EDITOR
P o . D . Quaisa ALAM
NATION, JUSTICE,
ECONOMY, AND
TECHNOLOGY:
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
IN GLOBAL POLITICS
Published by
BZT TURAN PUBLISHING HOUSE
Ce i ica e Numbe : 202401
Delawa e, Uni ed S a es
www.bz u anpublishinghouse.com
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EDITOR: P o . D . Quaisa ALAM
NATION, JUSTICE, ECONOMY, AND TECHNOLOGY:
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN GLOBAL POLITICS
OPEN ACCESS
Sugges ed Ci a ion:
Alam, Q. (2025). NATION, JUSTICE, ECONOMY, AND TECHNOLOGY: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN GLOBAL
POLITICS. BZT TURAN PUBLISHING HOUSE. DOI: ???
Language: English
Publica ion Da e: Oc obe 2025
Co e Design By Mehme ÇAKIR
P in and digi al e sions ypese by BZT TURAN Media Co. L d.
E-ISBN: 9 7 8 - 9 9 5 2 - 8 6 1 0 - 2 - 0
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30546/19023.978-9952-8610-1-3.2025.0033
iii
PREFACE
This olume b ings oge he di e se ye in e connec ed s udies
ha illumina e he p o ound in e play be ween his o y, poli ics, law,
economy, and socie y. A i s glance, he subjec s may appea dis an
om one ano he ; howe e , when examined collec i ely, hey e eal
he common h ead o humani y’s ongoing s uggles o jus ice,
iden i y, and p og ess in an e e -changing global landscape.
The opening chap e e isi s he June 15–16, 1970 labo mo emen s
in Tü kiye, a miles one in he his o y o wo ke s’ igh s. By examining
he cons i u ional gua an ees o he 1961 Cons i u ion, he mili an
s ance o DİSK, and he s a e’s es ic i e amendmen s, his s udy
highligh s how o ganized labo was able o in luence poli ical
p ocesses, e en unde ep ession. These e en s emain a powe ul
eminde ha he de ense o igh s equi es collec i e solida i y.
The nex chap e u ns o he ealm o in e na ional law, ocusing
on he In e na ional C iminal Cou ’s con o e sial a es wa an
o P esiden Vladimi Pu in. He e, he challenges o applying
in e na ional jus ice o powe ul s a e leade s come o he o e, aising
essen ial ques ions abou he balance be ween legali y and poli ics, and
he ICC’s ole in sa egua ding humani y agains he g a es c imes.
The discussion con inues wi h a public policy analysis o ci il
igh s du ing John F. Kennedy’s p esidency, si ua ing he U.S. s uggle
agains acial disc imina ion wi hin he b oade na a i e o Ame ican
democ acy. Th ough Kennedy’s speeches, execu i e o de s, and
e ol ing public s ance, he chap e e eals how poli ical leade ship
can ei he ein o ce o challenge deep-sea ed injus ices.
F om he Wes , he book shi s ocus o he Eas , acing he
o ma ion o na ionalism in China. By examining de elopmen s om
he Yuan Dynas y o he ea ly Republic, his s udy unco e s how
ex e nal impe ialis p essu es, in e nal ebellions, and educa ional
e o ms ans o med discon en in o a na ionalis spi i . The chap e
o e s aluable insigh s in o he his o ical oo s o con empo a y
Chinese iden i y and i s sociopoli ical ounda ions.
i
The book hen mo es in o he ield o economics wi h a chap e
on he psychological dynamics shaping consume decision-making
in beha io al ma ke ing. By b idging psychology, sociology, and
economics, his analysis demons a es how heu is ics, emo ions, and
social no ms d i e ma ke beha io a beyond he assump ions o
a ional choice heo y, he eby eshaping ma ke ing s a egies in he
digi al age.
Economic deba es con inue wi h an explo a ion o ene gy subsidies
and iscal balance amid oil p ice shocks. This chap e unde sco es how
ex e nal shocks es he sus ainabili y o na ional economic sys ems,
especially in ene gy-impo ing coun ies. By e alua ing policy
al e na i es, i highligh s he ensions be ween iscal esponsibili y,
ene gy secu i y, and social wel a e.
Finally, he olume concludes wi h a o wa d-looking s udy: a
semi-concep ual model o echnology addic ion using ex mining
me hods. By in eg a ing linguis ic analysis wi h psychological and
sociological in e p e a ion, his chap e o e s an inno a i e amewo k
o unde s anding digi al beha io s. I shows how emo ional, social,
and cogni i e dys unc ions a e e lec ed in he language o online
discou se and p oposes a model ha could shape u u e esea ch in
digi al sociology and men al heal h.
Taken oge he , hese chap e s span con inen s, disciplines, and
me hodologies, ye hey con e ge on a sha ed insigh : he p essing
issues o ou ime—whe he oo ed in he pas o eme ging in he digi al
p esen —canno be unde s ood in isola ion. Wo ke s’ s uggles, he
pu sui o global jus ice, ci il igh s policies, na ionalism, consume
psychology, economic sus ainabili y, and digi al beha io all ep esen
di e en ace s o humani y’s b oade ques o digni y, equali y, and
esilience.
I is ou hope ha his book no only con ibu es o schola ly
discou se bu also inspi es eade s o d aw connec ions ac oss ields,
ecognize he uni e sali y o hese s uggles, and pu sue new pa hs o
inqui y. By si ua ing speci ic case s udies wi hin he wide amewo ks
o poli ics, law, economics, and socie y, he chap e s collec i ely
a i m ha he pu sui o jus ice, iden i y, and p og ess emains he
co ne s one o bo h schola ship and human li e.
P o . D . Quaisa ALAM
P o . (D .) Quaisa Alam
(Ph.D, M.Phil, M.A, ADJM, PGDJM,
MJMC, UGC/NET, LLB,LL.M(c))
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
ORCID ID: 0009-0003-3363-
3517
P o esso (D .) Quaisa Alam is a
P o esso and o me HOD o School o
Libe al A s(SLA) in Poli ical Science
and In e na ional Rela ions, Noida In e na ional Uni e si y, India. He is a
Ph.D and M.Phil om Jawaha lal Neh u Uni e si y, JNU, New Delhi, India.
Be o e ha , he has been a S . acul y in Uni e si y o Delhi o o e a decade.
He has double MA in Poli ical Science and In e na ional Rela ions and MA
in Jou nalism and Mass Communica ion. He is an LLB om a op leading
uni e si y o India. He has au ho ed mo e han 14 books. Fo me Coo dina o
o NAAC, Chai man o Ph.D Commi ee and DRC, Cou se Coo dina o
and In-cha ge o o eign na ional s uden s. And edi o a la ge o he media
publica ions, men o o esea ch publica ions and inno a ions. Ad iso o
he p ojec undings ega ding na ional and in e na ional con e ences and
semina s. He is guiding mo e han 10 Ph.D Resea ch schola s. He is in ol ed
in a numbe o mino and majo esea ch p ojec s inside and ou side he
coun y.
He is a p oli ic w i e and has al eady w i en o e a hund ed a icles on
“na ional and in e na ional a ai s.” Besides, he keeps p esen ing esea ch
pape s in many na ional and in e na ional con e ences wo ldwide. He was
selec ed as an Associa e P o esso in Uni e si y o Jimma, E hiopia. He go
acul y assignmen in he Uni e si y o Go dan and Uni e si y o Asma a,
S a e o E i ea.
He led esea ch p ojec eam i led “Public opinion and su ey esea ch”
in Bangkok (Thailand) and he conduc ed Resea ch Su ey on “Analy ical,
Compa a i e Bila e al Pe spec i es” be ween Malaysia and India in he
Uni e si y o Malay, Kula Lumpu , Malaysia. He also conduc ed su ey
i
esea ch in he Uni e si y o Teknologi MARA (UiTM) IIMU, Selango ,
Malaysia. In addi ion o his, he is c edi ed o ha e mo e han 90 Academic
and Policy Resea ch pape s and chap e s in a ious capaci ies published
na ionally and globally double-blind pee e iewed esea ch jou nals,
in e na ional and na ional con e ences, chai ed, o ganized na ional and
in e na ional con e ences and inclusi e all esea ch pape s and a icles is
a ound 150 plus.
Rega ds,
P o . (D .) Quaisa Alam,
(P o . & Fo me HOD, SLA, School o Libe al A s)
Noida In e na ional Uni e si y, NIU, India
ii
CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER 1
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE JUNE 15-16 EVENTS IN TERMS OF
WORKERS’ RIGHTS AND TURKISH POLITICAL HISTORY ............................ 1
Mu a TURPÇU
CHAPTER 2
THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT AND THE QUEST FOR
GLOBAL JUSTICE: THE PUTIN ARREST WARRANT CONTROVERSY .....13
Mu a TURPÇU
CHAPTER 3
PROBLEMS, POLITICS, AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE UNITED
STATES DURING THE PRESIDENCY OF JOHN F. KENNEDY: A PUBLIC
POLICY ANALYSIS ............................................................................................ 25
Nu e in ÇIÇEKÇI
CHAPTER 4
THE BIRTH OF NATIONALISM IN CHINA ......................................................... 37
Özlem TAN
CHAPTER 5
MARKETING PILLAR OF BEHAVIORAL ECONOMICS: PSYCHOLOGICAL
DYNAMICS SHAPING CONSUMER DECISION-MAKING IN THE
PERSPECTIVE OF BEHAVIORAL MARKETING ..............................................53
Funda DEMIROĞLU
Tolga ULUSOY
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE JUNE 15-16 EVENTS IN TERMS OF WORKERS’ RIGHTS AND TURKISH
6
o ganized wo king class. The legal amewo k unin en ionally ueled a mo e
mili an labo mo emen , pa icula ly unde he in luence o DİSK.
