Person matters in impersonality

DOI: 10.1111/syn .12230
REGULAR ARTICLE
Pe son ma e s in impe sonali y
Ane Be o1Ane Od ia2Bea iz Fe nández2
1Uni e si y o Deus o
2Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y
Co espondence:
Ane Be o, Uni e si y o Deus o,
Unibe si a e E o b. 24, 48007, Bilbao,
he Basque Coun y
Email: ane.be o@deus o.es
Abs ac
TheBasqueimpe sonalisade ansi i izedcons uc ion
whe e he in e nal a gumen is he only o e a gu-
men and he ex e nal a gumen , al hough seman ically
p esen , does no ha e any mo phological e lex. This
a icle a gues ha , despi e i s in ansi i e shape, he
impe sonalin ol esapa icula kindo Voicep ojec ion
ha we e m de ec i e. Fo case and ag eemen , being
de ec i e means ha ing no unin e p e able ϕ ea u es
and no Case o assign. Howe e , a silen pe son p o-
noun is in oduced in i s speci ie posi ion, and hus,
he e a e wo a gumen s wi hin VoiceP. The wo a gu-
men s compe e o alue he ϕ ea u es o he nex unc-
ionalhead, namelyT.Wi h hisanalysis weaccoun o
he main p ope ies o he impe sonal, such as he syn-
ac ic ac i eness o he implici ex e nal a gumen and
hepe soncons ain on hein e nala gumen .
1INTRODUCTION
Basque has a de ansi i ized cons uc ion called impe sonal (O iz de U bina 1989,1991,
Albizu1997a,2001a, O iz deU bina2003,2011–2019,Fe nández&Be o2021)o ,al e na i ely,
mediopassi e(B e schneide 1979,O izdeU bina2006,DeRijk2008,Rezac2009b).In hiscon-
s uc ion,whichwewill e e oasimpe sonal, hein e nala gumen is he onlyo e a gumen ,
since he ex e nal a gumen , al hough seman ically p esen , does no ha e any mo phological
e lex. Thus, he Basque impe sonal has an in ansi i e shape; e en hough he lexical e b is
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s
use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modi ica ions o
adap a ions a e made.
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Syn ax. 2022;25:147–187. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/syn 147
148 BERRO e al.
ansi i e in his cons uc ion, he auxilia y selec ed is he in ansi i e auxilia y izan ‘be’. This is
illus a ed in (1).1
(1) Libu u ho iek e az sal- zen di a.
book hose[abs] easily sell-ip be;3pl.abs
‘Those books a e easily sold.’
As can be seen in (1), he in e nal a gumen libu uho iek ‘ hose books’ is he only a gumen p o-
nounced and also he only a gumen c oss e e enced on he in ansi i e auxilia y, which shows
hi d-pe son plu al absolu i e ag eemen .
On he basis o he in ansi i e mo phology, he agen i e in e p e a ion, and o he p ope ies
ha we will discuss, he Basque impe sonal could be conside ed o be in ac passi e (see sec ion
2 o a ious p e ious app oaches) and o be buil on op o a ully cons uc ed e b, like pas-
si es ha ha e been analyzed in o he languages, such as English and Ge man: see Do on 2003,
Collins2005,B uening2012,Alexiadoue al.2015.In hose app oaches,i is a gued ha passi es
a e o med when a Passi e head (o a Voice head, in Collins 2005) selec s o a Voice p ojec-
ion (o , al e na i ely, a P, when is he head in oducing he ex e nal a gumen ) consis ing o
ac i eVoice.2In hisway, hoseapp oachesexplain hesys ema ici yandhighp oduc i i yo he
cons uc ion—in con as , o example, o middles—and he syn ac ic ac i eness o he ex e nal
a gumen . Like in passi es, he ex e nal a gumen o Basque impe sonals is syn ac ically ac i e.
Thesyn ac ic p esenceo heimplici ex e nala gumen issuppo edby,amongo he hings, he
ac ha i can license agen -o ien ed ad e bs and ins umen al ph ases and he ac ha i can
con ol in o pu pose clauses. All o his makes Basque impe sonals di e en om English-like
middles (such as Books ead easily), which simila ly a e in ansi i e and ha e an implici agen
a gumen . In u n, hese es s si ua e he Basque impe sonal close o he passi e cons uc ion
(Fe nández & Be o 2021).
Howe e , heBasqueimpe sonaldi e ges om hepassi einsomeimpo an espec s:unlike
in passi es, in impe sonals he in e nal a gumen —which is ma ked absolu i e—mus necessa -
ily be hi d pe son, as (2) illus a es, and he ex e nal a gumen canno be o e ly ealized in an
adposi ional ph ase, as (3) illus a es.
(2) Ni/zu hondo a- u nin zen/zinen.
I[abs]/you[abs] sink-p be;1sg.abs;ps /be;2.abs;ps
Inchoa i e: ‘I sank.’/‘You sank.’
In ended impe sonal (ung amma ical): ‘I was sunk.’/‘You we e sunk.’
(3) *I sason zi-a hondo a- u zen Billez.
ship-de [abs] sink-p be[3.abs].ps Bill.ins
In ended: ‘The ship was sunk by Bill.’
1Abb e ia ions used in he glosses in his a icle: 1 i s pe son, 2 second pe son, 3 hi d pe son, abs absolu i e, abl
abla i e, all alla i e, cl cli ic, com comi a i e, comp complemen ize , da da i e, de de e mine , dom di e en ial
objec ma king, e g e ga i e, eminine, ine inessi e, ins ins umen al, ip impe ec i e, loc loca i e, m masculine,
neg nega ion, p pe ec i e, pl plu al, p os p ospec i e, ps possesso , ps pas , eln ela ional, es esul a i e, sg
singula , e m e mina i e.
2The con ibu ion o he passi e head (o he Voice head, in Collins 2005) is di e en depending on he au ho . B uening
and Alexiadou e al. a gue ha a Pass head sa u a es he ex e nal a gumen o Voice by exis en ially binding i . On he
o he hand, Do on claims ha he passi e head in Heb ew assigns o he ex e nal a gumen he hema ic ole o ac o
(bu does no exis en ially bind i ). Finally, Collins sugges s ha Voice (simila o he passi e head in he analyses jus
men ioned) equi es he pa iciple (Pa P) o mo e o spec,VoiceP in English, in oduces he p eposi ion by as i s head,
and checks he accusa i e case o he DP in spec, P. Thus, in Collins 2005 he passi e head does no p e en he
p ojec ion o he ex e nal a gumen .
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 149
Thus,in his a icleweanalyze he impe sonalwi h a s uc u edi e en om ha o he passi e.
Pa icula ly, heanalysispu o wa din hisa icledoesno assume ha heimpe sonalisbuil on
op o a ully cons uc ed e b. Ins ead, i is a gued ha he ype o Voice in ol ed in impe sonals
is di e en om ha o common pe sonal ansi i e and in ansi i e clauses.
The p esen analysis has wo impo an aspec s ha accoun o he main p ope ies o he
impe sonal. On he one hand, we a gue ha he implici subjec is a silen pe son p onoun,
in e p e ed as [+human], ha has an unspeci ied pe son ea u e (i.e., a pe son ea u e wi h no
speci ic alue)andnonumbe ea u es.Becausei isap onouno ca ego yDP,wecanaccoun o
he ac ha he implici subjec can license seconda y p edica es and bind ecip ocal anapho s
and ce ain kinds o e lexi e anapho s (Landau 2010). Addi ionally, being a pe son p onoun
bu unspeci ied o pe son, he implici ex e nal a gumen mus be in e p e ed as an anima e
agen bu canno license adposi ional ph ases wi h agen i e in e p e a ion ha ha e a speci ic
pe son ea u e ( i s , second, o hi d pe son). In all hese espec s, Basque impe sonals a e sim-
ila o e lexi e-ma ked impe sonals/passi es in Spanish (Mendikoe xea 1999, Sánchez 2002,
O mazabal & Rome o 2019,2020).
On he o he hand, he pe son es ic ion on he in e nal a gumen —also a es ed in Span-
ish e lexi e-ma ked passi es/impe sonals (Mendikoe xea 2008, MacDonald 2017, O mazabal &
Rome o 2019,2020)—is a consequence o he de ec i eness o he e sion o he Voice p ojec ion
ha isin ol ed.Assuming he ypologyo Voicep oposedinSchä e 2008bandla e de elopedin
Alexiadoue al.2015,wep opose ha hede ec i eVoiceinimpe sonalsisseman ically ansi i e
bu lacks a D ea u e. Thus, al hough his Voice in oduces a seman ic a gumen , i is di e en
om heVoiceo commonpe sonal ansi i eclauses.As ega dscaseandag eemen ,wep opose
ha beingde ec i emeansha ingnounin e p e ableϕ ea u esandnoCase oassign.Since he e
a e ne e heless wo a gumen s wi hin VoiceP, he wo a gumen s compe e o alue and dele e
heunin e p e ableϕ ea u eso henex unc ional head, namelyT. Gi en ha Thasasinglese
o ea u es (one uPe s and one uNum), he un alued ϕ ea u es a e sha ed by he wo a gumen s,
and his leads o he pe son es ic ion on he in e nal a gumen . As we will show, his spli in
he ϕ- ea u e alua ion o a gi en unc ional head is eminiscen o he spli ϕchecking a es ed
by he Pe son–Case Cons ain , seen in di ansi i e cons uc ions (Anagnos opoulou 2003,Béja
&Rezac2003,Rezac2007,2008a,2009a,2011). As sugges ed in Rezac 2009b: 314–316, he silen
ex e nala gumen in hespeci ie o Voice( ,inRezac’s e ms)plays hesame oleas heapplica-
i eda i ein di ansi i esand hus p e en s he in e nal a gumen omAg eeingin bo h pe son
and numbe ea u es wi h T.
