i eade s hink his duali y o
plu ali y unde mines my a gumen , hey may subs i u e The Dea Leade , unde s ood o deno e he
la e kim jong-il alone; bo h his a he and his son we e gi en di e en “s yles”.
7 Cows gene ally li e longe han a me s is ac ually alse, bu i is no con adic o y. God is h ee and
God is one is a con adic ion, bu a leas some eligious people will decla e ha i is ue.

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p oo way o deciding whe he an exp ession, as a linguis ic en i y, is a name o
no ; he ques ion can only be add essed in ela ion o a con ex . in some con ex ,
he exp ession in ques ion is ei he used o e e seman ically (using he con en
o he lexis i con ains) o onymically (no using he con en o he lexis i con-
ains). P ope hood is he e o e, as illus a ed by hese examples, a mode o
e e ence, and no a ca ego y o exp essions, and his unde s anding o he no-
ion can be applied e en o hose exp essions which a e uncon o e sially names
(e.g. Nep une, Vilnius): hey a e simply exp essions which a e ne e used o e e
seman ically, excep in opes (c . oo no e 3).
an impo an issue which is in he backg ound he e, bu which i ha e no spel
ou so a , is ha exp essions may become names, i.e. hey may e ol e in o names
h ough epea ed usage in such a way ha use s no longe access hei lexical
con en in o de o achie e success ul e e ence. his mus be ue, o he wise
no mal his o ical onomas ics, which seeks o explain obscu e names by ela ing
hem o hei e ymological lexical sou ce, would be impossible and un hinkable.
exp essions such as hose men ioned in he las pa ag aph may be names o some
use s ( hose who do no access hei lexical con en ), possibly no names o o he s
( hose who do access hei lexical con en ), and a iably names o ye o he s ( hose
who some imes access hei lexical con en ). such exp essions may be on he way
o becoming names, i hey a e no names al eady. bu i is no eally an ei he -o
ma e . i ha e a gued elsewhe e (e.g. coa es 2005b) ha once a use has used an
exp ession as a name (i.e. has used i o e e onymically), i is imp obable ha ,
unde no mal ci cums ances, ha use will use i seman ically again (allowing
pe haps o a b ie ansi ional pe iod). his is because seman ic e e ence is me-
dia ed by lexical and g amma ical meaning, and i s p ocessing cos s a e he e o e
highe . zip ’s Law (o an analogue o i ; zip 1949) equi es us o belie e ha he
p ocessing sys ems o language-use s will apply he leas e o equi ed o achie e
hei e e en ial goal. he e is a hypo he ical neu ophysiological consequence: i
onymic e e ence in ol es bypassing lexical meaning, he e mus be a physical
neu al ou e which is less cos ly. his is in es iga ed in (6’) below.
names may he e o e e ol e om non-onymic exp essions in he manne
desc ibed mo e ully elsewhe e (e.g. coa es 2012). hey may also be coined di -
ec ly ou o lexical ma e ial and applied o an indi idual, as when he designa ion
The Fo me Yugosla Republic o Macedonia was ag eed o ce ain pu poses in
1993 o he new eu opean s a e. names may also be eapplied o new indi id-
uals. he name Richa d was al eady in exis ence when i was applied o me. hese
conside a ions indica e ha names as e ms deno ing indi iduals may a ise ei he
by e olu ion o bes owal. he c ucial ac o in bo h cases is ha he p ocess
cancels o ende s inapplicable any sense ha he exp ession p e iously had, ei he
eigh issues in he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood
125s aipsniai / a icles
g adually o ins an ly.8 i is impo an o no e ha his does no mean he sense
canno e e be eco e ed du ing p ocessing, and we e u n o his ma e below
in (7’), and (8’).