The June 15–16 E en s and Thei Impac s
Due o he p o-go e nmen policies o Tü k-İş, wo ke s began o become
membe s o DİSK, seeing i as a new al e na i e, hinking ha hei igh s
would be be e p o ec ed. Despi e he e o s o bo h he poli ical powe
and Tü k-İş o p e en i , DİSK g ew apidly and by he ea ly 1970s he
numbe o wo ke membe s had eached 800 housand (Aydın and Taşkın,
p.191). The g owing suppo DİSK ecei ed om bo h s uden s and wo ke s
u he emphasized Tü k-İş’s alignmen wi h he go e nmen . In esponse,
he go e nmen began p epa ing o amend Law No. 274 wi h he aim o
es ic ing ade union ac i i ies and ul ima ely dissol ing DİSK (Çelik,
2018). A his c i ical junc u e, he go e nmen unde P ime Minis e
Süleyman Demi el a emp ed o pass a legisla i e amendmen ha would
e ec i ely deny he igh o ope a e o unions wi hou a la ge numbe o
membe s— hus excluding DİSK and o he s like i caused a mo e igge ed a
massi e backlash (Koçak, p.158). To unde s and he ull scope o he e en s,
i is i s impo an o examine how he amendmen p ocess un olded in
Pa liamen .
The esul ing demons a ions on June 15–16, 1970, u ned in o one
o he mos signi ican labo up isings in Tu kish his o y, ma king a clea
ejec ion o op-down a emp s o con ol he labo mo emen and signaling
he eme gence o a poli ically conscious and o ganized wo king class. These
e en s le a las ing ma k on Tü kiye’s poli ical and labo his o y, and hei
consequences in luenced labo policy o decades o come.
Pa liamen a y P oceedings and he Legisla i e
Backg ound o he June 15–16 E en s
On June 12, 1970, du ing a session o he G and Na ional Assembly o
Tü kiye (TBMM), a bill p oposing amendmen s o ce ain a icles o Law No.
274 on T ade Unions—including he addi ion o a new a icle and a clause
o A icle 31—was in oduced o discussion. Rema kably, no speeches we e
made ei he in a o o agains he p oposal, excep o one s a emen by
Hasan Tü kay, a depu y ep esen ing Is anbul on behal o he Jus ice Pa y
(Adale Pa isi) g oup. The p oposal was subsequen ly submi ed o a o e
wi hou b oade deba e. In his speech suppo ing he amendmen , Hasan
Tü kay asse ed he ollowing:
MURAT TURPÇU
7
“M . Speake , es eemed depu ies, he d a law, which ills in he gaps
o Law No. 274 on T ade Unions enac ed in 1963 and implemen ed o
se en yea s, and which in oduces some new p o isions, was inalized in
he G and Assembly yes e day. This law will s eng hen Tu kish unionism,
b ing hono able unionism o Tü kiye, and escue unions om hose who
ha e deg aded hem by u ning hem in o ools o li elihood. This law will
p e en hose who seek o use Tu kish wo ke s as s epping s ones o impose
hei ideological agendas on he coun y. I will p o ide g ea se ices o he
Tu kish economy. The e o e, he Jus ice Pa y G oup will cas whi e (yes)
o es o his law, which is highly bene icial o Tu kish wo ke s, Tu kish
ade unionis s, he Tu kish Na ion, and ou belo ed homeland. May his
law be auspicious o he Tu kish Na ion, Tu kish wo ke s, and ou beau i ul
coun y. Thank you.” (TBMM, 1970)
As a esul o he o ing, 234 ou o he o al numbe o 450 membe s
pa icipa ed in he o ing, 230 o es in a o and 4 o es agains (TBMM,
1970). The law amendmen , which caused a majo labo mo emen in
Tu kish poli ical his o y, was e u ned o he TBMM by he Sena e on July
3, 1970, o mino changes ( ade ban, e mina ion and ans e o asse s in
case o dissolu ion) ha we e no subjec o objec ion by DISK and wo ke s.
These mino amendmen s we e also accep ed in he mee ing held in he
TBMM on July 29. Again, in he mee ings held on his da e, Anka a Depu y
O han BİRGİT (TBMM, 1970/ olume 8), who asked o speak o exp ess
his opinion on A icle 18, clea ly men ioned DİSK by name, and om he
exp essions he used, i can be concluded ha he amendmen o he law
di ec ly a ge ed DİSK. Finally, he changes published in he O icial Gaze e
da ed Augus 12, 1970 en e ed in o o ce. When he changes we e e iewed,
i was seen ha he e we e no many p o isions di ec ly agains he wo ke .
A icle 9 unde he i le o “Es ablishmen condi ions o unions, ede a ions
and con ede a ions” b ough minimum wo ke and union numbe s o
membe ship in o de o o ganize unions and hei supe io o ganiza ions
(h ps://www. esmigaze e.go . /a si /13577.pd .). Acco ding o he law, he
ex o which is gi en below, in o de o a union o ope a e na ionwide, i
mus ep esen a leas one- hi d o he wo ke s in ha sec o . Since hese
limi s mean ha DISK, which was ounded in 1967, and i s a ilia ed unions
could no comple e he numbe o wo ke s speci ied in he law, his p o ision
and i s con inua ion posed a g ea h ea o DISK’s exis ence. In e ms o
legal echnique, his p o ision, which is included in he T ade Unions Law
No. 274, is no among he condi ions o he es ablishmen o unions in he
T ade Unions and Collec i e Labo Ag eemen s Law No. 6356, which is
cu en ly in o ce, bu among he condi ions o making a collec i e labo
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE JUNE 15-16 EVENTS IN TERMS OF WORKERS’ RIGHTS AND TURKISH
8
ag eemen (A icle 41) wi h a lowe membe ship quali ica ion. In esponse o
he dange o DİSK closing down, he e is also he possibili y ha i s asse s
will be ans e ed o Tü k-İş acco ding o he amended A icle 18 o Law
No. 274.
The collec i e labo laws changed wi h he suppo o Tü k-İş a e
aimed a es ic ing wo ke s’ igh s as well as educing he in luence o
DİSK (Özhazineda , 2022). Al hough he name o DİSK was no di ec ly
men ioned, he egula ions made and he go e nmen ’s a i ude we e nega i e.
Al hough i did no di ec ly p e en wo ke s om unionizing, he dec ease
in he numbe o unions ha wo ke s could become membe s o indi ec ly
caused his. One o he easons why wo ke s sympa hize wi h DİSK is ha
DİSK has an unde s anding based on s uggle, while Tü k-İş has a unionism
unde s anding based on comp omise (Kaplan, 2022). The ac ha Tü k-
İş o go ha i s ac i i ies we e a class s uggle and joined hands wi h he
go e nmen o make changes ha would hinde union eedom also c ea ed
discom o among wo ke s who we e membe s o Tü k-İş and caused he
wo ke s o ake o he s ee s on June 15-16 agains his change.
Wi h he app o al o he amendmen by he Assembly on June 12,
1970, wo ke s ook o he s ee s o p o ec hei union igh s. Especially
a e he Singe occupa ion, wo kplace occupa ions and esis ance no only
inc eased isibly bu also eached hei peak on June 15-16, 1970. Me al
wo ke s and he Mining Wo ke s’ Union we e in a leading posi ion in his
de ac o-legi ima e s uggle (Çelik, 2018). On he day he amendmen was
app o ed by he Assembly, DİSK made a s a emen claiming ha i was
agains he cons i u ion and made a s a emen ega ding he ac ions o be
aken on June 12, 13 and 14. Pe mission could no be ob ained om he
Is anbul Go e no ’s O ice o he p o es ac ion planned o June 17. The
day when he p o es s eached a u ning poin was June 15. Al hough no
call o ac ion was made by DİSK, wo ke s who wen o wo k on Monday,
June 15 began o p o es and hese p o es s sp ead o almos all o Is anbul,
İzmi and Kocaeli. Wo ke s om Kadıköy, Ka al and Bakı köy joined he
wo ke s who s a ed o ma ch owa ds Anka a Asphal , and i was claimed
ha his numbe was 70 housand, and i was no ewo hy ha wo ke s who
we e membe s o Tü k-İş unions also pa icipa ed in hese p o es s (Koçak,
p.159). On he second day o he e en s, he numbe o pa icipan s in he
p o es s inc eased e en mo e; acco ding o some sou ces, he e we e close
o 100 housand wo ke s (Koçak, p.161) and acco ding o o he s, he e we e
close o 150 housand wo ke s (Özdemi , p.695). The e en s o he second
day we e bloodie ; h ee wo ke s, a police o ice and a shopkeepe died.
MURAT TURPÇU
9
The bloody ou come o he June 15-16 e en s b ough ma ial law in
Is anbul and Kocaeli. Wo ke s and many DISK o icials we e de ained, union
buildings we e aided and many we e ied and sen enced in he ma ial law
cou s ha we e es ablished. Wo ke s we e laid o om many wo kplaces,
dis ega ding eedoms in union ac i i y. Al hough hese ac ions could no
p e en he amendmen o he law, TİP and CHP (Republican People’s Pa y)
la e iled an annulmen lawsui wi h he Cons i u ional Cou , claiming ha
he amendmen was uncons i u ional, and he Cons i u ional Cou annulled
he law, inding i con a y o ade union eedom.
I is no igh o alk abou an o ganiza ional s uc u e in he e en s ha
eme ged, he e o e, i is no he case ha DİSK was a he cen e o he e en s
o June 15-16, and he impac o he e en s ha eme ged was o a na u e
and magni ude ha exceeded DİSK (Ka aoğlu, 2022). This means ha
DİSK ailed o calm he masses in he ac ions in ques ion (Yaşlı, p.234-235).
Howe e , such a de e mina ion could no p e en he execu i es o DİSK
om being held esponsible as hose who planned and di ec ed he ac ions a
ha ime, and caused hem o be a es ed and ied.