Howe e , hepe son es ic ionon hein e nala gumen iso e comei anaddi ionalϕ-p obe
head is in oduced, as a las - eso epai s a egy, a he syn ax–LF in e ace (in o de o assu e
Full In e p e a ion; Rezac 2011,Kalin2018,T.Le in2019). As we will show, in he Basque
impe sonal he in e nal a gumen can be i s o second pe son i i is ma ked da i e:
(4) Ze duzu, baina, gau is e ikus- en zaizu.3
wha [3.abs] ha e;2.e g[3.abs] bu oday sad see-ip be;2.da [3.abs]
‘Bu wha ’s going on wi h you? You look sad oday.’
Li . ‘…You a e seen sad oday.’
We will a gue ha da i e Case is assigned by ac i a ing unin e p e able ϕ ea u es in a KP p o-
jec ed on op o he in e nal-a gumen DP. Wi h his ex a Case license , he in e nal-a gumen
3Ly ics om he song “Oihana” (a name meaning ‘jungle’ o ‘ o es ’), w i en and pe o med by Mikel U danga in; ack
1 o he album Heldu a ean (So aluze–Placencia de las A mas, he Basque Coun y: Gaz elupeko Ho sak, 2002): h ps://
www.badok.eus/euskal-musika/mikel-u danga in/heldu-a ean.
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150 BERRO e al.
DP does no need o sha e he un alued ϕ ea u es o T, and as a consequence he e is no pe son
cons ain .
This a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. In sec ion 2 we conside he a ious p e ious app oaches
o he cons uc ion unde analysis. In sec ion 3 we p esen an o e iew o Basque impe sonals
and p o ide e idence o he p ojec ion o a seman ically ac i e Voice. In sec ion 4 we compa e
he impe sonal wi h he middle and he passi e and show ha i canno be pa alleled wi h ei he
o hosecons uc ions.Pa icula ly,wea gue ha heimpe sonalcanno be ega dedasapassi e,
gi en ha i has a pe son es ic ion on he in e nal a gumen and does no allow he p esence o
an o e agen a gumen in an adposi ional ph ase. In sec ion 5, we o e ou analysis o impe -
sonals, and in sec ion 6 we show ha he pe son es ic ion is o e come i an addi ional ϕp obe
is p ojec ed and he in e nal a gumen is ma ked wi h di e en ial case (di e en ial objec ma k-
ing). Finally, in sec ion 7, we conclude by claiming ha Basque impe sonals in ol e a de ec i e
Voice head bu wo DP a gumen s. Wi h his analysis, we accoun o he in ansi i e mo phol-
ogyo impe sonals, hesyn ac icac i i yandanima ena u eo hesilen ex e nala gumen , and
he pe son es ic ion on he in e nal a gumen .
2PASSIVE, MEDIOPASSIVE, OR IMPERSONAL?
Ins ancessuchas(1)and(5a)ha ebeendesc ibedandanalyzedasimpe sonalsinBasquelinguis-
ics (O iz de U bina 1989,1991,Albizu1997a,2001a, O iz de U bina 2003,2011–2019, Fe nán-
dez & Be o 2021). Ne e heless, he impe sonal label obscu es he simila i y o his cons uc ion
oOldBasque(medio)passi es,alabelusedbyB e schneide 1979,O izdeU bina2006,DeRijk
2008, and Rezac 2009b. The Old Basque (medio)passi e is exempli ied in (5b), a sen ence om
he 16 h-cen u y w i e Joan Pe ez de Laza aga.
(5) a. Libu u-ak sal- zen di a.
book-de .pl sell-ip be;3pl.abs
‘Books a e sold.’
b. Di u en sal-du ninçan esclabea.4
money. o sell-p be;1sg.abs;ps sla e
‘I was sold o money as a sla e.’
(Mounole 2014: 149)
The e is an impo an di e ence be ween he examples in (5a) and (5b): he in e nal a gu-
men is hi d pe son in he o me and non hi d (speci ically, i s ) pe son in he la e . Thus, he
hi d-pe son es ic ion on he in e nal objec (see (2)) holds o impe sonals in Con empo a y
Basque bu no o Old Basque (medio)passi es, as shown by Laza aga’s sen ence in (5b) (see
Al una 1980, Zulaika 1998, O iz de U bina 2006,Mounole2014).
Mo eo e , al hough, as exempli ied in (3), in Con empo a y Basque he ex e nal a gumen
canno beexp essedasanadjunc inimpe sonals(B e schneide 1979:381,O izdeU bina2003:
773–776, Be o & Fe nández 2019b,U es a azu2019, Fe nández & Be o 2021), his was no he
4Gido Bilbao, Rica do Gómez, Joseba A. Laka a, Julen Man e ola, Céline Mounole, and Blanca U gell, edi o s,
Laza aga eskuizk ibua en edizioa e a az e ke a (Bilbao, he Basque Coun y: Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y, 2010):
B17.60.
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 151
caseinOldBasque(medio)passi es(O izdeU bina2006:773).Thiscanbeseenin(6),asen ence
om Joanes Leiza aga’s ansla ion o he New Tes amen .
(6) Gauza guz i-ak ni- i neu e Ai a-z eman çaizqui .
Thing all-de .pl I-da my a he -ins gi e.p be;3pl.abs;1sg.da
‘All hings ha e been gi en o me by my Fa he .’
(M 11:27; Mounole 2014: 150)
This example is pa icula ly in e es ing in ha i would be accep able nowadays—no e ha
he in e nal a gumen is hi d pe son—excep o he explici men ion o he agen a gumen
by means o an ins umen al ph ase. (See sec ion 5.3 o mo e on bo h o he con as s jus
men ioned.)
Hence, we a e dealing wi h a cons uc ion, known bo h as impe sonal and (medio)passi e,
ha is s ikingly simila o a passi e, as can be seen by compa ison wi h he English ansla-
ion o (6). In ac , he label passi e is used in Al una 1980: 232, 234, Zulaika 1988: 779–784, and
Mounole 2014: 148–155 when e e ing o ins ances such as (5b) and (6).5
Lea ingaside he e minologicalchaos,i couldbeposi ed ha he eisashi inBasque oma
uepassi e oacons uc ion ha sha esmanybu no allo hep ope ieso apassi e(seesec ion
5.3). The label passi e by i sel does no seem app op ia e o e e ing o he cons uc ions in (1)
and(5a)a ailableinCon empo a yBasque(al hough,aswewillseebelow—seespeci ically oo -
no e 5— he label impe sonal passi e dese es some conside a ion); hence, he e m mediopassi e
migh be mo esui able he e. Howe e , when compa ed o Englishand Romancemiddles— ypeI
and ype II espec i ely, in Ackema & Schoo lemme 2005’s classi ica ion— he Basque cons uc-
ion does no seem o be as es ic ed as he English ype, exempli ied in (7a), and beha es mo e
in line wi h he Romance ype, exempli ied in (7b) by Spanish.
(7) a. Books eadeasily.
b. Los lib os se leen ácilmen e.
de .pl book.pl cl ead.3pl easily
‘Books ead easily.’
In e es ingly enough, he p ope ies o he Basque cons uc ion di e conside ably om hose
a ibu ed o English-like middles (see sec ion 4.1), bu he cons uc ion shows s iking sim-
ila i ies wi h he Romance- ype middle, in pa icula he Spanish e lexi e-ma ked impe -
sonal/passi e (Mendikoe xea 1999; see sec ion 5.1).
Ci cling back o he beginning, (1) and (5a) migh also quali y as impe sonals. In ac , his
is he e m gene ally used o e e o his cons uc ion, as we no ed abo e, and i is en a i ely
used by us he e. The e m impe sonal ac ually co e s a e y b oad a ea, gi en ha i has been
used in Basque linguis ics o e e no only o he de ansi i ized cons uc ion unde discus-
sion bu also o cons uc ions wi h non e e en ial o impe sonal in e p e a ion o pe sonal e b
ma ke s (O iz de U bina 2003: 572–576) and o wea he exp essions (O iz de U bina 2003:
577–579, A ea x & A iagoi ia 2018), among o he hings. The e m has also been used o e e
o subjec -supp essing impe sonals, a es ed in Bal o-Sla ic, Bal o-Finnic, and Cel ic languages
(Ble ins 2003) and discussed by Fe nández & Be o 2021 in compa ison o Basque. As wi h he
5The e y same passi e label is, howe e , also used by he same au ho s o e e o ano he cons uc ion ha does no
seem o i he de ini ion o a ue passi e (see sec ion 4.3).
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152 BERRO e al.
Basquecons uc ion, he eis no consensuson hep ope cha ac e iza ion o subjec -supp essing
impe sonals. Fo ins ance, Polish -no/- o cons uc ions (Siewie ska 1988,Kibo 2004), which
exempli y hem,ha ebeenconside edimpe sonalpassi essince heylackasubjec (Com ie1977)
and also nonp omo ional passi es (Zúñiga & Ki ilä 2019: 84–85) since he in e nal a gumen
emains in he objec posi ion. As shown by Fe nández & Be o 2021, he e a e many simila -
i ies be ween subjec -supp essing impe sonals and he Basque cons uc ion. Howe e , unlike
hem, Basque impe sonals a e no mo phologically ansi i e bu a he show a de ansi i ed
mo phology.6
In a nu shell, he Basque cons uc ion unde discussion sha es se e al p ope ies wi h pas-
si es, middles, and impe sonals, and as a consequence i has ecei ed a ious labels in he
p e iousli e a u e.He eweha e op ed o he e mimpe sonal,e en hough wea eawa eo he
ac ha i may no ully desc ibe he na u e o his cons uc ion.
3BASQUE IMPERSONALS AND VOICE
In his sec ion, we a gue ha Basque impe sonals in ol e a Voice laye ha is esponsible o
in oducing a hema ic subjec . E en hough he impe sonal shows in ansi i e mo phology,
namely he auxilia y izan ‘be’ and a lack o e ga i e ag eemen (sec ion 3.1), we show ha he
ex e nal a gumen is seman ically p esen in impe sonals, unlike in inchoa i es (sec ion 3.2).