(4’) P oPe naMes do no aLL in o
LogicaLLy secu e ca ego ies
e u ning o gene ics o he kinds in he examples in oduced in (3’), we can
ask a simila kind o ques ion. names con aining a anspa en gene ic will o en be
he names o wha he gene ic deno es. The Bank o England in my ea lie example-
sen ence is such an ins ance. bu conside The E ening S a is no a s a and The
Wes Bank is no a bank. he i s o hese is ue, as no mally unde s ood, because
he key exp ession is gene ally used o e e o Venus, which is a plane , no a s a .
he second one is ue because he exp ession as a name is gene ally used o e e
o a geopoli ical en i y in Pales ine ( hough o cou se i may ha e o he e e en s
oo), and he e i is me onymic in o igin, aking i s name om he bank o he
i e jo dan. hese show ha exp essions which migh be conside ed o be names
may appea o con ain a gene ic which does no app op ia ely ca ego ize he indi-
idual. i ollows ha he sense o ha gene ic is inapplicable o absen when such
names a e p ocessed. a a ou i e example o mine conce ns an objec in my home
own, whe e he e used o be a pe ec ly o dina y ailway b idge called Peak’s Tunnel .
Peak’s Tunnel is no a unnel is he e o e e iden ly no con adic o y. he e is no
necessa y connec ion be ween a name including Tunnel and a hing ha is a unnel.
e en i he e is a s ong expec a ion ha such a ela ionship will p o e o be alid,
i does no ha e logical secu i y. names con aining anspa en gene ics he e o e
gi e ise o expec a ions go e ned by eal-wo ld expe iences, bu no hing mo e.
a mo e adical de elopmen o his idea is possible: no name ca ies wi h i an
en ailmen o a p esupposi ion abou he ca ego y o he indi idual bea ing i , as
many linguis s and logicians (e.g. ecen ly Van Langendonck 2007: 71 . and chap-
e 3, wi h e e ences he e) ha e wan ed o belie e.9 i ega d his as sel -e iden ,
8 Le us jus ollow h ough he consequence o ha : i i name a child using an exp ession ha has
lexical con en , e.g. Nadežda ‘hope’, ha con en ceases o be applicable in any ac o e e ence o he
child, e.g. “nadežda is playing wi h he oys.” his is sel -e iden .
9 using Van Langendonck’s e minology: he e a e no ca ego ical p esupposi ions. o cou se, he e a e
expec a ions o a s a is ical kind. I inas a e likely o be emale human beings; i ollows ha I ina,
iewed as a name- ype o p op ial lemma, does no p esuppose ha he bea e is emale. Van Langen-
donck is igh o claim ha p op ial lemma a yield possible deno a a, bu he link is no a logically
wa e igh one, as i go on o demons a e.
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and canno unde s and why anyone con inues o belie e he opposi e. you may
wish o ca ego ize I ina as a emale gi en name, o Egyp as a geopoli ical name,
o Vaiciulenas as a su name. Why do you belie e hese hings? you ha e expe i-
ences de i ed om encoun e s (o o he ways o acqui ing knowledge) ha a leas
one indi idual bea e can be ca ego ized in his way, i.e. ha a pa icula emale,
X, has he name I ina, and so on. bu i does no ollow ha an I ina mus be a
human emale (unless he applicabili y o gi en names is egula ed by law, as i is
in some s a es – no a ma e o linguis ics o logic). om such a pe spec i e,
Shi ley was a ( a e) male gi en name in he english-speaking wo ld un il cha lo e
b on ë used i as he name o he he oine o he no el o ha i le; i was ein o ced
as a emale name by he ame o he ame ican child ilm-s a shi ley emple,
which spa ked o a ashion o apply i o emales in he 1930s. did his name
change ca ego y om male o emale?