The June 15-16 Ac ions, which a e a conc e e and powe ul example o
wo king class mo emen s, ha e an ex emely impo an place in ou poli ical
his o y (Çelik, p.633). The June 15-16 e en s a e excep ional in e ms o labo
his o y as hey we e no only abou economic conce ns bu also a esis ance
in de ense o union igh s (Çelik, p.633). I can be said ha hese e en s,
which we e an impo an miles one on he oad o he 1971 Memo andum,
caused a eg ession in wo ke s’ igh s.
Conclusion
The e en s o June 15-16 we e he ac ions o poli ical powe s ha wan ed
o p e en wo ke s om o ganizing, allowing as much o ganiza ion as
hey deemed wo hy h ough legal egula ions, bu he wo ke s ook o he
s ee s wi hou wai ing o he decisions o he unions hey we e a ilia ed
wi h. I does no seem possible o say ha hese eac ions o wo ke s who
ac ed independen ly o he unions we e union ac i i ies. Howe e , he
consciousness o collec i e ac ion agains he injus ice aced by wo ke s
a ilia ed wi h di e en unions is impo an in e ms o e ealing he na u al
e lex o he wo king class. The esul s o he June 15-16 e en s ha e an
impo an place bo h in e ms o wo ke s’ igh s and Tu kish poli ical li e. The
ac ha he ag icul u al bou geoisie began o be eplaced by he indus ial
bou geoisie wi h he accumula ion o capi al caused he wo king class o
g ow. As a esul , hei inc easing impo ance in legal ex s, especially in he
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE JUNE 15-16 EVENTS IN TERMS OF WORKERS’ RIGHTS AND TURKISH
10
1961 Cons i u ion, in social li e and in economic li e, made wo ke s a s ong
p essu e g oup in democ a ic socie y.
The e en s o June 15-16 ha e also aken hei place in ou poli ical
his o y as a day when wo ke s s ood up o hei labo . As he oo s eps
o ans o ma ion and awa eness in he wo king class, hey ha e inspi ed
subsequen esis ances. They will be eco ded in he wo king class’s accoun
as an ac ion whe e wo ke s’ igh s we e g an ed om op o bo om and he
claims o wo ke s ha ing igh s wi hou a s uggle we e e u ed.
Wo ke s, ega dless o hei sec o o line o wo k and ega dless o
which union hey a e a membe o , ha e ein o ced he consciousness o
he wo king class by de ending he undamen al igh s and eedoms o
he wo king class a he han economic demands ha will sa e he day.
In his way, hey ha e also gi en he message o s ong unionism o bo h
capi al and poli ical powe . This mass mo emen , which is also suppo ed
by women wo ke s, will con inue o be a u ning poin in he his o y o he
wo king class s uggle. The pa icipa ion o women wo ke s inc eased he
inclusi eness and powe o he mo emen . This mass mobiliza ion emains a
his o ic momen in he na a i e o labo s uggle, demons a ing he abili y
o wo ke s o o ganize, esis , and de e mine hei own des iny.
MURAT TURPÇU
11
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gelenek.o g/ ab ikala dan-mucadeleye-15-16-hazi an/.
Koçak, C. (2016). The his o y o coups: May 27, Feb ua y 22, 1962, May 21, 1963, Ma ch 12,
1971.... Is anbul: Timaş Publica ions.
Makal, A.& Çelik, A. (2016). The day he Wo king Class o Tü kiye Rises: Sa açhane Rally.
In A. Makal, A. Çelik & M.H. Koçak (Ed.) Class, union, poli ics: Snapsho s om he
labo his o y o Tü kiye (pp. 263-304). Is anbul: İmge Publica ions.
Ö küne , C. (2006). Wo ke s and poli ics in Tü kiye du ing he 1960s and 1970s. Re olu ion-
a y Ma xism, 2, 115–142.
Özdemi , C. O. (2017). The June 15–16 p o es s: A class consciousness limi ed o solida i y.
In M. K. Kayna (Ed.), Tü kiye in he 1960s (pp. 687-700). İs anbul, Tü kiye: İle işim
Publica ions.
Özhazineda , T. (2022). 15/16 June G ea Labo Resis ance wi h i s Causes and Consequenc-
es. Aydın Adnan Mende es Uni e si y Jou nal o Ins i u e o Social Sciences, 9(1),
128-145. h ps://doi.o g/10.30803/adusobed.1109489
O icial Gaze e. (1970). T ade Unions Ac No. 274. h ps://www. esmigaze e.go . /a -
si /13577.pd
G and Na ional Assembly o Tü kiye [TBMM]. (1970a). Jou nal o he Na ional Assembly
Minu es, Volume 6. h ps://www5. bmm.go . / u anakla /TUTANAK/MM__/d03/
c006/mm__03006102.pd
G and Na ional Assembly o Tü kiye [TBMM]. (1970b). Jou nal o he Na ional Assembly
Minu es, Volume 8. h ps://www5. bmm.go . / u anakla /TUTANAK/MM__/d03/
c008/mm__03008135.pd
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE JUNE 15-16 EVENTS IN TERMS OF WORKERS’ RIGHTS AND TURKISH
12
Tu gay, F. (2017). A bo om-up pe spec i e on labo ac ions du ing he 1960–1963 pe iod.
Human and Human, 4(13), 253–263. h ps://doi.o g/10.29224/insan einsan.298800
Yaşa , S. (2018). The d a ing p ocess o Laws No. 274 and 275 and ade unions. T akya
Uni e si y Jou nal o Facul y o Economics and Adminis a i e Sciences E-Jou nal,
6(2), 97–120.
Yaşlı, F. (2019). An i-communism, he Ülkücü Mo emen , Tü keş: Tü kiye and he Cold Wa .
Is anbul: Yo dam Publica ions.
13
CHAPTER 2
THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL
COURT AND THE QUEST FOR GLOBAL
JUSTICE: THE PUTIN ARREST WARRANT
CONTROVERSY3
Mu a TURPÇU4
In oduc ion
As a esul o being a social being, humans ha e managed o li e oge he
wi h a b oad cul u e o consensus, bu h oughou his o y hey ha e also been
a pa y o con lic s. Li ing oge he has no p e en ed hem om being hos ile
owa ds each o he . I does no seem possible o expec a being ha ea s i s
own species so badly o be good ins inc i ely. Al hough de elopmen s in
science and echnology did no cause an inc ease in he numbe o wa s in
he las cen u y, hey inc eased he numbe o people killed in wa s o an
unp eceden ed le el. In ligh o echnological de elopmen s, mass dea hs
ha e also inc eased in pa allel wi h he inc easing use o weapons o mass
des uc ion. In his con ex , a mechanism was needed o punish wa c iminals.
3 The s udy was p esen ed as an o al p esen a ion a he 3 d In e na ional Tu kic Wo ld
Cong ess on Social, Humani ies, Adminis a i e, and Educa ional Sciences (16-18 Ap il
2025)
4 Kı şehi Ahi E an Uni e si y, Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Poli ics and In e na ional
Rela ions, Kı şehi , Tü kiye, [email p o ec ed] ORCID CODE: 0009-0000-
8147-1346
THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT AND THE QUEST FOR GLOBAL JUSTICE: THE PUTIN ARREST
14
The ial o iola ions o in e na ional c iminal law and eaching a
conclusion has been limi ed by he us in he au ho i ies in e ms o na ional
laws (Sa ıgüzel 2013). The Rome S a u e was adop ed in 1998 and s eps we e
aken o es ablish an in e na ional cou o y wa c imes o be commi ed
in o de o elimina e h ea s agains he in e na ional communi y and o ease
he conscience o he in e na ional communi y. Following he comple ion o
he signa u e p ocess o he con en ion and he app o al o domes ic laws,
he es ablishmen o he cou was comple ed on July 1, 2002. Tü kiye did
no ecognize he ju isdic ion o he cou due o he ac ha e o ism and
d ug c imes we e no included and ha he cou could be used as a ool
o p essu e agains c oss-bo de ac i i ies (Bayıllıoğlu 2007). Unlike he
p e ious ones (such as he In e na ional C iminal Cou o Rwanda), he
In e na ional C iminal Cou was es ablished on a pe manen basis and no
o a special case.
Es ablishmen and S uc u e o he In e na ional
C iminal Cou
The idea o es ablishing a pe manen in e na ional c iminal cou
was pu o wa d by he Uni ed Na ions a e he adop ion o he Gene a
Con en ions. On his da e, he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly eques ed
he In e na ional Law Commission o de e mine he p inciples and p ocedu es
o an in e na ional c iminal cou based on he Nu embe g p inciples, and
he Gene a Commi ee (Alsan 1951) was es ablished. When he d a was
no accep ed by he s a es, he du ies o he commi ee we e ans e ed o
he New Yo k Commi ee. The Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly s a ed
ha i was no longe possible o de ec and p osecu e wa c imes wi h he
beginning o he Cold Wa , and also eques ed ha he commission cease
i s ac i i ies, ci ing di icul ies in de ining he c ime o agg ession. As a
esul , he d a s a u e was suspended and he wo k p ocess was in e up ed
(Kılıç, 2023). The Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly esumed wo k on he
es ablishmen o an in e na ionally ecognized c iminal cou in 1981. In
1991, The In e na ional Law Commission p o isionally accep ed he d a
adop ed in 1954 and sen i o he coun ies. The d a , which was e ised in
line wi h he iews o he coun ies and comple ed in 1994 and submi ed o
he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly, was submi ed o conside a ion a he
1998 Rome Con e ence.
The s a u e o he cou was accep ed wi h se en o es agains , one
hund ed and wen y in a o and se en een abs en ions as a esul o he o e
held a he Rome Con e ence in 1998. Based on he p o ision in he s a u e,
MURAT TURPÇU
15
he s a u e en e ed in o o ce on July 1, 2002 wi h he app o al o 60 s a es.