3.1 Mo phologically in ansi i e
Basque is an e ga i e language, in ha he subjec o a ansi i e e b is ma ked by e ga i e case
(-k) whe eas he subjec o an in ansi i e e b and he ansi i e objec a e assigned absolu-
i e case, ha is, he unma ked case (Le in 1983, O iz de U bina 1989). Also, Basque shows a
h ee-way ag eemen sys em: he a gumen s ma ked by e ga i e, absolu i e, and da i e case ig-
ge ag eemen on he auxilia y e b (Hualde 2003). Addi ionally, Basque is a language wi h wo
auxilia ies ha al e na e, izan ‘be’ and *edun ‘ha e’.7T ansi i e e bs equi e *edun,whe eas
in ansi i es can choose be ween he wo. B oadly speaking, agen i e o une ga i e e bs equi e
*edun, while pa ien i e o unaccusa i e e bs selec izan (Le in 1983; see Pineda & Be o 2020
o a ecen app oach). Albizu 2001b and A egi 2004 a gue ha *edun shows up when e ga i e
ag eemen ma king is p esen in he auxilia y.
As o impe sonals, hese show an in ansi i e shape and look exac ly like inchoa i es. In
pa icula , hesolea gumen showsabsolu i ecase, heauxilia y selec edisizan,andnoe ga i e
ag eemen is p esen (Fe nández & Be o 2021). I we compa e he examples in (8), i can be
6We lea e o u he esea ch he s udy o hese subjec -supp essing impe sonals o impe sonal passi es in ela ion o
he analysis pu sued he e and also ha o o he impe sonal/passi e con igu a ions ha seem o be simila o Basque
impe sonals (such as Spanish e lexi e-ma ked impe sonals/passi es). I is wo h no ing ha he Basque cons uc ion
unde discussion has also excep ionally been called impe sonal passi e (Holme 1999: 191—bu see n. 7) and been
compa ed o cons uc ions wi h he same designa ion (Eguzki za 1981: 242). Al hough we a e no using his designa ion
he e, i migh well be he mos accu a e one, gi en he p ope ies ha he cons uc ion sha es wi h bo h impe sonals
and passi es.
7The ci a ion o m o he ansi i e auxilia y, *edun, is p eceded by an as e isk because i is a his o ically econs uc ed
pa icipial o m and hus una es ed as a non ini e e bal o m. See Hualde 2003 o u he de ails on his econs uc ed
auxilia y and o he s, which a e omi ed he e o he sake o b e i y.
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 153
obse ed ha a e blikehil‘kill/die’ ha allows hecausa i e–inchoa i eal e na ioncanoccu in
h eecons uc ions:in hecausa i e,asin(8a),in heinchoa i e,asin(8b),andin heimpe sonal,
as in (8c).
(8) a. Unai-k a mia ma-k hil di u. Causa i e
Unai-e g spide .de -pl[abs] kill.p ha e;3pl.abs[3.e g]
‘Unai has killed he spide s.’
b. A mia ma-k (be ez) Inchoa i e
spide .de -pl[abs] by_ hemsel es
hil/hil- zen di a.
die.p /die-ip be;3pl.abs
‘The spide s ha e died/die (by hemsel es).’
c. A mia ma-k (zapa a honekin) Impe sonal
spide .de -pl[abs] shoe his.com
hil/hil- zen di a.
kill.p /kill-ip be;3pl.abs
‘The spide s ha e been killed/a e killed (wi h his shoe).’
In he causa i eexample(8a), he auxilia y selec ed is*edun, whichag eeswi h he e ga i esub-
jec Unaik ‘Unai’ and he absolu i e plu al objec a mia mak ‘ he spide s’. By con as , bo h in
he inchoa i e example (8b) and in he impe sonal example (8c), he e is only one a gumen ,
a mia mak; he auxilia y is izan; and he sen ence shows hi d-pe son plu al absolu i e ag ee-
men .As shown inFe nández&Be o2021, heonlyway odisambigua eexampleslike (8b) and
(8c) is o in oduce modi ie s like be ez ‘by hemsel es’ o zapa a honekin ‘wi h his shoe’. The
o me o ces an inchoa i e eading, whe eas he la e a o s an agen i e eading in which he
ex e nal a gumen is no o mally p esen bu ecei es an a bi a y in e p e a ion. Wi hou hose
modi ie s, hough, he inchoa i e and impe sonal look exac ly he same.
As o he auxilia y al e na ion, in his a icle we will simply assume, in acco d wi h Be o
e al. 2018, ha *edun is selec ed when he Voice head has a D ea u e and izan is selec ed when
Voice lacks such a ea u e. Assuming ha auxilia ies a e inse ed in T, his can be s a ed wi h he
ollowing spellou ules.
(9) a. izan ‘be’ auxilia y →T/_____Voice{}
b. *edun ‘ha e’ auxilia y →T/_____Voice{D}
Thus, we p opose ha in bo h unaccusa i es and impe sonals he e is a Voice head p ojec ed
ha has no D ea u e. Howe e , he Voice head selec ed in impe sonals is di e en om ha in
unaccusa i es in ha in impe sonals Voice is seman ically ac i e. In sec ion 3.2, we will o e
e idence o he p esence o a seman ically ac i e Voice in impe sonals.
Ano he ques ion ha mus be conside ed he e is ha o p omo ion o he in e nal a gumen
o he impe sonal. One o he o mal explana ions o he p omo ion o subjec ha is ound in
middlesandpassi esinaccusa i elanguagesin ol es he aising- o-subjec ype o Amo emen ,
asdiscussedbyAckema&Schoo lemme 2005.Howe e , hisAmo emen isno soob iouswhen
dealing wi h an e ga i e language such as Basque. To begin wi h, in an accusa i e language wi h
o e case o ag eemen ma king, he subjec o a ansi i e e b is ma ked nomina i e whe eas
he objec is ma ked accusa i e. This being he case, p omo ion o subjec is mo phologically is-
ible, since he heme is ma ked by accusa i e case in objec posi ion and nomina i e in subjec
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154 BERRO e al.
posi ion. By con as , in an e ga i e language such as Basque, he heme is ma ked absolu i e in
bo h ansi i e-objec and in ansi i e-subjec posi ions. As a consequence, he posi ed A mo e-
men ,i a ailable, canno be mo phologicallyiden i ied. Wo do de doesno cla i y he ques ion
ei he . In an SVO language, such as English o a Romance language, he p e e bal posi ion is
associa edwi h hesubjec and hepos e balposi ionwi h heobjec . In con as o his,Basque
being an SOV language, bo h he ansi i e-subjec and ansi i e-objec posi ions a e p e e bal,
which blu s he di e ences be ween hem wi h espec o he e bal posi ion. Be his as i may,
wewill conside he absolu i e a gumen o beme ged in objec posi ion and o be assigned Case
in ha posi ionbyT.Wewillno specula eabou whe he i aises o he speci ie o Ta e wa ds,
since his is no s ic ly necessa y o ou analysis.
3.2 Voice in impe sonals
In his sec ion, we will p o ide e idence o he p esence o a seman ically ac i e Voice in impe -
sonals. As men ioned in sec ion 3.1, we conside Voice o be p esen in bo h impe sonals and
unaccusa i es, al hough wi h impo an di e ences. In bo h, he Voice head p ojec ed does no
ha eaD ea u e;bu inimpe sonals,unlikeinunaccusa i es, heVoiceheadin oducesaseman-
icallyac i eex e nala gumen .Addi ionally,in hisa iclewewilla gue(seepa icula lysec ion
5) ha he speci ie o Voice in he impe sonal is also syn ac ically ac i e.
As shown in Fe nández & Be o 2021, he implici ex e nal a gumen o impe sonals beha es
like a syn ac ic a gumen acco ding o se e al es s: i can license agen -o ien ed modi ie s, as in
(10a),ins umen alandcomi a i eph ases,asin(10b),andseconda yp edica es,asin(10c);and
i can con ol he PRO a gumen o an adjunc clause (Rode 1992), as in (10d).
(10) a. I sason zi-a nahi a / kon u handiz hondo a- u zen.
ship-de [abs] delibe a ely ca e ully sink-p be[3.abs].ps
Impe sonal: ‘The ship was sunk delibe a ely/ca e ully.’
Inchoa i e (p agma ically de ian ): ‘The ship sank delibe a ely/ca e ully.’
b. Ka ama o-a-k e az ha apa- zen di a eskuekin/
c ab-de -pl[abs] easily ca ch-ip be[3pl.abs] hand.de .pl.com/
salaba doa ekin.
ap.de .com
Impe sonal: ‘C abs a e easily caugh by hand/wi h a ap.’
Li . ‘C abs a e easily caugh wi h hands/a ap.’
Inchoa i e (ung amma ical)
c. Ibai-a e az zeha ka- zen da oinu sik.
i e -de [abs] easily c oss-ip be[3.abs] ba e oo
Impe sonal: ‘The i e is easily o ded ba e oo .’
Inchoa i e (ung amma ical)
d. I sason zi-a hondo a- u zen asegu u-a kob a zeko.
ship-de [abs] sink-p be[3.abs].ps insu ance-de [abs] collec . o
Impe sonal: ‘The ship was sunk o collec he insu ance.’
Inchoa i e (p agma ically de ian ): ‘The ship sank o collec he insu ance.’
Inchoa i es a e a bes p agma ically de ian acco ding o he same es s o a syn ac ic ex e nal
a gumen . Hence, while he examples in (10) a e lici as impe sonals, hey a e ung amma ical o
p agma ically de ian when in e p e ed as inchoa i es.