Wha should we conclude? a one le el i is simply common sense ha I ina
and Shi ley a e gi l’s names and Vaiciulenas a su name. hese classi ica ions a e
he ui o epea ed obse a ions. hey depend on hose obse a ions, backed by
a ype o in e ence exempli ied by I one membe o ca ego y X is called i ina, hen
i ina is a name ONLY applied o membe s o ha ca ego y. his in e ence is alla-
cious: i is an ins ance o induc ion gene alizing om obse ed cases, i.e. a guing
om he pa icula o he gene al, and i is alse in he same way as All amilies
ha e TV se s o All dogs ha e ou legs is alse. i is also applied no ma i ely: I one
membe o ca ego y X is called i ina, hen i ina is a name which SHOULD only be
applied o membe s o ha ca ego y. his is a social and cul u al no m,10 no a lin-
guis ic o logical ule. We canno escape he conclusion ha he e is no hing
linguis ic abou I ina ha makes i a emale gi en name. We need o dis inguish
be ween wo claims:
I ina is a name applied (only) o indi iduals which all in o he ca ego y o human
emales
and
I ina is a membe o he linguis ic ca ego y emale pe sonal name
he i s is ue, bu i he e is an implici o explici only i can be alsi ied by
one coun e example (as in he case o he male gi en name Shi ley). Wi hou he
only, i can be unde s ood as an expec a ion o a cul u al no m a he han a ne-
cessi y. i is abou okens o he name I ina, a he han i s ype. he second
means essen ially he same as he i s wi h he (implici o explici ) only. hey
10 in ei he o he senses o he e m no m, s a is ical o coe ci e.
eigh issues in he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood
127s aipsniai / a icles
make an asse ion abou I ina as a ype. We can conclude ha names as okens
can be ca ego ized indi idually, and classi ied on he basis o expec a ion as e.g.
hyd onyms, heonyms, emale gi en names, and so on. names as ypes canno be
so classi ied. he consequence o ha as ega ds he making o in e ences o con-
eyed meanings is as ollows:
i ina smokes en ciga e es a day >> some emale pe son smokes en ciga e es a day
is a easonable p obabilis ic in e ence based on he li e-expe iences o he u -
e e o add essee, which is less p obably ue jus in case he e is an I ina who is
male, o a squi el, o a ca . i does no ha e he logical o ce o an en ailmen .
names do no all in o linguis ic ca ego ies in he s ic sense, i.e. a bea e o he
name- ype I ina is no equi ed o be a human emale, e en i hey all in o wha
we migh call expec a ional ca ego ies whe e a p o o ypical o ypical bea e o he
name- oken I ina is indeed a human emale: a di e en ma e al oge he . he
ca ego iza ions o names which onomas icians use a e he e o e no linguis ic ca -
ego ies (ca ego ies in ol ing ypes) bu cul u al ones (ca ego ies in ol ing okens)
and no linguis ic ones a all.
in case any eade is no con inced by he a gumen in he p e ious pa ag aph,
le hem conside he ollowing. i is ob ious ha names may be duplica ed ac oss
membe s o he ca ego y o which a bea e belongs: Robe has been applied o male
humans and p esumably will con inue o be so applied. bu i may be applied o
any hing else. i could name no only my son bu my ca , my ca , my compu e , my
c edi ca d, o absolu ely any hing else Robe . being a name allows applica ion o
any hing which is cul u ally capable o bea ing a name. ha is, o cou se, a sa is y-
ing consequence o ou undamen al no ion ha names ha e no sense. i you would
a gue ha in all o hese hypo he ical cases i would apply he “male gi en name
Robe ” o he objec s men ioned, and ha i would s ill emain a male gi en name
undamen ally, i would o cou se ag ee ha i s ill alls in o ha expec a ional ca -
ego y. now conside he possibili y o a aceho se named Lucina. is Lucina a hippo-
nym o ho se-name (p o isionally conside ing hipponym o be a alid ype-ca ego y,
as exempli ied on he e minological page o he icos web-si e11)? i did no p e i-
ously know ha Lucina was also he name o a oman goddess iden i ied wi h juno,
and associa ed wi h childbi h, i.e. a heonym. his o ically, he e o e, Lucina is a
heonym, and one migh ake he iew ha he ho se-name is an applica ion o he
heonym. bu suppose i had ne e come ac oss he goddess. his o y would coun
o no hing in my onomas icon, and Lucina’s only place would be in he p o i-
sional expec a ional ca ego y o hipponyms. i would no be a heonym a all excep
11 www.icosweb.ne /index.php/ e minology.h ml, accessed equen ly.