The es ablishmen o he cou , which is an impo an de elopmen in e ms
o in e na ional law, is made di icul by he ese a ions o s a es ega ding
hei so e eign igh s and con lic s o in e es (Dala 2017). The pu pose o
he In e na ional C iminal Cou (ICC) is o elimina e he de iciencies o ad
hoc in e na ional c iminal cou s es ablished a e inhumane e en s in e ms
o p inciples o c iminal and c iminal p ocedu e law such as impa iali y,
legali y o c imes and punishmen s and he p inciple o na u al judge, and
o p oduce apid and e ec i e solu ions o such e en s h ough a pe manen
cou (O manoğlu, 2018).
The cou ’s o gans a e: he Regis y, he Public P osecu o ’s O ice, he
Appeals, T ial and P e-T ial Di isions and he P esidency. All judges s a
wo king ull- ime once elec ed. The cou has 18 judges. Each candida e
elec ed o he cou mus be a lawye , p osecu o o judge specializing in
c iminal and c iminal p ocedu e law. The e is also a equi emen o expe ise
in in e na ional law, humani a ian law and human igh s. The cou mus
also be luen in a leas one o he wo king languages. The cou ’s spoken
languages a e English and F ench. I he cou pe mi s, ano he language
may be used.
Pe son, Subjec Ma e and Tempo al Ju isdic ion
o he In e na ional C iminal Cou
The ICC only akes in o conside a ion eal pe sons in e ms o ying
indi iduals. In o he wo ds, legal en i ies and s a es a e ou side he
ju isdic ion o he cou . The cou has he au ho i y o y hose who di ec ly
commi ed he c ime, hose who o de ed, eques ed o encou aged he c ime,
hose who assis ed o pa icipa ed in he commission o he c ime, hose who
pa icipa ed in he commission o a emp o he c ime in any way, and in
he case o he c ime o genocide, hose who di ec ly and openly encou aged
his c ime. While de ining his au ho i y, he cou has se an age limi o 18.
I has also made his age limi based on he da e he c ime was commi ed.
Howe e , holding an o icial posi ion, including being a head o s a e, head o
go e nmen o membe o he go e nmen , does no elimina e he ju isdic ion
o he cou . In cases whe e mili a y leade s o senio adminis a o s a e
awa e o o should ha e been awa e o he ac s o hei supe io s, and i he
supe io s did no ake he necessa y and easonable p e en i e measu es,
hese supe io s a e also pe sonally c iminally esponsible.
As s a ed in A icle 5 o he Rome S a u e, he ICC’s ju isdic ion in e ms
o c imes ( a io ma e iae) includes he c ime o genocide, c imes agains
THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT AND THE QUEST FOR GLOBAL JUSTICE: THE PUTIN ARREST
22
wi hin in e na ional o ganiza ions, mu ually, in he digi al en i onmen ,
and some imes, as a las eso , on he ba le ield. In hei dispu es wi h
each o he , s a es wan o be close o local and in e na ional ac o s who
suppo hem. This suppo some imes opens a ious doo s o he ac o s. De
ac o poli ical immuni y, no seeing illegal beha iou s, economic in e es s
and simila p ac ices also u n in o illegal ela ions. This unce ain y and
he necessi y o secu i y, especially b ough abou by he s a e o wa , also
make such inqui ies di icul wi hin he s a es hemsel es. In his sense, i is
possible o encoun e beha iou s ha do no comply wi h he law o wa and
he e o e he Rome S a u e wi hin he wa ing pa ies, Russia and Uk aine,
and on each o he ’s e i o y, and i makes i di icul o ques ion, p osecu e
and esol e hese in he s a es in ques ion.
Russia and Pu in, who ound hemsel es acing he Wes e n bloc in he
Uk aine wa , ha e ied o change he cou se o he wa by a ious means.
The Wes ’s s uggle wi h Russia has no only been in he economic, poli ical
and mili a y ields, bu has also gained a judicial dimension wi h his decision
o he ICC. I is a deba able issue ha he ICC’s a es decision has a poli ical
dimension as well as a judicial one. Time will ell whe he he a es decision
is an example o he Wes ’s a acks in e e y ield. Howe e , he en o ceabili y
o his decision is also a sepa a e subjec o s udy. Is he e ano he s a e
ha would a es a head o s a e? Does he US, which is no a pa y o he
ag eemen , ha e he au ho i y o implemen such a cou decision? These
and simila ques ions awai answe s. I is also wo h no ing he e ha he
s a es ha a e no pa ies o he Rome S a u e ha es ablished he ICC a e
mo e no able han he s a es ha a e pa ies. These include he Uni ed S a es,
China, Russia, India and Pakis an, including Tü kiye, and no Cen al Asian
s a e o he han Tajikis an has become a pa y o he con en ion. One o he
gene al common cha ac e is ics o hese s a es is ha hey ei he engage in
c oss-bo de mili a y ac i i ies o ha e bo de dispu es.
I would no be w ong o say ha Pu in is cau ious agains such in e na ional
p essu e. Pu in, who does no a el ab oad e y much anyway, can be said
o ha e made his cu en isi s mos ly o China and Cen al Asian coun ies,
which can be conside ed allies, al hough no openly. Since mos o hese
s a es a e no pa ies o he ag eemen , hey do no pose a h ea o Pu in. The
easibili y o his decision will show i sel o e ime.
MURAT TURPÇU
23
Re e ences
Alsan, Z. M. (1951). Ideas and ini ia i es conce ning he es ablishmen o an in e na ional
c iminal cou . Anka a Uni e si y Facul y o Law Jou nal, 8(1–2), 1–37. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1501/Huk ak_0000000871
Bayıllıoğlu, U. (2007). In e na ional C iminal Cou and Tu key. Anka a Uni e si y Facul y
o Law Jou nal, 56(1), 51–121. h ps://doi.o g/10.1501/Huk ak_0000000341
Dala , M. (2017). E alua ion o c i icism o In e na ional C iminal Cou . Bolu Aban Izze
Baysal Uni e si y Jou nal o Social Sciences Ins i u e, 7(2), 153–165.
Hakan, K. (2008). In e na ional C iminal Cou and applicable law. Anka a Uni e si y Facul-
y o Law Jou nal, 57(2), 133–164. h ps://doi.o g/10.1501/Huk ak_0000000289
Kılıç, A. Ş. (2009). A Na ional So e eign y- ocused Analysis on he he In e na ional C im-
inal Cou and s a e so e eign y. Anka a Uni e si y Facul y o Law Jou nal, 58(3),
615–657. h ps://doi.o g/10.1501/Huk ak_0000001581
Kılıç, A. Ş. (2023). The In e na ional C iminal Cou and s a e so e eign y: A na ional so -
e eign y-o ien ed analysis. Kazancı. h ps://lib.kazanci.com. /kho3/hebb/ iles/dsp.
php? n=makale-alisahinkilic-1.h m&kw=ulusla a as%C4%B1+ceza+mahkeme-
si+ e+uygulanabili +hukuk++&c =hebb on he 18.01.2024
O manoğlu, H. D. (2018). So e eign y and In e na ional C iminal Cou as a Cons i uen o
he Mode n S a e Inönü Uni e si y Facul y o Law Jou nal, 9(1), 245–274. h ps://
doi.o g/10.21492/inuh d.383612
Sa igüzel, H. (2013). In e na ional C iminal Cou . Jou nal o he Cou o Ju isdic ional
Dispu es, 3, 230–273.
In e na ional C iminal Cou . (2024). Si ua ion in Uk aine: ICC judges issue a es wa -
an s agains Vladimi Vladimi o ich Pu in and Ma ia Alekseye na L o a-Belo a.
In e na ional C iminal Cou . Re ie ed om h ps://www.icc-cpi.in /news/si ua-
ion-uk aine-icc-judges-issue-a es -wa an s-agains - ladimi - ladimi o ich-pu-
in-and on he 19.01.2024
In e na ional C iminal Cou . (2024). In e na ional C iminal Cou o icial websi e. h ps://
www.icc-cpi.in on he 19.01.2024
In e na ional C iminal Cou . (2025). Uk aine si ua ion. Re ie ed om h ps://www.icc-cpi.
in /si ua ions/uk aine on he 3.05.2025
25
CHAPTER 3
PROBLEMS, POLITICS, AND THE CIVIL
RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES DURING
THE PRESIDENCY OF JOHN F. KENNEDY: A
PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS
Nu e in ÇIÇEKÇI5
In oduc ion
John F. Kennedy played a c i ical ole in Ame ican his o y. When he
became p esiden , he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica was in a pe iod o ansi ion.
Violence inc eased du ing his pe iod be ween Ame ican ci izens. The Black-
Whi e di ide among Ame ican ci izens was deepening. On he o he hand,
while he Cold Wa was ising, he Kennedy adminis a ion had o con on
in e nal iolence. Bu John F. Kennedy’s pe sonal cha isma would make i
possible o implemen an egali a ian public policy on ci il igh s.
Black Ame icans we e expe iencing seg ega ion in housing, educa ion,
and employmen and we e also denied o ing in much o he Sou h (John
F. Kennedy Lib a y, 2022); hey we e encoun e ing wicked a i udes
in Ame ican social li e when Kennedy was elec ed p esiden in 1961
(Şen, 2022). In his e m, he e we e con lic s, which included educa ion,
Medica e, and many o he s, be ween Kennedy and Cong ess. These con lic s
would in luence Kennedy’s ci il igh s policy (Ha , 1979). Kennedy did
5 PhD., Independen Resea che , Tü kiye, [email p o ec ed],
ORCID ID: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-5915-267X
PROBLEMS, POLITICS, AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE PRESIDENCY
26
no sepa a e Black Ame icans due o hei ace; o ins ance, Geo ge Taylo ,
Kennedy’s ale , was a Black Ame ican. Howe e , while Kennedy was a
sena o , ci il igh s s uggles we en’ his p ima y conce n. Kennedy’s o e
agains he Ci il Righ s Ac o 1957 was a clea indica ion o his. When
Kennedy was a sena o , he was unin e es ed in Black igh s; howe e , he
ook o e se en y pe cen o he Black o e in he 1960 p esiden ial elec ion.