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 155
Thus, e en i Voice may be p esen in bo h inchoa i es and impe sonals, he seman ic and
syn ac ic con ibu ion o his head is clea ly di e en in he wo ins ances. As s a ed abo e, we
assume ha in bo h inchoa i es and impe sonals Voice lacks a D ea u e; his is he eason why
hey selec he auxilia y izan ‘be’. Ne e heless, assuming he ypology o Voice p oposed in
Schä e 2008bandde elopedinAlexiadoue al.2015,wewillclaim ha ,unlikeininchoa i es,in
impe sonals Voice in oduces a seman ically ac i e subjec . Apa om ha , we will a gue ha ,
e en hough Voice does no ha e a D ea u e in impe sonals, a silen pe son p onoun—in o he
wo ds, a ull DP—is me ged in i s speci ie and ha his explains he abili y o he subjec o
license seconda y p edica es and o bind ecip ocal anapho s and ce ain e lexi e anapho s (see
sec ion 5.1).
4IMPERSONALS ARE NEITHER MIDDLES NOR PASSIVES
In sec ion 3, we showed ha e en hough impe sonals ha e in ansi i e mo phology (i.e., hey
ha e jus one o e a gumen , ma ked absolu i e, and selec he auxilia y izan ‘be’), hey in ol e
a Voice laye ha in oduces a seman ically ac i e ex e nal a gumen . In his sec ion, we will
disca d wo possible analyses ha posi a nono e bu seman ically p esen ex e nal a gumen .
In pa icula , we will show ha impe sonals canno be ega ded as ei he middles o passi es
(Fe nández & Be o 2021). Addi ionally, we will discuss b ie ly ano he cons uc ion ha could
po en ially be conside ed passi e in Basque, and we will conclude ha Con empo a y Basque
lacks any cons uc ion ha ma ches he p ope ies o passi e con igu a ions c osslinguis ically.
4.1 Impe sonals a e no middles
A easonablemo ewouldbe oconside Basqueimpe sonalsmiddles,since heyha esomeo he
p ope ies ha a e cha ac e is ic o middle cons uc ions. Acco ding o Schä e 2008a and 2008b,
in middles (i) he g amma ical subjec co esponds o he hema ic o in e nal objec ; (ii) he
agen is demo ed and has an a bi a y in e p e a ion; and (iii) he aspec ual in e p e a ion o he
sen enceis nonepisodic.Apa om hose ea u es,i has also beena gued ha middles (i ) need
o co-occu wi h a ce ain kind o modal ad e b, namely he kind ha gene a es po en ial modal
in e p e a ions;( )a e o medonlywi hasubse o e bs,namely hose ha en ailachange,such
asac i i iesandaccomplishmen s;( i)dono occu in heimpe a i eo hep og essi e;and( ii)
selec he ha e auxilia y in languages wi h auxilia y selec ion (Keyse & Roepe 1984, Ackema
& Schoo lemme 2005).
Basque impe sonals ha e some bu no all o hese p ope ies (Fe nández & Be o 2021).8
Fo ins ance, as shown in sec ion 3.1, he auxilia y selec ed in impe sonals is izan ‘be’, no
*edun ‘ha e’. Fu he mo e, hey can be episodic; when he e b combines wi h he pe ec i e
8I mus be no ed ha c osslinguis ically middles do no show uni o m beha io (Lekakou 2005). Fo ins ance, Ackema
& Schoo lemme 2005 makes a dis inc ion be ween middles ha ha e mos o all he p ope ies lis ed, e med ype I
middles, and hose ha do no , e med ype II middles. The Basque impe sonal pa e ns wi h ype II middles, in ha i
seems o be a b oade and mo e pe missi e cons uc ion han he seman ically simila bu much mo e es ic i e ype I
middles. In acco d wi h Ackema & Schoo lemme 2005,Lekakou2005, Fáb egas & Pu nam 2014,andFe nández&
Be o 2021, we conside middles o be a pa icula seman ic in e p e a ion ob ained in a syn ac ic cons uc ion ha is
mo e b oadly used in he language, namely he impe sonal cons uc ion.
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162 BERRO e al.
his sec ion, we will examine mo e closely he na u e o he implici ex e nal a gumen and will
a gue ha i is a silen p onoun o ca ego y DP. Thus, we ag ee wi h p e ious p oposals such as
Albizu 1997a and 2001a ha a gue ha he subjec in impe sonals is an a bi a y p o.We u he
speci y ha he silen p onoun is a pe son p onoun ha is consequen ly necessa ily in e p e ed
as [+human] and ha has an unspeci ied alue o he pe son ea u e and no numbe ea u es.
Fi s ly, we will show ha he implici subjec mus be in e p e ed as an anima e en i y wi h
no numbe ea u es (Rode 1992). The sen ences in (20) in ol ing he e b e aman ‘ ake’ illus-
a e his es ic ion. E aman does no allow he inchoa i e–causa i e al e na ion. In he ac i e
example, ei he an anima e subjec (langilea ‘ he wo ke ’) o an inanima e subjec (haizea ‘ he
wind’) can be he ini ia o pe o ming he ac ion o ca ying he iles o he beach. By con as , in
he impe sonal example, only he agen i e-subjec in e p e a ion can emain. Wi h ega d o his
anima eagen , henumbe in e p e a ionisa bi a y;i couldbein e p e edasei he onepe son
o a g oup o people.
(20) a. Langile-a-k/haize-a-k eila ue a-ko Ac i e/ ansi i e
wo ke -de -e g/wind-de -e g oo .pl- eln
eila-ak e aman di u
ile-de .pl[abs] ake.p ha e;3pl.abs[3.e g]
honda za- aino.
beach.de - e m
‘The wo ke /s o m has ca ied he oo ing iles o he beach.’
b. Teila ue a-ko eila-k e aman di a Impe sonal
oo .pl- eln ile.de -pl[abs] ake.p be;3pl.abs
honda za- aino.
beach.de - e m
‘The oo ing iles ha e been ca ied o he beach’ (by someone/a g oup o
people/* he wind).
Thus,e en hough he e bisinp inciplecompa iblewi haninanima ecause (andconsequen ly
wi h a Voice head ha in oduces ha ), he impe sonal is mo e es ic i e in ha i only allows
an anima e subjec .
A simila es ic ion has been a es ed o he silen causee o Icelandic indi ec causa i es, as
shown by E. F. Sigu ðsson & Wood 2020. The causee, i i emains implici as in (21b), canno be
a non oli ional cause such as a s o m. The causee mus be anima e, e en hough his leads o a
seman ic anomaly in he example gi en. Compa e his wi h he explici causee in (21a).13
(21) a. Guðlé s o minn kas a skipinu
God.nom le .ps s o m. he.acc oss.in ship. he.da
il.
abou
‘God made he s o m oss he ship abou .’
b. #Guðlé kas a skipinu il.
God.nom le .ps oss.in ship. he.da abou
‘God made (someone/* he s o m) oss he ship abou .’
13Simila es ic ions ega ding he implici a gumen ha e been obse ed in he Icelandic new impe sonal passi e
(Maling & Sigu jónsdó i 2002,Maling2006, Ingason e al. 2013) and in he Icelandic impe sonal modal cons uc ion
(H. Á. Sigu ðsson & Ege land 2009).
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 163
Sigu dsson & Wood link he animacy condi ion on he null causee o i s ϕP na u e. A ϕPisan
impo e isheda gumen ,syn ac ically“smalle ” hana ulland e e en ialDP(Landau2010,E.F.
Sigu ðsson & Wood 2020). They sugges ha he animacy es ic ion may be ela ed o ϕP s a us,
gi en he exis ing ela ion be ween animacy and ϕ ea u es.
Howe e , he implici subjec o Basque impe sonals should no be conside ed a ϕP, gi en
ha , as we will show sho ly, i beha es like a DP p onoun in he con ex s analyzed by Lan-
dau2010. Thus,we p opose ha heanimacy condi ionillus a edin (20) is a consequence o he
implici subjec being a pe son p onoun, he e o e [+human], no o i ha ing an impo e ished
s a us as a ϕP.
In any case, his is ye one mo e es ic ion ha di e en ia es Basque impe sonals om pas-
si esino he languages,suchasEnglishandSpanish(O mazabal&Rome o2019,2020).InSpan-
ish analy ic passi es, he e en can be unde s ood o be ini ia ed by a non oli ional cause (e.g.,
a i e), as can be seen in (22a). In ac , Spanish analy ic passi es con as wi h e lexi e-ma ked
passi es in his espec . The implici subjec o e lexi e-ma ked passi es, such as (22b), mus be
an anima e agen , like in Basque impe sonals (Mendikoe xea 1999, Sánchez 2002, O mazabal &
Rome o 2019,2020).
(22) a. Muchos lib os ue on quemados/des uidos
many books be.3pl.ps bu n.p .m.pl/des oy.p .m.pl
(po el uego) aquella noche.
by he i e ha nigh
‘Many books we e bu ned/des oyed (by he i e) ha nigh .’
(O mazabal & Rome o 2019: 62)
b. Se quema on muchos lib os aquella noche.
SE bu n.3pl.ps many books ha nigh
‘Many books we e bu ned ha nigh ’ (anima e gene ic agen only).
(O mazabal & Rome o 2019: 62)
In Spanish analy ic passi es, a silen pe son a gumen is no p ojec ed in he speci ie posi ion
o Voice,and heVoiceheadp ojec edisno de ec i e.The e o e, he eisno es ic ion ega ding
he in e p e a ion o he implici a gumen as anima e o inanima e.
Rega ding he ca ego ial na u e o he silen a gumen , we claim ha he pe son a gumen
o Basque impe sonals mus be ega ded as a DP, no as a ϕP. Landau 2010 a gues ha only DPs,
no ϕPs, can license seconda y depic i e p edica es and bind anapho s. In ac , he null causee
o Icelandic indi ec causa i es is a gued o be a ϕP, which explains why his cons uc ion does
no accep seconda y p edica es (E. F. Sigu ðsson & Wood 2020). By con as , he null subjec o
Basque impe sonals can license seconda y p edica es na u ally (Fe nández & Be o 2021):
(23) a. Ibai-a e az zeha ka- zen da oinu sik.
i e -de [abs] easily c oss-ip be[3.abs] ba e oo
‘The i e is easily o ded ba e oo .’
b. He i-ko e ese ki-a zu unik kan a- zen da.
own- eln hymn-de [abs] s anding_up sing-ip be[3.abs]
‘The own’s an hem is sung s anding up.’
c. Kan a ho i mozko u a kan a- zen da.
song ha [abs] d unk sing-ip be[3.abs]
‘Tha songissungd unk.’