134
icha d coa es
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b igh in a way use ul o he ou is indus y. hese ea u es may no be igo -
ously heo e ically dis inguishable om each o he ; my pu pose he e is simply o
illus a e he kind o meaning-“baggage” ha names may b ing wi h hem, and
which may (no mus ) be accessed du ing ac s o e e ence and which may (no
mus ) acili a e he in en ion o success ul e e ence in he con ex o u e ance, a
poin which applies equally o lexical ma e ial.
he in e nal meaning o names is no hing, i all ha we mean by ha is hey
ha e no sense. he co olla y is ha such meanings as hey do possess a e all ex-
e nal o hemsel es: hei deno a ion ( he hings hey could in p inciple be used
o e e o), and hei conno a ions (unde s andings o he na u e o he indi id-
uals, e.g. places, ha hey deno e which a e dependen on he pe cep ion(s) o he
use , including common knowledge), as well as he indi iduals ha hey a e ac-
ually used o e e o on pa icula occasions.
(8’) he Meanings o naMes
can be accessed
Le us make ully clea a poin aised du ing he discussion in (5’). i ejec ed
he no ion ha names ha e sense, bu i may ha e seemed o ein oduce i by he
back doo in allowing ha he e ymology o a name migh be accessed o ce ain
pu poses, including ansla ion. he concep s a e comple ely dis inc . When an
exp ession is being used as an onymically e e ing exp ession, i.e. in i s unc ion
o picking ou a e e en in a con ex o usage wi hou he media ion o lexical
con en (sense), hen by de ini ion sense is no accessed. bu o he aspec s o
meaning ( hose in (7’)), con eyed bu no asse ed, may (no mus – ha is he
impo an c i e ion) be in play in pa icula ways. in picking ou a pe son by name,
expec a ional ca ego ies may come in o play (4’). i someone ells me o gi e
some hing o Jane, i am likely o look o a emale human being (bu o cou se i
canno ely 100% on he in e ence in ol ed: jane may plausibly be a ca ).
Le us wo k o dispel any linge ing imp ession ha names may ha e sense, o
ha e ymology and sense amoun o he same hing, because we migh be emp ed
o a gue ha he e is a cline o g adien o sense ulness. no-one dispu es ha he e
a e synch onically opaque names and ha hese ha e no sense, o example he
english place-names Yo k, Auckland, Ogbou ne, Congle on. any imp ession o sense-
bea ing depends on a e y non-linguis ic p ope y: he e ymological sophis ica ion
o he language-use . an indi idual use o hese names may acqui e, h ough
educa ion, he philological knowledge ha he ances o o bou ne once mean ‘s eam’,
ha ha o - on once mean ‘ a m, illage’, and ha land s ill exis s wi h a sense

eigh issues in he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood
135s aipsniai / a icles
pa ly compa able wi h i s o iginal old english one. ha knowledge may be each-
e ous, because he -land in Auckland o iginally had no hing wha e e o do wi h
land (Wa s 2002: 9–10), and one would ind i di icul o main ain ha land syn-
ch onically means ‘land’ in his name. he place-name Chelms o d appea s mo e o
less anspa en ly o be ‘ o d ac oss he ( i e ) chelme ’, and acco ding o one pos-
sible unde s anding ha is wha i is, bu ha unde s anding has a isen h ough a
six een h-cen u y opog aphe ’s in e en ion, whe he mis aken o delibe a e, and
ha unde s anding does no e lec he “sense” o he elemen s ou o which he
name was o iginally cons uc ed because he i e -name has been ca ed ou o he
place-name by back o ma ion. any a gumen ha e ymological anspa ency is a
su oga e o some aspec s o sense ounde s on examples like hese, and i is simp-
ly alse ha e ymological anspa ency is he same as sense.
