LIETUVIŲ KALBOS SANDAROS TYRINĖJIMAI

LIETUVIŲ KALBOTYROS KLAUSIMAI, XXVI (1987)

IZABELĖ STEPONAVIČIŪTĖ

ON THE VERB STYLISTICS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN IN CONTRAST (BASED ON THE TRANSLATION OF GULLIVER’S TRAVELS)

J. Balčikonis’s translation of Gulliver’s Travels can inspire comparative analysis from various perspectives, including that of linguistic stylistics, while the comparison of individual categories or microsystems can help bring out the specific features of each language, reveal the central and peripheral means of expression of functional-semantic categories, and show how one may choose a more suitable form that adequately conveys not only factual information but also stylistic nuances, evokes the same associations, and meets the requirements imposed by style.

The verb has a very broad range of stylistic uses in both Lithuanian and English. The expressive potential of the verb is associated with the categories of tense, mood, person, aspect, and voice; with the existence of finite and non-finite forms; and with various word-formation patterns and devices. This linguistic potential provides the basis for synonymic sets whose members may be elements of different structures (analytic and synthetic) and levels (lexical and syntactic). For example, in English, morphologized word groups are common that can serve as substitutes for grammatical categories of corresponding meaning. Constructions are used alongside past-tense forms: kept + gerund, used to + infinitive, was a habit with somebody + infinitive, was/were in the habit of + gerund, was/were wont + infinitive, would + infinitive. Discussing the construction used to+infinitive, R. Klouzas notes that it has essentially become a tense form¹. Future-tense forms may be replaced by constructions with the verb to be: to be about+infinitive, to be going+infinitive, to be+infinitive, to be on the point of+gerund. Comparing the verb systems of English and Lithuanian, we see that they differ both in the number of tense forms and in their stylistic valency and ability to replace one another synonymically. In terms of quantity, English has the advantage in the number of tense forms. However, each language may have meanings with no formal equivalent in the other; this does not mean that we cannot convey the information of the missing analogue by means of the other language. The point is that what matters is not the quantity of forms, but the “flexibility” of each—that is, its potential to convey various meanings, nuances of meaning, and modal shades. What matters is that their ranges of use differ, since in many cases the choice of tense in both languages is determined not by its logical function but by its capacity to convey additional stylistic information—emotional and expressive nuances. The speaker (or writer)

¹ Close R. A. English as a Foreign Language. – London, 1962, p. 99.

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chooses one tense form or another to express a particular perspective on the action. In other words, the author is often less concerned with precisely expressing the time of the action and its duration than with conveying an emotional evaluation and personal attitude toward what is being discussed.

The ability of tense forms to replace one another synonymically depends on their semantic structure, that is, on the semes present or potentially available in their categorical meaning. Their realization requires a particular linguistic context—a superphrasal unit, the syntactic structure of a sentence, words or word groups expressing time adjuncts, the tense forms of other verbs, conjunctions, and so on. Context-conditioned expressiveness is the principal source of expressive devices. On the other hand, forms in which a certain modal-expressive charge may be regarded as a component of paradigmatic meaning should be discussed separately. There are not many such stylistically connoted grammatical forms, but they make a substantial contribution to the stylistic resources of language.

In the English verb system, forms marked by modal-expressive shades include the emphatic Present, Past, and Imperative forms with the denotative intensifier “do”; variants of the negative Past Indefinite forms felt not, knew not; and the negative imperative form without the auxiliary verb “do.” Archaic forms that lend a text a historical character and a pathetical tone are also considered stylistically marked². For example:

What you have told me (said my master) upon the subject of war, does indeed discover most admirably the effects of that reason you pretend to. (p. 224)

Everything you have told me about wars (said the master) speaks very well of the intelligence you boast of (p. 246)

I cried out in a rapture: Happy nation, where every child hath at least a chance for being immortal! (p. 191)

In addition, a grammatical form may be a feature of a particular functional style. This is so when its use is possible only in the context of a particular style. These are, first of all, forms with a solemn, poetic, or archaic shade; on the other hand, forms with a distinctly colloquial character. For example, the forms “to speak,” “spoke” and “spake” of the verb are, morphologically, past-tense variants, but stylistically they are two different ways of conveying the same semantic content, since they differ markedly in their sphere of use and stylistic tone. “Spoke” is the neutral form, while “spake” is archaic and suited to a solemn style. Adding the ending -ed to verbs that undergo a vowel change or take the suffix -n gives the form a colloquial, even vulgar, coloring, e.g.: seed (=saw, seen), knowed (=knew). A clearly colloquial usage is the omission of the auxiliary verb “have” in the Present Perfect, e.g., been (=have been), seen (=have seen). The stylistic character of forms of this kind becomes apparent when they are used alongside neutral forms. This applies above all to fiction, where the semantic and stylistic potential of a form is fully revealed and realized. The second such domain is colloquial speech.