Again, he a ailabili y o depic i e p edica es p edica ed o he implici subjec is ano he
p ope y ha di e en ia es impe sonals om passi es. The implici subjec o passi es does no
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164 BERRO e al.
gene ally license seconda y p edica es in languages like English and Spanish (al hough see oo -
no e 13). Acco ding o Landau 2010 seconda y p edica es mus be p edica ed o s ong implici
a gumen s, namely DPs. Landau a gues ha his is he eason o he implici a gumen o
passi es no allowing such p edica es in English:14
(24) a. I is impossible o me [ o be isi ed (* oge he )].
b. The oom was le (*ang y).
c. The issue was decided (*unassis ed).
b. The game was played (*shoeless).
In con as o he implici a gumen o passi es, he shows ha PRO a gumen s can license
seconda y p edica es:
(25) a. I is possible [PRO o isi me oge he ].
b. They expec ed [PRO o lea e he oom ang y].
As o Spanish, as shown by O mazabal & Rome o 2019, analy ic passi es do no allow
adjec i al ph ases p edica ed o he implici subjec :
(26) a. *Ma ía no es besada bo acho.
Ma y no be.3sg kissed. .sg d unk.m.sg
In ended: ‘You (gene ic) canno kiss Ma y d unk.’
b. *Allí, odos los años las ies as son
he e all de yea .pl de . .pl es i i y.pl be.3pl
celeb adas es idos con ajes ípicos.
celeb a ed. .pl d essed.m.pl wi h d ess.pl ypical.m.pl
In ended: ‘The e, e e y yea hey (gene ic) celeb a e he es i i ies
d essed in egional cos umes.’
(O mazabal & Rome o 2019: 76; glosses and ansla ions ou s)
14Whe he English passi es allow such seconda y p edica es is unde deba e. Collins 2005 a gues ha hey do, based on
examples like hose in (i), and akes ha as e idence o he syn ac ic p esence o he ex e nal a gumen (see also Bake
e al. 1989, Landau 2000, and he e e ences in hose wo ks o u he discussion).
(i) a. The book was w i en d unk.
(Collins 2005: 101)
b. A he commune, b eak as is usually ea en nude.
(Collins 2005: 101)
c. The song mus no be sung d unk.
(Bake 1988: 318)
Also, he si ua ion ac oss languages seems o be complex. Fo ins ance, in Ge man, passi es can license seconda y
p edica es, as Alexiadou e al. 2015: 132 shows:
(ii) De Raum wu de wü end e lassen.
he oom became ang y le
‘The oom was le in an ang y mood.’
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 165
By con as , e lexi e-ma ked passi es can license seconda y p edica es once ense, modal, and
aspec ual ac o s a e con olled, as (27) shows. No e he con as be ween he e lexi e-ma ked
passi es in (28) and he analy ic passi es in (26).
(27) a. El ío se a a iesa descalzo.
de .m i e cl c oss.3sg ba e oo .m
‘The i e is o ded ba e oo .’
b. En es a casa, se e la ele sen ado.
in his house cl wa ch.3sg de . TV sea ed.m
‘In his house TV is wa ched sea ed.’
(28) a. ¡No se besa a Ma ía bo acho!
no cl kiss.3sg dom Ma y d unk.m
‘One canno kiss Ma y d unk.’
b. Allí, odos los años se celeb an las ies as
he e all de yea .pl cl celeb a e.3pl de . .pl es i i y.pl
es idos con ajes ípicos.
d essed.m.pl wi h d ess.pl ypical.m.pl
‘The e, hey (gene ic) celeb a e hei es i i ies e e y yea d essed in egional cos umes.’
(O mazabal & Rome o 2019: 75–76; glosses and ansla ions ou s)
Landau2010alsoa gues ha onlyDPscanac asan eceden s o Condi ionAbinding.Landau
s a es ha a Condi ion A binde mus be a s ong implici a gumen , ha is, i equi es a D laye .
Wi h i s D ea u e, he binde en e s in o an Ag ee ela ion wi h T and in his way checks he D
ea u e o he anapho . As can be seen in (29) and (30), ecip ocal anapho s can be bound by he
implici subjec (Albizu 1997a, O iz de U bina 2003), especially when he e b has impe ec i e
aspec and he in e p e a ion is nonepisodic.
(29) elka engaina- zen denean
each_o he [abs] decei e-ip be[3.abs].when
‘when e e yone decei es each o he ’
Li . ‘when each o he is decei ed’
(O iz de U bina 2003: 588)
(30) a. Hona hel zean, elka agu - zen/besa ka- zen da.
he e.all a i e.when each_o he [abs] g ee -ip /hug-ip be.[3.abs]
‘When one a i es he e, e e yone mus g ee /hug each o he .’
Li . ‘When one a i es he e, each o he is g ee ed/hugged.’
b. Hemen-dik e az ikus- en da elka .
he e-abl easily see-ip be[3.abs] each_o he [abs]
‘E e yone can see each o he om he e.’
Li . ‘Each o he can be seen om he e.’
As no ed by O iz de U bina 2003, hi d-pe son e lexi e anapho s a e no accep able in his
cons uc ion:
(31) *be e bu u-a engaina- zen denean
3.ps head-de [abs] decei e-ip be[3.abs].when
In ended: ‘when onesel is decei ed’
(O iz de U bina 2003: 588)
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166 BERRO e al.
Howe e , we belie e ha he unaccep abili y o e lexi e anapho s in impe sonals is a conse-
quence no o he ca ego ial na u e o he implici subjec bu o he pe son speci ica ion o he
anapho , which is incompa ible wi h he unspeci ied alue o he pe son ea u e o he implici
subjec (Albizu 1997a). A simila es ic ion has been obse ed o Spanish e lexi e-ma ked
passi es. O mazabal & Rome o 2020 a gues ha se in e lexi e-ma ked passi es canno license
e lexi e p onouns like su ‘his/he ’ because su is speci ied o pe son ea u es whe eas se is no .
Simila ly, he Basque e lexi e anapho be ebu ua =his/he head ‘himsel /he sel ’, which a ies
dependingon hepe son ea u eso hean eceden (ni ebu ua=myhead‘mysel ’ o i s -pe son
an eceden s, zu ebu ua =you head ‘you sel ’ o second-pe son an eceden s), canno be bound
by he implici subjec o impe sonals because i equi es a binde wi h he same pe son spec-
i ica ion, whe eas he implici subjec has an unspeci ied pe son ea u e: i can be in e p e ed
as i s pe son, second pe son, inde ini e, o gene ic, like he pe son p onoun se in Spanish
(Mendikoe xea 1999).
In e es ingly, Basque has ano he e lexi e anapho , one ha equi es an unspeci ied ani-
ma e an eceden , namely no be e bu ua =onesel ’s head ‘onesel ’. This anapho can occupy he
hema ic posi ion o ei he he di ec objec , as in (32a), o he indi ec objec , as in (32b).
(32) a. no be e bu u-a engaina- zen denean
onesel .ps head-de [abs] decei e-ip be[3.abs].when
‘when onesel is decei ed’
b. Ikas a oko lehen egunean, no be e bu ua i gu un ba
cou se. eln i s day.ine onesel .gen head.de .da le e de [abs]
ida ziko zaio.
w i e.p os be[3.abs];3.da
‘On he i s day o he cou se, we will w i e a le e o ou sel es.’
Li . ‘…a le e will be w i en o onesel .’
Sinceno be ebu ua equi esananima ean eceden ha isunspeci ied o pe son,i canno occu
insen enceswi hano e o silen DPan eceden speci ied o i s ,second,o hi dpe son,such
as (33b), con as ing wi h (33a).
(33) a. Bes e ino ena baino lehen, no be e
o he anybody.gen.de [abs] han be o e onesel .gen
bu ua mai a- zen da hemen.
head.de [abs] lo e-ip be[3.abs] he e
‘Be o e anybody else, we lo e ou sel es he e.’
Li . ‘…onesel is lo ed he e.’
b. *Bes e ino ena baino lehen, (ni-k/zu-k/
o he anybody.gen.de [abs] han be o e I-e g/you-e g/
ho ek) no be e bu ua mai a- zen
ha one.e g onesel .gen head.de [abs] lo e-ip
du /duzu/du.
ha e[3.abs];1sg.e g/ha e[3.abs];2.e g/ ha e[3.abs;3.e g]
In ended: ‘Be o e anybody else, I/you/ ha one lo e(s)
mysel /you sel /himsel /he sel .’
In heac i e ansi i eexample(33b), he o e subjec nik ‘I’,zuk ‘you’,o ho ek ‘ ha one’o i s
silen coun e pa is c oss e e enced by he co esponding ag eemen ma ke s on he auxilia y.
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 167
I , ins ead o no be e bu ua, he example in (33b) con ained a e lexi e anapho wi h a speci ic
pe son alue, i would be g amma ical, as expec ed:
(34) Bes e ino ena baino lehen, (ni-k/zu-k/ho ek)
o he anybody.gen.de [abs] han be o e I-e g/you-e g/ ha one.e g
ni e/zu e/be e bu ua mai a- zen
my/you /he head.de [abs] lo e-ip
du /duzu/du.
ha e[3.abs];1sg.e g/ha e[3.abs];2sg.e g/ha e[3.abs;3.e g]
‘Be o e anybody else, I/you/ ha one lo e(s) mysel /you sel /himsel /he sel .’
In (34), he e lexi e anapho s ag ee in pe son wi h hei co esponding subjec , and as a con-
sequence, he sen ence is g amma ical. Thus, he only p oblem in (33b) is ha no be e bu ua is
incompa ible wi h a pe son-speci ic an eceden . In con as , since in an impe sonal he implici
subjec is anima e and has an unspeci ied alue o pe son, i is a sui able an eceden o no be e
bu ua,asin(33a).