Du ing his p esiden ial campaign, he men ioned acial inequali ies and
ad oca ed ci il igh s. He alked o mixed- ace gues s and ac i is leade s
abou wha hey wan ed. Ano he impo an ini ia i e o Kennedy was
suppo o D . Ma in Lu he King, J . du ing his p esiden ial campaign. D .
King and i y- wo o he people o colo we e a es ed by police wo weeks
be o e he 1960 elec ion. In his inciden , Kennedy called D . King’s amily,
and he said ha could help D . King. This phone call showed ha Kennedy’s
app oach changed du ing his p esiden ial s uggle, and his beha io e lec ed
his p esidency in he coming yea s (Rup ech , 2016).
In his con ex , i can be said ha Kennedy’s ci il igh s awa eness was
o med du ing his p esiden ial ace and p esidency. When Kennedy became
p esiden , his ci il igh s app oach di e ed om his sena o ial yea s. Ex e nal
shocks would o ce he Kennedy adminis a ion o ac . He eby, Kennedy
would become he p esiden who pionee ed public policies on ci il igh s.
A B ie Summa y o he De ini ion o Disc imina ion
Disc imina ion, in i s simples de ini ion, means ea ing a pe son
di e en ly and unequally om o he s in simila si ua ions and ci cums ances
wi hou any public in e es o a ional jus i ica ion. Human his o y is ull
o disas e s caused by disc imina ion. Resea ch shows ha acism, which
cons i u es one o he wo s o ms o disc imina ion, has his o ically
mani es ed i sel in oughly h ee o ms: Ame ican sla e y, colonialism,
and he Holocaus (Çelenk, 2010). Disc imina ion, in his con ex , e e s o
a i udes and beha io s. Disc imina o y beha io i s pe mea es he social
s uc u e and hen he ins i u ions o ha socie y (Gü en & Dönmez, 2023).
Racism eme ged in he Uni ed S a es du ing he colonial pe iod. When
Blacks became o ced labo e s in he US, acism unde wen a sys ema ic
ans o ma ion. Racism eme ged in he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica be o e
he eme gence o Ame ican na ionalism and a ec ed he o ma ion o
Ame ican na ional iden i y. The link be ween Ame ican na ional iden i y and
whi eness is ob iously in he No he n s a es, whe e sla e y is a con es ed
ins i u ion. The issue o Black sla e y has been deba ed many imes in he
No h, bu he consensus has been ha Blacks should no be ci izens. E en
NURETTIN ÇIÇEKÇI
27
when No he n s a es abolished sla e y wi hin hei s a e bo de s, hey we e
s ong de ende s o he dis inc ion be ween undamen al eedoms and ull
ci izenship. Racism, dis inc ly om sla e y, had been pa o Ame ican
socie y. Ame icans ejec ed sla e y bu accep ed acial disc imina ion.
Racism could solely be banned ju idically wi h he 1964 Ci il Righ s Ac
(Ta lısu, 2018). Pa icula ly in he Sou h o Ame ica, acial disc imina ion
was a way o li e (Coşkun, 2018).
Ame ican socie y con ains di e en aces, and one may a gue ha his
complexi y caused sla e y and acism. The Uni ed S a es abolished sla e y
a e he Ci il Wa ; howe e , acism would be di e en . Racism would a ec
he coun y o many yea s. The 1964 Ci il Righ s Ac was a signi ican
s ep o wa d in he igh agains acism, ye i was insu icien . Un il he
1964 Ci il Righ s Ac , John F. Kennedy played a key ole as an ac o in he
ci il igh s s uggle. Poli ics should ha e aken bold s eps o sol e his social
p oblem and p oduce new policies. Racial disc imina ion ose in he 1960s,
and i was obse able.
Racial Disc imina ion and he Ci il Righ s
Mo emen in he 1960s
The Uni ed S a es es ablished a new acial egime wi h he so-called Jim
C ow laws a e he emo al o sla e y be ween 1876 and 1965. In his new
sys em, Blacks we e no longe sla es. S ill, hey we e o bidden o li e in
he same neighbo hoods as whi es, a end he same schools, ea in he same
es au an s, s ay in he same ho els, shop in he same s o es, go o he same
hea e s and cinemas, use he same oile s, d ink om he same aps, and, in
sho , o li e equally in he public sphe e (Ya kın, 2013). Howe e , his was
o change in he 1960s.
The e a e many judgmen s o he Ame ican Sup eme Cou ega ding
Black Ame ican igh s (Alexande & Ka amus a aoğlu, 1968). James
Me edi h, a Black Ame ican, applied o educa ion a Mississippi Uni e si y.
A e Me edi h applied, Mississippi Uni e si y e used his appeal due o his
ace. The ea e , Me edi h sued Mississippi Uni e si y. The ede al cou
decided o nulli y he judgmen and in o med he uni e si y ha Me edi h
had he igh o egis e . Me edi h has been a symbol o ci il igh s due o
his s uggle (Mız ak, 2017). Howe e , p o es s blew up on he uni e si y
campus. P esiden Kennedy had o send ede al oops o campus; hus,
Me edi h egis e ed and pa icipa ed in his i s class (John F. Kennedy
Lib a y, 2022). Disc imina ion was no limi ed o hese. E en in public
PROBLEMS, POLITICS, AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE PRESIDENCY
28
anspo a ion, Blacks we e gi en sepa a e and limi ed sea s; con e sely,
hey could ge on he bus om he back doo (Mız ak, 2017).
These e en s showed acial disc imina ion. Racism had expanded all o e
he Uni ed S a es, and hese inciden s we e in luencing Ame ican poli ics.
A e wa d, Ame ican poli icians would con inue o discuss acism. Poli ics
had o p oduce public policies o egula e ci il igh s. Poli icians, ac i is s,
and many o he ac o s would pa icipa e in his policy-making p ocess.
Geo gia was he o he s a e ha came up wi h he acism. A simila
inciden a he Uni e si y o Mississippi happened a he Uni e si y o
Geo gia. No wi hs anding p o iding all equi emen s, he Uni e si y o
Geo gia denied wo Black s uden s applica ions. Howe e , bo h s uden s had
en olled in he uni e si y in 1961 a e a cou decision. The cou ’s decision
spa ked a backlash om Whi e Ame icans. In esponse, he s a e go e no ,
E nes Vandi e , an an i-Black Ame ican, announced he closu e o he
Uni e si y o Geo gia. Howe e , he ede al cou canceled he decision, and
he uni e si y s ayed open. In esponse o his decision, Go e no Vandie ,
no wan ing o spoil ela ions wi h he ede al go e nmen , li ed he law on
budge cu s o non- acial uni e si ies. Thus, acial seg ega ion had ended in
uni e si ies and o he schools (Gümüş, 2020). Racism con inued in Ame ican
social li e. The o he his o ical inciden had occu ed in Mon gome y. A
Black Ame ican woman, Rosa Pa ks, had sa in a sea ese ed o Whi e
Ame icans on a bus a e wo k, and Whi e Ame icans a emp ed o aise he
in a sea as well; howe e , Rosa Pa ks wi hs ood he eac ion, and hen police
included he e en . And he police a es ed Rosa Pa ks. She was sen enced
o 30 days in p ison and ined 100 dolla s (Alexande & Ka amus a aoğlu,
1968).
Wi h he Rosa Pa ks inciden , he s uggle o Ma in Lu he King, a Black
pas o , agains disc imina o y policies became p ominen . King’s b illian
speech, I Ha e a D eam!, in which he decla ed eedom and equali y would
become an Ame ican eali y, caused p oud exci emen among Ame icans.
King spen almos e e y phase o his li e igh ing disc imina o y policies
agains Black people. His leade ship was also e y in luen ial in he p o es s
a e he Rosa Pa ks inciden . A e he success ul Mon gome y bus boyco
in he wake o he Rosa Pa ks inciden , King and his ellow a ele s ounded
he Ch is ian Leade ship Con e ence (Mız ak, 2017). The ac ions led by
Ma in Lu he King we e he i s , mos comp ehensi e, and mos e ec i e
ac s o non- iolen ci il disobedience by A ican Ame ican peoples. They
ealized ha when hey came oge he , hey could achie e some hing (Güle ,
2023).
NURETTIN ÇIÇEKÇI
29
Thus, Ma in Lu he King became p ominen in he ci il igh s mo emen
as an ac o . He success ully a ac ed he a en ion o Ame ican poli ics and
public opinion and a e wa d became a key ac o in he Black igh s issue.
In his amewo k, i can be said ha King’s comba i e na u e encou aged
Black Ame icans, and by he 1960s, poli ics jus had o ac abou ci il igh s.
Albany was one o he places whe e Blacks su e ed he mos om
disc imina ion. William G. Ande son es ablished he Albany Mo emen .
Ande son desi ed o p e en disc imina ion in Albany. Ande son also me
Ma in Lu he King and Pas o Ralph Abe na hy. Wi h he Albany Mo emen
he ounded, he ied o a ac public a en ion wi h King’s suppo . King, who
came o Albany se e al imes, was a es ed o dis u bing he peace in he
ci y and sen enced o p ison along wi h Pas o Abe na hy. One o he simila
inciden s also occu ed in Bi mingham. Bi mingham was he o he ci y ha
implemen ed seg ega ion o Black Ame icans du ing ha pe iod. Black
Ame icans he e also used King’s ac ics agains disc imina o y policies,
s aging si -ins in es au an s and boyco ing businesses in he ci y cen e .