² Ильиш Б. А. Строй современного английского языка. — Л., 1971, с. 354, 356—358.

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By comparing the original and translation of Gulliver’s Travels, one can observe how the expressive properties of the verb are used in a narrative that is neither interrupted nor diversified by dialogue. Moreover, when the same narrator recounts events and conveys the thoughts and words of other characters, there is none of the linguistic variety that characters usually create. Such a narrative can become monotonous. On the other hand, when the story is told in the first person, all events are presented more subjectively: the narrator not only recounts events or incidents, but also interprets them, shows their attitude toward what is happening, and evaluates the actions of others. This subjective viewpoint compels the search for expressive means of expression. One form is then selected from a synonymic series, and various synonymous forms are used interchangeably.

One instance of syntagmatic use of tenses is the use of the present, past, and future tenses to express a general action. This refers to actions (or states) of indefinite duration that are continuously relevant, as well as actions that are occasionally or constantly repeated, a character’s qualities or ability to do something, characteristic traits, and so on.

The English forms Present Indefinite, Future Indefinite, and Past Indefinite can be used in a similar way, although the latter are quite rare.

Many examples of the generalized use of tenses can be found in the minor folklore of Lithuanian and English: proverbs, sayings, riddles, and other expressions that generalize human experience. Inserted into a narrative, such generalizing statements sound like maxims or admonitions. For example:

He said, if it were possible there could be any country where Yahoos alone were endued with reason, they certainly must be the governing animal, because reason will in time always prevail against brutal strength. (p. 220)

He said that if there really were such a country where only the Yahoos were endowed with reason, then they ought to rule there, since in the long run reason always prevails. (p. 240)

But the Houyhnhnms who live under the government of reason, are ‘no more proud of the good qualities they possess, than I should be for not wanting a leg or an arm, which no man in his wits would boast of although he must be miserable without them. (p. 265)

But the Houyhnhnms, governed by reason, are no more proud of their good qualities than I am of having two legs and two arms; for no sane person would boast of that, though they would feel very unhappy if they lost them. (p. 289)

Once placed in a “foreign” environment, the form stands out in relief and attracts the reader’s attention.

Present-tense forms are generally most often transposed for stylistic reasons, since the categorical meaning of this tense is more general than the categorical meanings of other tenses. In a particular context, the Lithuanian present tense can synonymously replace any other tense: the past simple, the past frequentative, or the future.

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when one wishes to describe a past or future situation vividly and emotionally. The English present tenses—Present Indefinite and Present Continuous—are also often transposed to create one stylistic effect or another.

In English, the present-tense form of a group of communication verbs (to hear, to observe, to say, to tell, to write) may be used instead of the past tense when recounting past events. Similar uses are also quite common in spoken Lithuanian. There are plenty of such examples in the texts under consideration in both languages.

Cf., for example:

I find likewise, that printer hath been so careless as to confound the times, and mistake the dates of my several voyages and returns; neither assigning the true year, or the true month, or day of the month; and I hear the original manuscript is all destroyed, since the publication of my book. (p. 27)

Furthermore, I see that your printer was terribly careless: he confused the dates of my departures and returns, nowhere indicated the true year, month, or day of the month, and now I hear that, after the book was published, the manuscript was destroyed, and I have no copy. (p. 9)

The present-tense forms of these Lithuanian and English verbs show that the information the speaker or writer received remains relevant to them, and that they are now passing it on to someone else.

The future tense is no less capable than the present of stylistic use. “The action expressed by future-tense forms concerns the future, so it can be viewed with certainty that it will indeed happen, with doubt, surprise, resolve, and so on. (...) Here one can discern modal nuances of readiness to act, determination, firm conviction, doubt, necessity, threat, inevitability, irony, and others”³. The fact that modal meanings of obligation, possibility, intention, etc. are close to and readily compatible with the meanings of future actions enriches the future tense with modal nuances, whatever means are used to express it.

In English, obligation expressed by the future tense may be conveyed in Lithuanian by the present-tense form. For example:

Lastly, that upon his solemn oath to observe all the above articles, the said Man-Mountain shall have a daily allowance of meat and drink sufficient for the support of 1728 of our subjects with free access to our Royal Person, and other marks of our favour. (p. 53)

Having taken a solemn oath to fulfil the clauses listed above, the Man-Mountain receives each day as much food and drink as is consumed by one thousand eight hundred and seventy-four of our subjects, and permission to come freely to the Emperor and enjoy our other favours (p. 38)

³ Paulauskienė A. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodis. – V., 1971, p. 90.