Due o he unspeci ied na u e o he silen pe son a gumen and o he kind o Voice head
in ol ed in he impe sonal, i s subjec di e s conside ably om a common DP a gumen , in ha
i canno be o e ly p onounced,does no bea e ga i e case, does no igge e ga i e ag eemen
on heauxilia y,anddoesno a ec auxilia ychoice.Inape sonal ini eclause,when heex e nal
a gumen isaDP(o e o silen ), heauxilia ymus show heco espondinge ga i eag eemen
ma ke , and he auxilia y oo mus be *edun ‘ha e’ ins ead o izan ‘be’:
(35) (Gaz e-ek) kan a ho i mozko u a kan a- zen
young_people-pl.e g song ha [abs] d unk sing-ip
du e/*da.
ha e[3.abs];3pl.e g/be[3.abs]
‘Young people/ hey sing ha song d unk.’
In con as , as we ha e shown, he implici ex e nal a gumen o impe sonals does no ha e any
mo phological e lex on he auxilia y and does no change he auxilia y oo in o *edun.Aswe
will explain in he nex sec ion, his is a consequence o i s ha ing a de ec i e kind o Voice,
whichlacks a D ea u e and doesno p o ideunin e p e ableϕ ea u es obe aluedby a DP and
dele ed.
5.2 De ec i e Voice
As men ioned a he ou se o sec ion 5.1, we claim ha he Voice head in impe sonals is he-
ma ic bu has no D ea u e (like in Schä e 2008b’s passi es o Alexiadou e al. 2015’s G eek
passi es). We label his kind o Voice head de ec i e o con enience, in o de o compa e i wi h
he Voice head ha occu s in common ansi i e sen ences, which is bo h hema ic and has a
D ea u e. As we no ed, in ou accoun he ac ha Voice does no ha e a D ea u e does no
mean ha a ce ain kind o ex e nal a gumen canno be me ged in i s speci ie posi ion. We
a gued in sec ion 5.1 ha he ex e nal a gumen o impe sonalsis a silen pe son p onoun wi h
an unspeci ied pe son ea u e, simila o he se p onoun in Spanish e lexi e-ma ked passi es
(O mazabal & Rome o 2019,2020). I so, in impe sonals he e a e wo ac i e a gumen s: a silen
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168 BERRO e al.
pe sonp onounwi hunspeci iedpe son ea u esandanin e nala gumen ,whichcanbeei he
o e o silen . The ac ha he e a e wo a gumen s wi hin a de ec i e VoiceP causes he pe son
es ic ion desc ibed in sec ion 4.2. We assume ha Voice is he head ha in oduces he ex e -
nal a gumen (K a ze 1994,1996) and assigns Case o he in e nal objec o ansi i e p edica es
(like li le in Chomsky 1986).
In o de o explain he de i a ion o impe sonals, we will i s conside ha o pe sonal an-
si i e clauses. In such clauses, Voice has a D ea u e and he abili y o assign absolu i e Case o
he in e nal a gumen . Thus, i can be ega ded as a s ong phase, equi alen o he *P o Chom-
sky 2000 and Chomsky 2001. We will emain agnos ic abou he Case assignmen o he ex e nal
a gumen : his accoun is compa ible wi h an analysis whe e he ex e nal a gumen ecei es
inhe en e ga i e case om Voice (in line wi h p oposals such as Lega e 2002, Massam 2002,
Ald idge 2004, Wool o d 2006,Lega e2008, Coon 2010)o wi honewhe ei isCaseassigned
s uc u ale ga i ecasebyT( o a ecen app oach,seeRezace al.2014).Inanycase,wep opose
ha , as shown in (36), in pe sonal ansi i e sen ences, he ex e nal a gumen alues and dele es
he se o unin e p e able ϕ ea u es on T (uϕ, consis ing o uPe s and uNum) and he in e nal
a gumen aluesanddele es heunin e p e ableϕ ea u esonVoice (uϕ, also consis ingo uPe s
and uNum). This gi es ise o he ag eemen ma ke s (e ga i e and absolu i e espec i ely) ha
occu in pe sonal ansi i e sen ences.
(36) Pe sonal ansi i e sen ences; nonde ec i e Voice
By con as , in impe sonals, Voice is de ec i e in ha i lacks a D ea u e. Fo case and ag ee-
men , we conside ha being de ec i e means ha ing no unin e p e able ϕ ea u es and hus no
s uc u al Case o assign. De ec i e VoiceP can also be cha ac e ized as a weak phase, simila o
heone ha isp esen inunaccusa i ep edica es(Chomsky2000,2001).Hence,con a y owha
weseeinpe sonal ansi i es,VoicePinimpe sonalsdoesno in ol eacomple edomain o Case
licensing, and hus he in e nal a gumen in oduced wi hin i en e s in o Ag ee wi h he nex
unc ionalhead ha hasunin e p e ableϕ ea u es,namely,T.Inacco dwi hChomsky2000and
Chomsky 2001, we assume ha he unin e p e able ϕ ea u es in T a e in ac inhe i ed om he
phasal head C.
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 169
In spi e o i s de ec i eness, we ne e heless claim ha he VoiceP in impe sonals ac ually
con ains wo a gumen s: he ex e nal a gumen , in i s speci ie posi ion, and he in e nal a gu-
men , in i s complemen posi ion— ha is, wi hin P. Gi en he nonphasal na u e o Voice, bo h
he ex e nal and in e nal a gumen s coincide in he same phasal domain, namely, CP. The e o e,
he wo o hem will y o Ag ee wi h T, he only unc ional head bea ing unin e p e able ϕ
ea u es wi hin CP. The ex e nal a gumen being s uc u ally highe han he in e nal a gumen ,
T i s p obes he ϕ ea u es o he ex e nal a gumen . Gi en ha his is a silen pe son p onoun
no speci ied o numbe , i bea s pe son bu no numbe ea u es and is hus de ec i e in i s ϕ
ea u es. Consequen ly, T will only Ag ee in pe son ea u es wi h i , and as a consequence, he
in e nal a gumen will ha e he op ion o Ag ee wi h T in numbe ea u es only. Thus, we p o-
pose ha , as shown in (37), he ea u e se p esen in T is di ided: he ex e nal a gumen alues
he uPe s ea u e, whe eas he in e nal a gumen alues uNum.
(37) Impe sonal sen ences; de ec i e Voice
Since he in e nal a gumen canno alue uPe s, i s - and second-pe son absolu i e objec s
a e banned in his con ex , gi en ha hese bea bo h pe son and numbe ea u es. By con as ,
hi d-pe son a gumen s a e allowed, because—as a gued in he li e a u e on he Pe son–Case
Cons ain , which applies in di ansi i e cons uc ions— hese bea numbe bu no pe son ea-
u es (see, among o he s, Anagnos opoulou 2003, Béja & Rezac 2003,Rezac2007,2008a,2009a,
2011, Adge & Ha bou 2007). We hus claim ha he na u e o he pe son es ic ion in impe -
sonal cons uc ions is iden ical o he Pe son–Case Cons ain as a es ed in di ansi i es. See
Rezac 2009b: 314–316 o his same claim. In di ansi i es, he Pe son–Case Cons ain cap-
u es he incompa ibili y o i s - and second-pe son objec s wi h an ag eeing (indi ec -objec )
da i e (Bone 1991,1994). This is a syn ac ic cons ain ha a ises when he wo in e nal
a gumen s— he di ec and indi ec objec s—co-occu in he same Ag ee/Case locus, namely,
(equi alen o ansi i e Voice). Fo Basque, he Pe son–Case Cons ain is illus a ed by
Laka1993’s classic examplesin(38); see also Albizu 1997band1997c o a ho oughexamina ion
o he Pe son–Case Cons ain in Basque and c osslinguis ically.
(38) a. *Zu-k ha akina- i ni sal-du naiozu.
you-e g bu che -da I[abs] sell-p ha e;1sg.abs;3sg.da ;2.e g
‘You ha e sold me o he bu che .’
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170 BERRO e al.
b. Zu-k ha akina- i libu ua sal-du diozu.
you-e g bu che -da book[abs] sell-p ha e[3.abs];3sg.da ;2.e g
‘You ha e sold me he book.’
(Laka 1993: 27)
As has been a gued wi h espec o di ansi i e cons uc ions, we assume ha in i s -
and second-pe son a gumen s i is no su icien o check hei [numbe ] ea u e in o de o
hem o be Case licensed (Anagnos opoulou 2003). The Ag ee ela ions in impe sonal cons uc-
ions a e hen iden ical o hose ha hold in di ansi i es: due o he in e en ion o a highe
a gumen — he da i e in di ansi i es, he implici ex e nal a gumen in impe sonals— i s - and
second-pe son in e nal a gumen s a e banned om unde going egula Ag ee wi h hei ac ual
Case license , namely, in di ansi i es and T in impe sonals. This iola es he Pe son-Licensing
Condi ion, which s a es ha “an in e p e able i s /second pe son ea u e mus be licensed by
en e ing in o an Ag ee ela ion wi h a unc ional ca ego y” (Béja & Rezac 2003: 53).
Ano he ac o in a o o he claim ha he in e nal a gumen only alues uNum on T is
ha he in e nal a gumen , apa om being hi d pe son, is usually nonhuman (Rode 1992)
o inanima e (Be o & Fe nández 2019b, Fe nández & Be o 2021). As men ioned by Be o &
Fe nández 2019b, he impe sonal cons uc ion is much mo e equen in he co po a when he
in e nal a gumen is inanima e, al hough inanimacy is no a necessa y condi ion o o m an
impe sonal (see sec ion 6.2 o he de i a ion o hi d-pe son anima e in e nal a gumen s). A
simila endency has been obse ed in he sp ead o he e lexi e-ma ked passi e in Spanish
(Cabañas 2006).