Bu Bi mingham Police Chie Bull Conno , a symbol o Sou he n bigo y,
would no e en allow he ci il igh s mo emen o be men ioned (Mız ak,
2017). F om he beginning o he 1960s, a med clashes also began o occu in
Black demons a ions (Caunes & Özdoğan, 2015). Al hough he Ci il Righ s
Mo emen e used o eso o iolence du ing his pe iod, s a e iolence
agains he mo emen inc eased exponen ially. Many ac i is s in ol ed in
he Ci il Righ s Mo emen we e a es ed. Many ac i is s, including Ma in
Lu he King J ., we e bea en and a es ed in he s ee s du ing his pe iod
(Ya kın, 2013).
Racial disc imina ion con inued o be one o he bigges p oblems in
Ame ican social li e and poli ics in he 1960s. Ame ican poli ics should ha e
aken bold s eps o sol e his p oblem. To sol e hese p oblems, poli ics had
o ac ualize some public policies. The suppo o he Ame ican public was
also c ucial o he success o he policies. The p oblem, as a social issue,
ensu ed an open window o oppo uni y.
The Ci il Righ s Policy o P esiden John F.
Kennedy
Kennedy emba ked on his poli ical p ac ice while he was unning o
Uni ed S a es Cong ess. He explained his plan o come in o a sea in he
House o Rep esen a i es. He had spen ime among he people, like his
g and a he . His ene ge ic and passiona e amily was behind Kennedy o
elec ion. E en ually, he won he elec ion on No embe 5, 1946. He had
PROBLEMS, POLITICS, AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE PRESIDENCY
30
paced he i s s ep o his poli ical ca ee as a cong essman (Da aj, 2004).
A e wa ds, he decided o un o Sena e. And Kennedy said, “I would like o
go o he Sena e.” As wi h his elec ion as a cong essman, Kennedy’s a he
again ook an impo an ole o his Sena e ace. John F. Kennedy’s a he ,
Joe Kennedy, spen millions o dolla s on his son’s campaign. Ul ima ely in
1952, John F. Kennedy won he Sena e ace as well. And hus, he became
a sena o (Meaghe & G agg, 2011). Following yea s in Cong ess, John
F. Kennedy a ended he 1960s p esiden ial ace. He de ea ed his i al,
Richa d Nixon. Kennedy won he p esidency only by a 120,000- o e ma gin
(B i annica, 2025).
On Janua y 20, 1961, John F. Kennedy came o he Whi e House as he
35 h p esiden o he Uni ed S a es. On he o he hand, he became he i s
Ca holic p esiden o he Uni ed S a es. In his inaugu al add ess, he poin ed
ou , “Le e e y na ion know, whe he i wishes us well o ill, ha we shall
pay any p ice, bea any bu den, mee any ha dship, suppo any iend, and
oppose any oe in o de o assu e he su i al and he success o libe y
(His o y S a e, 2025).” John F. Kennedy ep esen ed inno a ion in he
Uni ed S a es. He emphasized libe y. He would shape his ci il igh s policy
owa d hese wo ds.
Howe e , Kennedy would ha e a ough e m in he p esidency. When he
came in o o ice, he Cold Wa was heigh ening be ween he So ie Union
and he Uni ed S a es. He would s uggle no only wi h domes ic issues bu
also wi h o eign policy issues. The wo ld was on he b ink o nuclea wa
among wo supe powe s. P esiden Kennedy knew ha i he didn’ a oid he
wa , millions o people could ha e died. In his en i onmen , he p esiden
would boldly ac on domes ic policy. He came up wi h he “New F on ie ”
concep on domes ic policy; ha was he symbol o he new gene a ion.
P esiden Kennedy desi ed o mo e his coun y o wa d in educa ion, science,
employmen , and he o he ields. He had exp essed ha New F on ie was
no any place; i means hinking and mobilizing. He a o ed democ acy and
eedom, no only o his coun y bu also o all he wo ld (Weidman &
Shea, 2002). New F on ie had become a public policy ini ia i e. The eby,
one could say ha Kennedy was ying o ans o m Ame ican social li e.
Ano he public policy ini ia i e was he Peace Co ps. The Peace Co ps
consis ed o young male and emale olun ee s and aimed o help people.
I was an o ganiza ion ha aimed o help in many a eas, om ag icul u e
o educa ion and om cons uc ion o heal h. Peace Co ps membe s we e
espec ed a ound he wo ld. The Peace Co ps was hus one o P esiden
Kennedy’s success ul public policy ini ia i es (Weidman & Shea, 2002).
NURETTIN ÇIÇEKÇI
31
This p og am aimed o sp ead Ame ican hegemony as well. Kennedy
wan ed o ake an ac i e ole wi h he Peace Co ps p og am because i was
an impo an hegemonic s uggle agains he So ie Union (John F. Kennedy
Lib a y, 2024).
P esiden Kennedy s uggled wi h bo h domes ic and o eign issues. He
c ea ed public policies on bo h domes ic and o eign ma e s. E en ually,
P esiden Kennedy’s New F on ie and Peace Co ps p og ams se ed bo h
domes ic and o eign ma e s. Kennedy ook o e he p esidency while
domes ic and o eign p oblems we e heigh ening.
P esiden Kennedy made no ema ks ega ding ci il igh s issues un il
1961, when he ocused on healing o eign and economic policy (And ews &
Gaby, 2015). Ame icans had no idea ha ci il igh s conce ns would become
a majo ocus when John F. Kennedy assumed he p esidency (Meaghe &
G agg, 2011). Kennedy’s ci il igh s s a egy e lec ed his ision o he
New F on ie . As shown be o e, Kennedy had eached ou o ci il igh s
ad oca es, and Black Ame icans belie ed ha i he we e elec ed p esiden ,
he would p o ec hei igh s du ing his campaign. P esiden Kennedy picked
D . Robe Wea e as he Housing and Home Finance Adminis a o ; hus,
D . Wea e became he i s Black membe o he p esiden ial cabine .
Kennedy had es ablished close ies wi h op Black ac i is s, including D .
Ma in Lu he King and Roy Wilkins. Kennedy nego ia ed wi h Roy Wilkins
as well. A e mee ing wi h P esiden Kennedy, Wilkins pulled away wi h
op imism because he belie ed he new p esiden had ecognized he ci il
igh s p oblems. These en u es showed ha Kennedy would no igno e he
ci il igh s issues (Snead, 2012).
He issued an o de o inc ease he numbe o Black ede al employees
du ing he i s ew days o his p esidency, bu in his i s e m, P esiden
Kennedy ejec ed signi ican ci il igh s legisla ion because o conce n
ha he would lose he suppo o Sou he n Democ a s, who bene i ed om
disc imina ion policies. To pass he diploma ic and economic objec i es
and win eelec ion, P esiden Kennedy equi ed he backing o Sou he n
Democ a s (Na ional Pa k Se ice, 2025). Du ing his i s p ess con e ence,
which was pu sued by some 65 million people, on Janua y 25, 1961, Kennedy
s a ed ha he hough ha e e y Ame ican had he igh o o e wi hou
ega d o ace (Gilbe , 1989). On No embe 8, 1961, P esiden Kennedy
issued ano he s a emen . He poin ed ou ha many Black Ame icans sued
o he igh o o e, and he Kennedy adminis a ion con inued o igh o
ha igh . Ten mon hs la e , P esiden Kennedy decla ed ha s a es and local
THE BIRTH OF NATIONALISM IN CHINA
38
on he o he hand, de ines a na ion as “no only a communi y o ci izens
bu also a poli ical uni .” Smi h (2022a), on he o he hand, akes his in o
a b oade amewo k and s a es ha na ionalism is no limi ed o “ideology
o na ional sen imen ” bu sp eads o wide a eas and a ec s he sen imen s
o he en i e communi y ha cons i u es he na ion, which he calls “mass
sen imen .”
Enmi y ha s a ed in China when he exis ing mona chy was aken o e
by a dynas y o eign o hei e hnic iden i y eached a le el o esen men
when hey and he new dynas y we e exploi ed by o eign na ions. Howe e ,
in he ace o he impe ialism o Eu opean na ions, he Enligh enmen
mo emen s also changed cou se and gained momen um in he coun y. Thus,
he opp essed communi y gained he powe o ques ion and esis , esul ing
in he eme gence o Chinese na ionalis ideology.
In China, which has an ancien his o y and cul u e, acco ding o Ebe ha d
(2022), na ionalism was i s seen in he Ming Pe iod (1368- 1644) (p.270).
Howe e , he de ini ion o na ionalism as “ he igh o sel -de e mina ion”
is clea e idence ha na ionalism was no seen in he Ming Pe iod. Based
on he wo k o Ebe ha d (2022), i is seen ha in addi ion o he lowe class
and uppe class, educa ed eunuchs o med a middle class (Ebe ha d, 2022,
pp. 272-273). The communi y did no ha e he democ a ic igh o o e, and
he mona chy con inued o ule. In his pe iod, he enligh ened middle class,
which was o med as a esul o he inc ease in w i en sou ces and access o
educa ion o he lowe classes, gained he igh o pa icipa e in ci il se ice
exams wi h b ibes (Ebe ha d, 2022, p.273). This si ua ion is incompa ible
wi h democ acy.
Wha Ebe ha d (2022) de ines as na ionalism o he Ming Pe iod (1368-
1644) does no go beyond dis us and ha ed o o eigne s, and democ acy
and na ional uni y canno be men ioned. Howe e , as men ioned abo e,
Ebe ha d’s (2022) analogy o he “Eu opean bou geoisie” in e ms o he
sp ead o educa ion o he lowe classes and paid posi ions is co ec (p.
257). Howe e , as G ousse (2023) also men ions, he ha ed o o eigne s
gene a ed by he Mongol Pe iod (1280-1368) ce ainly had a posi i e impac
on he 1912 Re olu ion and he o ien a ions o he g oups p omo ing he
Re olu ion, especially he g oup called “Whi e Lo us” (p.224).