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The Lithuanian future tense form can express a supposition or uncertainty at the time of speaking; therefore, it is well suited not only to conveying the meaning of the English Future Indefinite tense in an analogous way, but also to conveying modality expressed in other ways. For example:

Upon the whole, the behaviour of these animals was so orderly and rational, so acute and judicious, that I at last concluded, they must needs be magicians (p. 207)

In general, these animals displayed such intelligence and discernment in their behavior that I began to wonder whether they might be some kind of sorcerers (p. 224)

An action in the near future, when the future event is not merely anticipated but preparations for it are already being made at the moment of speaking, can be expressed by the Present Continuous tense forms. This “planning” or “preparation” aspect restricts the use of Continuous tense forms, which are appropriate when speaking about human activity. In a past-tense context, Past Continuous tense forms are used correspondingly. Cf., for example:

After three years expectation that things would mend, I accepted an advantageous offer from Captain William Prichard, master of the „Antelope“, who was making a voyage to the South-Sea. (p. 32)

Having waited in vain for three years for things to improve, I was finally invited by Captain William Prichard, whose ship, the Antelope, was preparing to sail for the South Sea soon. (p. 14)

I was going on to more particulars, when my master commanded me silence. (p. 225)

I wanted to say more, but my master ordered me to be quiet. (p. 246)

What is expressed by Past Continuous tense forms is conveyed in Lithuanian sentences by the verbs ruošėsi, norėjau and by the near-future adverbial netrukus.

In addition to the Continuous tense forms mentioned above, an action in the near future can be expressed in English by the constructions: to be about + infinitive, to be + infinitive, to be on the point of + gerund, to be going + infinitive. The latter construction is used more often than the others to express a future action. When describing a person's activity, this construction can convey modal nuances of will or intention. For example:

I was going to follow after them. I had wanted to follow them (p. 78). (p. 88)

Again, in the Lithuanian sentence, the semantics of the verbs explain the meaning of the English tense.

We can also mention here those instances in which the obligation or command expressed by English future tense forms is conveyed in Lithuanian by the verbs gali, neturi teisės, turi. Cf., for example:

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First the Man-Mountain shall not depart from our dominions, without our licence under our great seal. (p. 52)

That the said Man-Mountain shall, at his times of leisure be aiding and assisting to our workmen in helping to raise certain great stones, towards covering the wall of the principal park, and other our royal buildings. (p. 53)

The Man-Mountain has no right to leave our dominions without a permit bearing our seal. (p. 36)

During his hours of leisure, the Man-Mountain must help our workmen lift large stones as they build the park wall and the Emperor’s palace. (p. 38)

Thus, future-tense forms do not necessarily denote a future action or state, and these meanings are not always conveyed by future-tense forms.

Speaking of translation adequacy in the broad sense—that is, the translator’s aim not only to convey the logical information of a work but also to preserve the author’s tone—it should be emphasized that when a stylistically adequate equivalent cannot be found in one place, a more vivid, emotionally charged means of expression is often successfully chosen elsewhere for a neutral English form, and this compensation helps preserve the overall style of the narrative. For example, emphatic English verb forms are not always rendered by intensifying the verb’s denotative meaning, whereas neutral impersonal sentences are often translated using more expressive personal verb forms: But it is impossible to express = You could not describe it, To return from this digression = But let us return to our narrative. As a counterbalance to English archaic forms, the translation contains forms less commonly used in contemporary standard Lithuanian: there was a report; I asked that they tell no one. Participial forms are used quite often: carried it off by carrying, would forbid it by forbidding, avoids it by avoiding. Cf., for example:

I requested likewise, that the secret of my having a false covering to my body might be known to none but himself, at least as long as my present clothing should last; for as to what the sorrel nag, his valet had observed, his Honour might command him to conceal it. (p. 216)

I also asked him to tell no one about my clothing until it was completely torn, and to forbid his little page, his servant, outright from breathing a word about it to anyone. (p. 236)

ON THE CONTRASTIVE STYLISTICS OF THE VERB IN ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN (BASED ON THE TRANSLATION OF “GULLIVER’S TRAVELS”)

Abstract

The paper examines some cases of the stylistic transposition of tense forms, their interchangeability, and the possibilities of stylistically compensating for the subjective expressiveness of inadequate tense forms. The contrast between a form’s paradigmatic meaning and its syntagmatic meaning, acquired through transposition, reveals the form’s potential polysemy and gives rise to emo-

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Functional and expressive layers. In particular, the meaning of timelessness becomes the basis and source of the figurative use of present-tense forms. The future tense denotes an action that is forthcoming and has not yet been realized, and therefore its semantics potentially contain certain modal nuances. Other forms that express future action also acquire a certain modality. A comparison of the tense forms of English and Lithuanian clearly shows the quantitative advantage of English. However, from the perspective of a language’s expressive potential, what matters more is not the number of forms but their potential polysemy and their ability to bear a stylistic load: subjective-evaluative modality.