In sum, we a gue ha in impe sonals he only ea u e se , p o ided by T, is sha ed by wo
a gumen s and ha his is he sou ce o he pe son es ic ion ound. Ins ead o unc ioning as a
homogeneousblock, heϕ ea u esonThappen obe aluedsepa a elyby heex e nala gumen
on he one hand and he in e nal a gumen on he o he : he o me Ag ees wi h T in pe son
ea u es and he la e in numbe ea u es. In di ansi i es, as a gued in Béja & Rezac 2003: 54,
gi en ha da i e Case is licensed by Appl, he indi ec objec can only Ag ee de ec i ely wi h ,
and hus hepe son ea u esin ge ade aul alue, ha is, hi dpe son.Simila ly,inimpe sonals,
since he implici ex e nal a gumen bea s unspeci ied pe son ea u es, uPe s on T ge s a de aul
alue: again, hi d pe son.15
Ne e heless, he implici ex e nal a gumen does no igge e ga i e ag eemen on he aux-
ilia y, as ex e nal a gumen s usually do in Basque (lea ing aside e ga i e-displacemen phenom-
ena).Whyabsolu i eins eado e ga i e?Wesugges ha hechoicebe weenabsolu i eande ga-
i e ag eemen ma ke s migh be go e ned by a PF-in e ace ope a ion, a ocabula y-inse ion
ule ha a ies depending on he na u e o he Voice head adjacen o T (in a simila ein as he
ocabula y-inse ion ule o auxilia ies gi en in (9)). When T has an adjacen Voice head ha
has a D ea u e, he alued ϕ ea u es o T will be ealized as e ga i e ag eemen ma ke s; o h-
e wise, i he adjacen Voice head does no ha e a D ea u e, hey will be ealized as absolu i e
ag eemen ma ke s.
Aswillbeshowninsec ion6, hepe son es ic ionon hein e nala gumen canbeo e come
i i is ma ked da i e ins ead o absolu i e. In ha scena io, we will claim ha an ex a Case
license hasbeen in oducedin o he de i a ion(Rezac2011,Kalin2018,T.Le in2019). The ac
15The claim ha he ex e nal a gumen alues he pe son p obe on T as hi d pe son by de aul is suppo ed by he ac
ha , wi h i s and second pe son, he pe son ea u es do no make in e p e i e sense wi hou he numbe ea u es
(Ta aldsen 1995, Anagnos opoulou 2003).
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 171
ha Case assignmen a ec s he pe son es ic ion— ha is, he ac ha he sou ce o he pe son
es ic ion is he inabili y o de ec i e Voice o license wo di e en a gumen s—is e idence in
a o o ou analysis.
5.3 A b ie look a Old Basque (medio)passi es
Be o emo ingon osec ion6,wewouldlike os opb ie ly olooka OldBasque(medio)passi es,
acons uc ionsimila o(con empo a y)impe sonalsbu wi hce ainp ope ies ha con as sig-
ni ican ly (see sec ion 2). In keeping wi h he li e a u e, we will e e o he cons uc ion a es ed
in Old Basque as (medio)passi es, bu he eade should no e ha we a e basically dealing wi h
an (appa en ly) e y simila cons uc ion. As p esen ed in sec ion 4.2, Basque impe sonals ha e
some p ope ies ha make hem di e en om well-beha ed passi es in languages like English
and Spanish, especially he pe son es ic ion on hei in e nal a gumen and hei incompa -
ibili y wi h agen pos posi ional ph ases. In e es ingly, his does no seem o be he case o
(medio)passi esinOldBasque,asanalyzedbyI igoyen1992,Zulaika1998,O izdeU bina2006,
and o he s. Fi s ly, Old Basque (medio)passi es ha e no pe son es ic ion on he subjec : no
ban on i s - and second-pe son in e nal a gumen s, as can be seen in (39) and (40a) below. Sec-
ondly, hey can exp ess an agen by means o an ins umen al pos posi ional ph ase, as in (40a)
and (40b).
The i s exampleshowing he lack o pe son es ic ion, (39), is om Be na d E xepa e’s Lin-
guae Vasconum p imi iae.16 (On his p ope y o Old Basque (medio)passi es, see pa icula ly
O iz de U bina 2006: sec s. 2, 3, Zulaika 1998: sec . 16.2.)
(39) O ay, o hoy, enadila oguen gabe di ama.
now please neg;be;1sg.abs;comp aul wi hou de ame
‘Now, please le me no be de amed wi hou blame.’
(9:14; O iz de U bina 2006: 768)
As can be seen, he in e nal a gumen o he (medio)passi e in (39) is i s pe son, being
c oss e e enced by he i s -pe son absolu i e ma ke on he auxilia y.
The second p ope y, o e exp ession o he agen , can be seen in he Old Basque
(medio)passi es in (40), bo h om Joanes Leiza aga’s 1571 ansla ion o he New Tes amen .17
(40) a. Pa i nadinean Espaignia á , e ho i en naiz
lea e be;1sg.abs;comp Spain.all come.p os be;1sg.abs
çue a a: ecen spe ança du i agai ean
you.all o hope ha e[3.abs];1sg.e g pass.ine
ikussi en çai uz edala e a çuueça-z ha a
see.p os ha e;2pl.abs;1sg.e g;comp and you-ins he e
guida u en naicela.
guide.p os be;1sg.abs;comp
‘Whensoe e I ake my jou ney in o Spain, I will come o you: o I us o
see you in my jou ney, and o be b ough on my way hi he wa d by you.’
(Rom 15:24; Zulaika 1998: 782)
16The i s book published in Basque, in 1545. See Pa xi Al una’s c i ical edi ion: Al una 1980.
17See he edi ion o Theodo Linschmann and Hugo Schucha d , I. Leiça aga’s baskische Büche on 1571 (Neues
Tes amen , Kalende und Abc) im genauen Abd uck (S asbou g, F ance: K. J. T übne , 1900).
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178 BERRO e al.
In Basque, da i e Case is commonly conside ed o be assigned ei he by (High/Low) Appl o by
a P head (see, among many o he s, Albizu 2001a,Rezac2008a,2008b,Albizu2009,E xepa e&
Oyha çabal 2009,Rezac2009a,2009b, Fe nández 2010a,2010b, Fe nández & O iz de U bina
2010,Rezac2011, Fe nández & O iz de U bina 2012, E xepa e & Oyha çabal 2013, Od ia 2014,
Fe nández 2015, Od ia 2017, O mazabal & Rome o 2017, Od ia 2019). Howe e , in o de o dis-
inguish he da i e objec o impe sonals om o he inhe en da i es, we p opose ha he da i e
Case assigne in impe sonals is ins ead K, a mo e gene al unc ional head ha s ands o (s uc-
u al) Case— his is in ac he head ha assigns dialec ally a es ed di e en ial objec ma king in
ansi i e cons uc ions(Od ia2017).Hence,wealsoassume ha he da i ema ke sin he ini e
e bin ol ecli icdoubling, ha is, hemo emen o ahead ha ,a e Ag eeingwi h helicensed
nominal, b ings i s in e p e able ϕ- ea u e bundle o Voice/T, as is a gued by E xepa e 2006,
Rezac 2006,2007,A egi&Ne ins2008,Rezac2008a,2008b,P eminge 2009,Rezac2011,A egi
&Ne ins2012, E xepa e 2014, P eminge 2014, Rezac e al. 2014, Od ia 2017, and Od ia 2019,
among o he s.
Ascanbeseenin(49),when heobjec Ag eeswi hK, henumbe ea u esinT emainun al-
ued; hey a e hus in e p e ed as singula by de aul , since his is he mo phologically unma ked
alue o numbe ea u es(seeK ame 2014,P eminge 2014,andT.Le in2019,amongo he s).24
This con as s wi h hi d-pe son objec s ha ecei e absolu i e Case by Ag eeing in numbe ea-
u es wi h T, because he absolu i e ag eemen ma ke depends on he numbe speci ica ion o
he objec . The la e is seen in (50), whe eas, when he objec is ma ked da i e as in (51), he
numbe ea u es in T emain un alued/singula , ega dless o he numbe ea u es o he objec ,
since hese a e ac ually c oss e e enced by da i e ag eemen .
(50) a. Libu u ho i e az sal- zen da.
book ha [abs] easily sell-ip be[3.abs]
‘Tha book is easily sold.’
b. Libu u ho iek e az sal- zen di a.
book hose[abs] easily sell-ip be;3pl.abs
‘Those books a e easily sold.’
(51) a. Pozik ikus- en zaizu.
happy see-ip be;2.da [3.abs]
‘You (singula ) look happy.’
24As a e iewe poin s ou , he p oposal ha he uNum ea u e o T can emain un alued makes he p edic ion ha
in ansi i e e bs a e also possible in he impe sonal con igu a ion in Basque, wi h he sole a gumen being he silen
ex e nal a gumen in he speci ie o Voice. As (i) illus a es, his p edic ion is in ac bo ne ou : une ga i e e bs like
dan za u ‘dance’, eskia u ‘ski’, and so on can easily be ound in his cons uc ion (O iz de U bina 2003), wi h he sole
a gumen emaining implici .
(i) Hemen ondo dan za- zen/eskia- zen da.
he e well dance-ip /ski-ip be;3.abs
‘People dance/ski well he e.’
Ce ain unaccusa i e e bs can also occu in he impe sonal cons uc ion, bu hei dis ibu ion is much mo e limi ed.
We would sugges ha in in ansi i e impe sonals he implici ex e nal a gumen checks uPe s on T and uNum emains
un alued.
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 179
b. Pozik ikus- en zaizue.
happy see-ip be;2pl.da [3.abs]
‘You (plu al) look happy.’
Again, he con as be ween (50) and (51) co obo a es he idea ha he in e en ion o he
implici subjec exclusi ely a ec s uPe s in T. O he wise, we would no expec a numbe con as
when he objec Ag ees wi h T and appea s absolu i e ma ked, as in (50).