Wha abou names wi h an undeniably anspa en e ymology? can i be denied
ha such place-names as Longb idge, B oads ai s, New own, and Redhill, o he
su names Bu che and Jackson, o he emale gi en names Ap il and Viole , ha e
sense? indeed i can, e en he e whe e he anspa en o ms a e e ymologically
us wo hy. Le us wo k h ough one such example: as a unc ioning place-name,
Longb idge en ails (i.e. logically equi es) no hing, no e en he exis ence o a
b idge. gi en a se o usual assump ions abou names, i mus en ail he exis ence
o a long b idge a he his o ical momen o naming, bu no he ea e (i.e. he
o dP has applied (c . 6’)). bu he b idge’s con inued exis ence o i s disappea -
ance is o no linguis ic ele ance a all. ha does no mean ha a name like
Longb idge is incapable o con eying any meaning a all. gi en no mal assump ions
abou how places ge hei names,18 i con eys in o ma ion abou he pas : ha
he e was a b idge he e and ha maybe he e s ill is, bu ha in e ence does no
amoun o synch onic linguis ically-based knowledge o he place. going o Long-
b idge does no allow you o belie e wi h he logical secu i y a o ded by he
senses o he wo ds appa en ly in ol ed ha you will ind a b idge he e. some
so o expec a ion is admissible, bu i can be abandoned wi hou a logical disas-
e in he ace o e idence which unde mines i : he lack o a b idge.
in he ace o his kind o e idence, we can conclude ha any appa en sense
in names is no eally sense bu (co ec o inco ec ) e ymological unde s anding,
and hey a e no he same. hey a e kep apa by he logical secu i y o insecu -
i y o he in e ences which hey allow. A o he long b idge is wha is pe cei ed by
he senses, whils Longb idge does no necessa ily e eal any hing compa able. in
names, a anspa en e ymology amoun s in linguis ic e ms o a con eyed mean-
18 he e a e o cou se now o he , a bi a y, ways o places o ge names, exempli ied by a good deal o
he p ac ice obse ed in ame ica.
136
icha d coa es
ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXVI
ing, no an asse ed one: i.e. a meaning wi h no secu e logical s a us, o one which
is me ely sugges ed.
on he basis o examples like his, we should conclude ha “Wha does a name
mean?” is a misleading ques ion, i i is in ended o be unde s ood synch onically.
“how does a name mean?” is a be e one, and ha is he only ques ion o syn-
ch onic linguis ic impo ance. i is o be unde s ood as “how does a name iden-
i y a e e en in a con ex o use?” he answe is “ h ough sha ed knowledge o
an a bi a y bu s able and igid associa ion o a linguis ic o m wi h an indi idu-
al”. he co esponding diach onic ques ion is: “Wha did a name mean?” (i.e.
“Wha sense did i ha e?”) – no e ha , c ucially, he e b is in he pas ense, and
i acknowledges he disappea ance o sense in he ansi ion o being a name.
(9’) naMes in Li e a y Wo ks
May be a sPeciaL case
he e is much o in e es ha migh be said abou names in wo ks o a in
gene al, and especially “c a ylic” cha ac onyms in li e a u e (ba on 1990). hese
a e names whose o m appea s o ca y some signi icance wi hin he wo k in ques-
ion. Many cha ac onyms illus a e wha we migh call The E ymological Onomas-
ic Tu n. such names may be unde s ood wi h hei e ymological and a guably
he e o e hei seman ic alue emaining a ailable whene e hey a e used o
e e o hei e e en (o pe haps, mo e ealis ically, a leas on he i s occasion).
ake o example he names amous in english li e a u e o ancien Pis ol, doll
Tea shee , M s Malap op, M Bumble, becky Sha p, gab iel Oak, i us G oan,
and so on. he poin o names o his ype is p ecisely o suspend o sub e he
gene al sepa a ion o a name om he sense o i s componen pa s; ha is wha
any seman ic li e a y naming ac ually consis s o : he epo en ia ion o eseman-
iciza ion o e ymology.19
i cha ac onyms ade on anspa ency o some kind, i ollows om ha ha
hey may be ansla ed. o unde s and his ully, we need o ake in o accoun he
con ex o name-bes owal. Li e a u e is a , and i is legi ima e o suppose ha his
ac cancels he no mal assump ion abou bes owal, namely ha he ac i sel can-
cels he sense o any wo ds which appea in he exp ession chosen as he name
(see 3’ abo e). Li e a y name-bes owal, on he o he hand, in i es he audience o
19 i seems o me he e a e b oadly h ee ypes o li e a y naming: a bi a y (no eally a special ype a
all), cul u al (which ades on con eyed meanings) and seman ic (which ades on linguis ic meanings).
he e m c a ylic may co e aspec s o bo h he las wo so s.