China’s mona chy las ed un il 1911, uled by 577 empe o s (Ke ,
2021, p.7). While China, which has an ancien cul u e, was c ushed by
he a acks o i s neighbo s Russia and Japan, as well as he economic and
mili a y cudgel o Wes e n impe ialism in he p ocess o i s in oduc ion o
na ionalism in he XIX h cen u y, i has become a na ion-s a e ha can be
ÖZLEM TAN
39
called a supe powe oday. The e o e, in his s udy, he p ocess o China’s
in oduc ion o na ionalism, s a ing om he mona chy o o eign dynas ies,
will be discussed.
I. China’s In oduc ion o Na ionalism
China’s na ionalism, like ha o some Wes e n coun ies, de eloped ou
o eelings o esen men . Ebe ha d (2022) c ea es wha he calls a “Wes e n”
ime ame by making a ime dis inc ion ha will make i much easie o us
o sepa a e he eme gence o his esen men . Acco ding o his dis inc ion,
he pe iod up o 1280 cons i u es he “Old Times,” while he pe iod om
1280 o 1912 cons i u es he “Middle Times.” In he “Middle Times,” China
was uled by o eign dynas ies o communi ies, and in his pe iod o ime,
as Ebe ha d (2022) emphasizes, as a o ma ion simila o he “Eu opean
bou geois class” called “gen y,” bo h i s own gen y class and he Mongolian
(Yuan) Pe iod (1280- 1368), he coexis ence o he Mongolian gen y class
in he same pe iod, he con inua ion o he exis ing gen y class wi hou
mel ing wi h he new adminis a ion, doubled he p essu e on he peasan y
(Ebe ha d, 2022, p.256). Thus, he pe iod om 1280 o 1912 pa ed he way
o Chinese na ionalism.
The Mongol (Yuan) Pe iod (1280- 1368), acco ding o Yıldı ım (2023),
cons i u es he i s o eign ule in China. The Yuan Dynas y was es ablished
unde Kublai in 1280, who o e h ew he Song Dynas y o Chinese o igin
in 1279 and es ablished a Chinese s yle o go e nmen bu wi h Mongolian
cul u e (p.196-197). The Empi e was di ided in o classes, simila o he
“ h ee classes”(Sieyes, 2005) seen in Eu ope, especially in F ance be o e he
Re olu ion. In Yıldı ım’s (2023) wo ds, hese classes we e o med as ollows;
“... he people in China we e di ided in o ou classes. In he i s class, he
Mongols; in he second class, he ibes om Tu kes an (non-Chinese and
hose who we e pa o he alliance du ing he conques o China, Tu kic
ibes and especially Uyghu s, I anians, e c.); in he hi d class, he people
o No h China (Chinese, Khi ans, Ju jans); in he ou h class, he people o
Sou h China.” (p.198).
Jus as he Mongols o e ed land o o eign Buddhis s and o he eligious
monks as a gi and he peasan s who cul i a ed he land as a gi , hey did
no le y axes on emples and eligious people. In addi ion, o eigne s, he
Mongolian gen y class and he Chinese gen y class we e also exemp om
axes. Fo eigne s, in pa icula , we e expe s in ade and enjoyed many
eedoms, including eedom o mo emen . As a esul o hese easons and
THE BIRTH OF NATIONALISM IN CHINA
40
he peasan s’ exposu e o se e e amine and mise y, p epa a ions o in e nal
e ol s began in 1330 ( Ebe ha d, 2022, pp. 263-265).
The e ha e been some sec e o ganiza ions agains dynas ies in China in
he pas . The i s o hese, in he Xin Pe iod (Eas e n Han Dynas y) (9-220
AD), was sec e ly o ganized unde he names o “Red Eyeb ow and G een
Fo es e ” and e en succeeded in de h oning he Empe o o he Pe iod as a
esul o hei ebellion (Ke , 2021, p. 46-47). Secondly, wi h he s uc u ing
p ocess hey en e ed du ing he Mongol Pe iod (1280-1368), hey ook o e
he Chinese h one and s a ed he Ming Pe iod (1368-1644) (Ke , 2021,
p.89).
The i s e olu iona ies, o he i s pa io s, began o make hei oices
hea d in 1352 unde he leade ship o an o ganized o ganiza ion called he
Whi e Lo us, a sec ha p ophesied he millennium and p eached he coming
o he Buddhis Messiah Mai eya unde a eligious guise, and hey ebelled
bo h wi hin hemsel es and agains he go e nmen un il 1355. Chu Yüan-
chang (Zhu Yuanzhang), one o hese ebels, succeeded in b inging himsel
o he o e on and wi h his mili a y success, he closed he Mongol Pe iod
in 1368 and s a ed he Ming Pe iod (1368-1644) (G ousse , 2023, pp.224-
225).
Chu Yuan-Chang ied o alloca e pa ial land o he peasan s and
assign hem o he cen e o b eak he uppe classes’ powe in hei own
egions. Howe e , he uppe classes we e inancially powe ul, and he
Empe o needed o eed he mili a y economy h ough he uppe classes o
p e en ex e nal a acks. The e o e, i was no possible o see a democ a ic
o ganiza ion (Ebe ha d, 2022, p.271). In ac , he idea o democ acy did no
exis in his pe iod (Yıldı ım, 2023, p.210).
Ano he p oblem was ha al hough he eunuchs cons i u ed he middle
class as an impo an powe , hei in luence wi hin he cou was ac ually
qui e high and e en i he Ming Empe o s some imes a emp ed o b eak
his powe , i was no longe possible (Ke , 2021, p.97). Again, one o he
in e nal p oblems was ha sec e o ganiza ions and ebellions could no
be p e en ed, as Chu Yuan-Chan eme ged om among hem and became
empe o .
The p ocess ha would in oduce na ionalism o China was mo e ex e nal
han he in e nal easons men ioned abo e. Ex e nally, he Mongol a acks
did no s op, and Japanese pi a es we e cons an ly a acking China’s coas al
a eas. Fo he mos pa , China emained on he de ensi e wi h limi ed
coun e a acks. Again, in o de o c ea e a sa e zone agains hese Japanese
ÖZLEM TAN
41
a acks and, on he o he hand, o expand and gain comme cial space, om
1393 onwa ds, Annam a acked Indochina and inco po a ed i in o China’s
e i o y (Ebe ha d, 2022, pp.276-278).
In 1592, he Japanese launched a land a ack on Ko ea, which was pa o
China. Despi e he Japanese’s pa ial success, China managed o epulse hem,
bu in e nal un es could no be p e en ed. Be ween 1594 and 1604, China
epea ed i s e isionis policy and implemen ed a policy o Chineseiza ion
by landing in “Annam (Vie nam), Thailand and Bu ma” (Yıldı ım, 2023,
p.225).
The ade ne wo k o Eu opeans eached China o he i s ime in 1514
unde he command o Po uguese Admi al Albuque que, and hei a emp s
om 1547 o 1549 bo e ui and hey we e g an ed p i ileged ade igh s.
Thus, Ch is iani y, which had disappea ed du ing he Mongol Pe iod,
e u ned o China wi h he Jesui p ies s “Adam Schall and Ma eo Ricci.”
The p ies s, in e es ed in science and Chinese cul u e, gained he sympa hy o
he Chinese, sp ead Ch is iani y and opened a signi ican numbe o chu ches
(G ousse , 2023, pp. 231-232). Howe e , he policy o Ch is ianizing he
Empe o s was ui less o his pe iod (Ebe ha d2022, p.289).
The ac ha he e we e no signs o na ionalism in he Ming Pe iod
(1368-1644) can be clea ly seen in he easons o he all o he dynas y.
Acco dingly, he palace and he ich people a ound he palace con isca ed he
lands o he peasan s and condemned he peasan s o s a a ion du ing na u al
disas e s. Many peasan e ol s we e encou aged by sec e o ganiza ions, bu
hese e ol s we e no made in sea ch o democ acy, bu only o ge id o
hunge (Yıldı ım, 2023, pp. 226-227).
The Manchu (Quing) Pe iod (1644-1911), which was also a o eign
domina ion in China, es ablished hei domina ion wi h he help o he
Manchus as a esul o he in e nal dis u bances men ioned abo e and due o
he discom o o some Chinese people wi h he Ming Dynas y (Ebe ha d,
2022, p.300).
Fo he Chinese, his was he pe iod o eal opp ession and sel -
iden i ica ion. In 1644, when he Manchu dynas y ins alled i s i s Empe o
on he “D agon Th one” in he Fo bidden Ci y in Beijing, i ca ied ou a
majo e o m and appoin ed a Manchu o icial alongside he exis ing Chinese
o icials. He expelled he o he lowe -class Chinese om he capi al and
dis ibu ed hem o he ou ski s. Thus, while p e en ing adminis a i e
ailu es, he also ied o keep he Chinese o icials unde con ol. On he o he
hand, he s ic ly implemen ed he adi ions o he Manchus, he mos s iking
THE BIRTH OF NATIONALISM IN CHINA
42
o which was he b aided hai s yle o men in Manchu adi ions (Jai in,
2024, pp. 137-138). This was such a d as ic ans o ma ion ha Chinese who
did no b aid hei hai we e e en subjec ed o imp isonmen and capi al
punishmen . Mos o he eunuchs, who gained conside able powe du ing he
Ming Pe iod, we e expelled om he palace. On he o he hand, he Chinese
li ing in he sou he n egions ei he adop ed Manchu cus oms o we e exiled
o he no he n egions. The es we e sen enced o se e e punishmen s (Ke ,
2021, pp.110-111).