6.3 Di e en ial objec ma king in impe sonals and nonimpe sonal
ansi i es
In line wi h Rezac 2011,Kalin2018 a gues ha ini e clauses ha e one obliga o y Case license
ha is always me ged whe eas o he license s a e me ged seconda ily— ha is, when needed
o con e gence. Thus, as in Rezac 2011, he addi ion o a seconda y Case license is seen as a
las - eso ope a ion, gi en ha i is exclusi ely applied in cases whe e he de i a ion would o h-
e wise c ash. In his way, Kalin accoun s o he c osslinguis ically widely a es ed phenomenon
o di e en ialobjec ma king, by a guing ha he di e en ialma king a ises as a consequence o
he ac i a ion o such a seconda y Case license , which licenses o he wise unlicensed objec s.
Di e en ial objec ma king e e s o he phenomenon whe e objec s high in animacy and/o
speci ici y bea a gi en ma king no a es ed in o he objec s (Bossong 1985,1991, Aissen 2003).
Di e en ialobjec ma kingisalsoa ailableinsomeBasquesou hwes e n a ie ies.Anexampleis
in (52b), whose da i e-ma ked objec con as s wi h he absolu i e-ma ked objec in (52a). In he
a ie ies in ques ion, objec s high in animacy and speci ici y, especially i s - and second-pe son
objec s, end o bea his da i e ma king ins ead o he canonical absolu i e expec ed in an e ga-
i e language like Basque (Fe nández & Rezac 2010,Mounole2012, Od ia 2014, Fe nández &
Rezac 2016, Rod íguez-O dóñez 2016, Od ia 2017, Rod íguez-O dóñez 2017, Od ia 2019).
(52) a. Gau is e ikus- en zai u (zu).
oday sad see-ip ha e;2.abs;1sg.e g you[abs]
‘You look sad o me oday.’
Li . ‘I see you sad oday.’
b. Gau is e ikus- en dizu (zu- i).
oday sad see-ip ha e[3.abs];2.da ;1sg.e g you-da
‘You look sad o me oday.’
Li . ‘I see you sad oday.’
This di e en ial objec ma king is simila o ha ound in Spanish and Hindi, whe e anima e
and speci ic objec s show he same ma king as da i e indi ec objec s: ama king in Spanish and
-ko ma king in Hindi. Kalin 2018 a gues ha in languages like Spanish and Hindi ansi i e
is an obliga o y license and Appl an op ional one, which me ges when he objec needs licens-
ing and his equi emen is no sa is ied by . Thus, acco ding o Kalin, in hese languages Appl
beha es as an obliga o y license o indi ec objec s and as an op ional one o di ec ones. Sim-
ila ly, T. Le in 2019 ega ds di e en ial objec ma king in Palauan as an excep ional-licensing
phenomenon since i equi es he addi ion o a Case license no o he wise p esen in he
de i a ion.
As we ha e al eady poin ed ou , he same mechanism applies in Basque impe sonals: i s -
andsecond-pe sonobjec sendupbeingda i ema ked,asin(41c),byAg eeingwi hap e iously
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180 BERRO e al.
inac i e ϕp obe (Rezac 2007,2009a,2011) o , o pu i o he wise, by Ag eeing wi h a seconda y
o op ional license (Kalin 2018,T.Le in2019). The e o e, i seems easonable o hink ha he
da i eCaseassignedbyKinBasqueimpe sonalsis in ac anins anceo di e en ialobjec ma k-
ing, since i is also a es ed wi h human bu no nonhuman objec s and is a pa e n a ailable o
di e en ial-objec -ma king speake s.25
Ne e heless,obse e ha in ansi i esdi e en ialobjec ma king co-occu s wi h he ansi-
i eauxilia y *edun‘ha e’(52b)andin impe sonals wi h he in ansi i eizan ‘be’ (41c); hela e
ac educes o he de ec i eness o he Voice head in impe sonals. Fu he mo e, in he di e en-
ial objec ma king ound in ansi i e cons uc ions, i s - and second-pe son da i es al e na e
wi h heabsolu i e; hephenomenonisop ional o manyspeake s,and hosewhoha ei obliga-
o ily also use he absolu i e in non ini e con ex s (Fe nández & Rezac 2016, Od ia 2017). This is
no wha we see wi h da i e objec s in impe sonals: al hough hi d-pe son objec s may al e na e
be ween he da i e and he absolu i e, i s - and second-pe son objec s can only appea wi h he
da i e(howe e , see oo no e 11).As a gued in Od ia 2014,Fe nández & Rezac2016, Od ia2017,
and Od ia 2019, he al e na ion ound be ween di e en ial objec ma king and absolu i e ma k-
ingin ansi i econs uc ionsmaybedue o he ac ha ,unlikeinimpe sonals, heobjec Ag ees
wi h /Voice be o e ecei ing he di e en ial ma king.
In sum, bo h Kalin 2018 and T. Le in 2019 a gue ha di e en ially ma ked objec s,
due o hei ϕ- ea u e speci ica ion, always equi e Case licensing and ha he absence
o i leads o ung amma icali y. This is, again, analogous o wha happens wi h i s - and
second-pe son objec s unde he Pe son–Case Cons ain as mani es ed in bo h di ansi i es
and he impe sonals unde s udy. In ac , as Le in no es (p. 193), “we could in ui i ely main-
ain ha all [di e en ial-objec -ma king] pa e ns a e igge ed by ‘ex ended’ [Pe son-Licensing
Condi ion]–like s a emen s.” Kalin 2017 akes a u he s ep in uni ying he Pe son–Case Con-
s ain in di ansi i es wi h di e en ial objec ma king, s a ing ha he simila i ies be ween he
wo include (i) he numbe o a gumen s in ol ed in each ( wo: he indi ec and di ec objec s
wi h he Pe son–Case Cons ain and he subjec and objec in di e en ial objec ma king); (ii)
he ac ha in bo h cases he phenomenon a ec s he lowe a gumen , namely he objec ; (iii)
he ac ha bo h he Pe son–Case Cons ain and di e en ial objec ma king a e igge ed by
he in e en ion o a highe a gumen and nei he o hem pe sis s when he highe a gumen is
emo ed; and (i ) he ac ha bo h a e epai ed by adding a seconda y license o he cons uc-
ion. In addi ion, i is impo an o ecall ha he ela ionship be ween he da i e ma king o he
objec and he Pe son–Case Cons ain appea s e en close in he case o Basque impe sonals
han in ansi i e con ex s, because he di e en ial-objec -ma king pa e n is ac ually caused by
a pe son es ic ion ha could simply be an ins ance o he Pe son–Case Cons ain .
7CONCLUSIONS
In his a icle we ha e analyzed he impe sonal in Basque. We ha e p oposed ha in his con-
s uc ion Voice in oduces a seman ically ac i e a gumen bu has no D ea u e (Schä e 2008b,
Alexiadou e al. 2015), and we ha e called his ype o Voice de ec i e. In his analysis, Voice
25Howe e , as poin ed ou by O iz de U bina 2011–2019, he da i e in impe sonals is independen om he dialec al
di e en ial objec ma king discussed in he li e a u e. In o he wo ds, speake s ha do no show dialec al di e en ial
objec ma king do ha e he da i e-ma king pa e n obse ed in impe sonals, al hough we p esume ha his s a egy is
es ic ed o sou hwes e n dialec s.
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PERSON MATTERS IN IMPERSONALITY 181
beingde ec i ealsoimpliesha ingnounin e p e ableϕ ea u es,lea ingTas heonly unc ional
head wi h ϕ ea u es o be alued by a DP and dele ed. Howe e , e en hough Voice is de ec i e
in impe sonals, we ha e sugges ed ha a silen pe son p onoun is in oduced in i s speci ie
posi ion and hus ha he e a e wo a gumen s wi hin VoiceP. As a esul , he unin e p e able
ϕ ea u es o T a e spli be ween he wo a gumen s, and his causes a pe son cons ain on he
in e nal a gumen : i can only be hi d pe son. In line wi h Rezac 2009b, his a icle has shown
ha he ea esigni ican simila i iesinna u ebe ween hepe soncons ain soccu inginimpe -
sonalsandindi ansi i econs uc ions.Thei commonali iesalsoinclude he epai s a egy ha
is used o o e come hem, which consis s o ac i a ing a ϕp obe ha was p e iously inac i e in
he de i a ion (Rezac 2007,2009a,2011). As a consequence o he epai , in impe sonals, i s -
and second-pe son in e nal a gumen s a e embedded unde KP and mo phologically ma ked
wi h da i e case and ag eemen , ci cum en ing in his way he pe son es ic ion (Kalin 2018,T.
Le in 2019).
Wi h his analysis, we ha e accoun ed o he main p ope ies o he impe sonal: he ac ha
he implici subjec is syn ac ically ac i e as well as able o license seconda y p edica es and bind
ecip ocal anapho s and ce ain e lexi e anapho s; he cons uc ion’s in ansi i e mo phology;
and he pe son cons ain on he in e nal a gumen . Addi ionally, we ha e p o ided an analysis
o impe sonals wi h da i e-ma ked in e nal a gumen s and p oposed ha his is an ins ance o
di e en ialobjec ma king.The impe sonalcons uc ionwi hdi e en ialobjec ma kingisbasi-
cally simila o ha wi hou i , he di e ence being ha in he o me , an ex a ϕp obe has been
in oduced in o he de i a ion in o de o license a i s - o second-pe son in e nal a gumen .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Theau ho sa eg a e ul o he e iewe sand heedi o o hei ca e ul eadingand aluablecom-
men s. They also acknowledge inancial suppo om esea ch p ojec PGC2018-096380-B-I00
o he Spanish Minis y o Science, Inno a ion, and Uni e si ies, om esea ch p ojec
ANR-17-CE27-0011-01 o he Agence Na ionale de la Reche che, and om esea ch p ojec
IT1169 o he Basque go e nmen .
DATA-AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The English, Spanish, and Icelandic da a discussed in his a icle, as well as some o he Basque
da a, ha e been p e iously epo ed in he li e a u e ci ed. The Basque da a ha we e gene a ed
by he p esen s udy ha e been gi en explici ly in his a icle.
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