eigh issues in he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood
137s aipsniai / a icles
eade ship p ecisely no o suspend he connec ion be ween usage and e ymol-
ogy, bu o pe o m he complex balancing-ac o main aining bo h he o m o a
name and i s signi icance – in some cases e en he p e-bes owal senses o he wo ds
ha cons i u e i – ac i e o he du a ion o he li e a y e en , whe he i is wa ch-
ing a play o V p og am, eading a no el, o wha e e . o ha eason, in de iance
o he a gumen abo e in (5’), cha ac onymic ansla ion is possible (e.g. Dö chen
Laken eisse , in ge man, li e ally and e ymologically ‘hypoco is ic-do o hee shee -
ippe ’ o he a Doll Tea shee in shakespea e’s Hen y IV, pa ii), and such
“ ansla ion” may be idioma ic and sugges i e a he han pu ely lexical, jus like
all o he ansla ion. ha said, i could s ill be a gued ha he ac o ansla ing
cha ac onyms is exac ly like o he onymic “ ansla ion” and ha i he e o e ac-
cesses he e ymology o he name in ques ion a he han any sense which migh
be de ec able in i s linguis ic o m. one does no a e all (o one does no ha e
o) in es iga e a cha ac onym o signi icance in one’s mind e e y ime i is used,
as one does o he lexical meanings o o dina y wo ds and o he exp essions in
he ex , al hough he possibili y is no o eclosed.
inally, we u n o a ques ion which has been add essed om ime o ime in
he li e a u e o onomas ics, namely:
(10’) a e naMes MaXiMaLLy
o MiniMaLLy Meaning uL?
his ques ion has epea edly esu aced, e.g. as epo ed in Van Langendonck
(2006). i is essen ially abou whe he names, by i ue o being de ices o e e -
ing o indi iduals, ca y a g ea deal o in o ma ion which acili a es indi idual
e e ence because names app oach he s a e o uniquely deno ing an indi idual
(which is a mani es ly alse assump ion, hough aceable a back in o classical
an iqui y), o whe he hey a e seman ically emp y, i.e. ha e no sense and no
wholly de e mina e ange o deno a a, as i ha e a gued h oughou his pape . he
ques ion is no usually app op ia ely ph ased; i embodies a alse dicho omy, and i
canno be answe ed as i s ands. a name iden i ies an indi idual bea e which may
o may no be unique. i ha bea e is unique, use o he name ca ies wi h i (bu
subjec o he limi a ions o he use ’s knowledge) all he encyclopedic in o ma ion
a ailable abou ha indi idual. i he bea e is no unique, he name has mo e han
one deno a um o po en ial e e en , and u e ing i is he e o e ela i ely unin-
o ma i e wi hou assis ance om he con ex o use. names lack all sense, bu as
we ha e seen hey may ca y a anspa en o o he wise lea nable e ymology, and
he eby sugges (no en ail o p esuppose) ca ego y membe ship h ough ha ing a
salien bea e in ha ca ego y o h ough he shee o ce o he numbe s o bea e s
138
icha d coa es
ac a Linguis ica Li huanica LXVI
in ha ca ego y. names may also, o cou se, ca y a g ea deal o encyclopedic
in o ma ion and hey may conno e a g ea deal. o he ex en ha hey e icien ly
p omo e success ul e e ence in con ex , hey a e maximally in o ma i e. bu ha
in o ma ion is a ailable h ough ancilla y ecall p ocesses a he han being en-
coded in he name i sel , and is he e o e no necessa ily accessed a he momen
o u e ance. o he ex en ha hey ail o mean h ough he possession o sys-
ema ic lexical ela ions (senses), hey a e unin o ma i e. he answe o he ques ion
as ph ased is he e o e: “bo h”, bu i is no eally an impo an one.
* * *
his a icle has p o ided a guide o he ounda ions and some he consequences
o he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood, and shows how some ques ions which ha e
been conside ed impo an in heo e ical onomas ics migh be add essed.20
e e ences
ba on anne 1990: The names o comedy. o on o: uni e si y o o on o P ess.
b on ë cha lo e 1849: Shi ley. edi ion ad libi um .
bu ge yle 1973: e e ence and p ope names. – Jou nal o Philosophy 70.14,
425–439.
coa es icha d 2000: singula de ini e exp essions wi h a unique deno a um and he
limi s o p ope hood. – Linguis ics 38.6 [370 o he con inuous se ies], 1161–1174.
coa es icha d 2005a: a new heo y o p ope hood. – P oceedings o he 21s In e -
na ional Cong ess o Onomas ic Sciences, Uppsala, Augus 19–24, 2002, ol. 1., ed. by e a
b ylla, Ma s Wahlbe g. uppsala: so i, 125–137.
coa es icha d 2005b: a specula i e psycholinguis ic model o onymiza ion. – Quad-
e ni In e nazionali di Ri is a I aliana di Onomas ica 1 (Naming he wo ld: om common nouns
o p ope names), ed. by dunja b ozo ić- onče ić, enzo ca a elli, 3–13.
[P oceedings
o he con e ence “naming he Wo ld: om common nouns o P ope names”,
zada , c oa ia, 1–4 sep embe 2004.]
coa es icha d 2006a: P ope hood. – Language 82.2, 356–382.
coa es icha d 2006b [2011]: some consequences and c i iques o he P agma ic
heo y o P ope hood. – Onoma 41, 27–44.
coa es icha d 2009: a s ic ly Millian app oach o he de ini ion o he p ope
name. –
Mind and Language
24.4, 433–444.
20 i am ex emely g a e ul o ull and cons uc i e commen s on his pape by wo anonymous e e ees.
eigh issues in he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood
139s aipsniai / a icles
coa es icha d 2011a: Whe e a e he limi s o he name? some emaining issues
wi h he P agma ic heo y o P ope hood. Pape deli e ed a icos-24. ba celona, spain;
o hcoming in he P oceedings .
coa es icha d 2011b: We a e su ounded by onymies: ela ions among names, name-
ypes, and e minological ca ego ies. Pape deli e ed a icos-24. ba celona, spain; o h-
coming in he P oceedings .
coa es icha d 2012:
To þæ e ulan lóde . ó þæ e ulan lode: on becoming a name
in eas on and Winches e , hampshi e. –
Analysing olde English, ed. by da id denison,
ica do be múdez-o e o,
ch is Mccully
, emma Moo e wi h ayumi Miu a. camb idge:
camb idge uni e si y P ess, 28–34.
in e na ional council o onomas ic sciences (icos) web-si e, e minology page,
www.
icosweb.ne /index.php/ e minology.h ml
, accessed equen ly.
k ipke saul 1980: Naming and necessi y. ox o d: basil blackwell.
Lyons john 1977: Seman ics, 2 ols. camb idge: camb idge uni e si y P ess.
Ma cus u h ba can 1961:
Modali ies and in ensional languages. – Syn hese 13.4,
303–322.
Mill john s ua 1843: A sys em o logic, a iocina i e and induc i e. London: john W.
Pa ke .
Pa ke edwa d h. 1917: China: he his o y, diplomacy, and comme ce, om he ea lies
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edmonds geo ge 2002: Su names and genealogy: a new app oach. bu y: ede a ion
o amily his o y socie ies.
shakespea e William (c.1598): Hen y IV, pa II. edi ion ad libi um .
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s awson Pe e ede ick 1950: on e e ing. – Mind, new se ies 59, numbe 235,
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Van Langendonck Willy 2006 [2011]: name heo y and se heo y: he e u n o
he maximum meaning ulness iew o names. – Onoma 41, 45–62.
Van Langendonck Willy 2007: Theo y and ypology o p ope names. be lin and
new yo k: de g uy e .
Wa s Vic o 2002: A dic iona y o Coun y Du ham place-names. no ingham: english
Place-name socie y.
zip geo ge k. 1949:
Human beha io and he p inciple o leas e o . new yo k:
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140
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Į eik a 2012 m. sausio 6 d.
icha d coa es
B is ol Cen e o Linguis ics
Uni e si y o he Wes o England
B is ol BS16 1QY, UK
[email p o ec ed]