In addi ion o hei ha sh policies agains he Chinese, he Manchus we e
also e y a en i e o Chinese schola s and did no comple ely ejec Chinese
cul u al accumula ion. Thus, while he in ellec ual class con ibu ed o he
de elopmen o China, he uppe class, called he “gen y,” was pushed in o
he backg ound (Ebe ha d, 2022, p.301).
Among he Manchu (Quing) Empe o s, especially Empe o Kangxi
(1661- 1772), cul u al and economic de elopmen eached i s peak. Kangxi
a ached g ea impo ance o he Chinese language and had wo ks such
as he “Kangxi Dic iona y,” a Chinese dic iona y, and he ga he ing and
eo ganiza ion o li e a y wo ks and wo ks o a belonging o Chinese
cul u e. This pe iod was seen as he i s s ep o he Chinese Enligh enmen
(Yıldı ım, 2023, p.234). Howe e , China had an impo an di e ence om
he Eu opean Enligh enmen . In China, he powe o he gen y, based on land
weal h, p e en ed indus ializa ion. The Gen y class’s o icial posi ion in he
palace could also supp ess he sligh es ini ia i e. The e o e, he educa ed
middle class, who we e no ci il se an s, was he class ha would ake s eps
owa ds na ionalism and play an ac i e ole in he ansi ion o he epublican
egime (Ebe ha d, 2022, p.305)
Du ing he Manchu (Quing) Pe iod (1644-1911), especially Empe o
Qianlong (1735-1769) di ec ed he Chinese peasan s o ag icul u e on acan
lands in Manchu ia and Inne Mongolia, which b ough elie o he Chinese
lowe classes bu c ea ed un es among he eudal lo ds. On he o he hand,
China’s wa expenses pu a s ain on he Impe ial budge . While China was
expanding i s e i o y o secu i y pu poses, he Russians we e mo ing
close o China. Mo eo e , he Russians and he B i ish we e in a plan o
sha e he Asian lands (Yıldı ım, 2023, pp. 242-243).
The i s ela ions wi h he Ch is ians, he cons uc ion o a o ess by
he Russians in 1650 on he Amu Ri e and i s su oundings, which he
Manchus called he “Black D agon S eam,” and he subsequen opening o
he Amu Ri e o Russian se lemen , caused a dispu e, and he Chinese
sacked he Russian se lemen s in 1685. A e hese e en s, he “T ea y o
ÖZLEM TAN
43
Ne schinsk” was signed in 1689. In 1727, his T ea y was e ised, and he
Russians ob ained eligious and comme cial concessions om China. Thus,
he ounda ion o he i s capi ula ions in China was laid (Ebe ha d, 2022,
p. 307).
In 1793-1794, Lo d Geo ge Maca ney was sen by B i ain as an embassy
o China. Eu ope’s o e seas impe ial ini ia i es we e also conside ed o
China, bu he echnological gi s b ough om indus ializing Eu ope we e
no aken in o conside a ion in China, and Maca ney had o e u n home
emp y-handed (Kissinge , 2015, p.62). B i ish e o s a diploma ic con ac
had ailed un il 1816. Howe e , B i ain could only ade in China’s “Can on
and Macao” egion. Howe e , hey sough o ha e wha hey could no ha e
diploma ically h ough comme cial means. The B i ish, who bough p oduc s
such as silk and ea om China, could no sell Eu opean indus ial p oduc s
o he Chinese, and wha he Chinese bough was ood. Howe e , since he
anspo a ion o ood wi hou spoiling was di icul and p o i s we e low,
hey began o look o an al e na i e (Ebe ha d, 2022, pp. 315-3169). Thus,
he B i ish ule o e Eas Asia and he B i ish Eas India Company (1600-
1874) came o he escue. Opium g own in India, a B i ish colony, was
cul i a ed in China o medicinal pu poses. Howe e , since he B i ish we e
well awa e o he dange s o his subs ance, hey began o anspo and sell
his p oduc , which was bo h ligh e and easie o anspo han o he ade
p oduc s, o he Chinese ma ke (Jai in, 2024, p.147). Opium had become he
main commodi y o he B i ish in he Chinese ma ke in he 1800s (Ebe ha d,
2022, p. 316).
The Chinese became hea ily dependen on he opium ade o Eu opean
coun ies, especially B i ain. The dependence o soldie s des oyed mili a y
powe , and p oduc ion came o a s ands ill. Empe o Daoguang, who was
awa e o he se iousness o he si ua ion, assigned Lin Zexu, one o his
minis e s, o end he opium ade and use in 1839 (Yıldı ım, 2023, p. 247).
Lin Zexu banned me chan s om he opium ade in Guangzhou p o ince.
He also sen an ul ima um le e o Queen Vic o ia o England (1837-1901)
o ban he opium ade (Kissinge , 2015, pp.74-75).
The 20,000 c a es o opium des oyed by Lin Zexu co esponded o an
a e age o 20 million dolla s a he ime and caused a se ious loss o income
o Eu opeans (Ke , 2021, p. 120). The le e sen by China o he Queen
caused a se ious eac ion in he B i ish Pa liamen . Lo d Palme s on, on
behal o he Pa liamen , issued an ul ima um in esponse o China, s a ing
ha he blockade o B i ish me chan s was dis espec ul o B i ain and
demanded ha he wo islands be ceded o he B i ish o use as wa ehouses
THE BIRTH OF NATIONALISM IN CHINA
44
(Mo se, 1910, ci ed in Kissinge , 2015, pp.75-76). No sa is ied wi h his, he
B i ish sen hei lee s o China’s sou he n and eas e n coas s and con inued
bomba dmen un il 1841. By 1842, Eu ope’s supe io weapons had succeeded
in b inging China o i s knees and o ced i o he T ea y o Nanking. Wi h
his T ea y, China le Hong Kong o B i ain as a wa indemni y, pa ing he
way o capi ula ions. In addi ion o g an ing many p i ileges o B i ain, a
ea y o he same na u e was signed wi h Ame ica and F ance in 1844. These
ea ies and capi ula ions led o a se ious economic c isis in China and, hus,
o in e nal e ol s (Ebe ha d, 2022, pp.316-317).
Du ing he Fi s Opium Wa s (1839-1842), he concessions ob ained by
he Eu opeans soon led o a ace o mo e concessions. B i ain and F ance,
uni ed agains China, demanded he e ision o he p e iously signed
ea ies. Fo his eason, unde a ious p e ex s, hey launched he Second
Opium Wa agains China, which las ed om 1856 o 1860. The wa was
de as a ing o China, bo h because o i s echnological backwa dness and
because China was ying o cope wi h he ebellions b ough abou by he
economic collapse caused by he impac o he Fi s Opium Wa , and was
o ced o come o e ms wi h he Eu opeans. Fi s , in 1858, wi h he T ea ies
o Tien sin, B i ain, F ance, Russia and he Uni ed S a es we e obliged o
es ablish an embassy in Beijing, he hea o China, open many po s o
ade, allow o eigne s o mo e eely in China and pay la ge wa epa a ions.
Howe e , such a helpless s a e o China led o he B i ish and F ench landing
di ec ly in Beijing in 1860, and China was o ced o sign he “T ea y o
Tianjin and he Con en ion o Beijing.” Wi h hese ea ies, China almos
became a colony o Eu opeans, so much so ha when he B i ish and F ench
in aded Beijing, Empe o Xian eng (1850-1861) abdica ed and led (Ke ,
2021, pp. 124-125).
II. F om Opium Wa s o Enligh enmen
The successi e de ea s o he Opium Wa s clea ly e lec ed China’s
backwa dness. Realizing his, in ellec uals sough o lea n he sec e s o
he powe o cou o icials and Wes e ne s. Be ween 1860 and 1890, he
g oups ha sough o inno a e and b ing Wes e n echnology o he Empi e
we e known as “Wes e ne s.” They began o de elop and s eng hen Wes e n
de ense, indus y, echnology and educa ion in China (Yıldı ım, 2023, pp.256-
257). Howe e , he conse a i es in he palace caused se ious p oblems
in Wes e niza ion. While igu es such as P ince Gong and Li Hongzhang
ad oca ed he impo ance o educa ing young people in o eign languages,
enginee ing, e c., in o de o unde s and he Wes , he conse a i es ejec ed
ÖZLEM TAN
45
Wes e n echnology. The conse a i e coup deposed Empe o Guangxu and
e u ned him o he conse a i e line wi h he help o Emp ess Dowage
Cixi (1861-1908), who was conse a i e and conse a i e (Kissinge , 2015,
pp.109-110).
In addi ion o Wes e n p essu es, Japan’s s eng hening by es ablishing
Wes e n e o ms wi hin i s own anks was a epe i ion o i s p e ious ma i ime
agg ession agains China. By decla ing wa on Ko ea in 1894, Japan had
e ec i ely decla ed wa on China. China, which conside ed Ko ea as i s
e i o y, ied o s op he Japanese, who we e ying o libe a e Ko ea and, in
ac , o each Beijing. Howe e , he Japanese des oyed China’s “No he n
Flee ”. China was de ea ed in he Yellow Sea, and in 1895, wi h he “T ea y
o Shimonoseki,” China was o ced o gi e many island e i o ies o Japan as
compensa ion (Yıldı ım, 2023, pp.257-258). The Sino-Japanese Wa in 1894
once again showed China’s weakness agains Eu opean coun ies. Howe e ,
his was he bes ime o he Chinese Enligh enmen o ully eme ge and o
he Chinese In ellec uals o e eal hei hough s. “Kang Youwei and Liang
Qichao,” eade s o he newspape “Wanguo Gongbao” (In e na ional News
Newspape ) published in Hong Kong, ealized ha wi hou enewal, China’s
cu en posi ion would b ing no hing bu de ea among he na ions. The
despe a ion o he palace as a esul o he de ea s in he wa s p epa ed he
g ound o hem o p esen hei iews (Kı ilen, 2013, p. 125).
The e o ms o Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, also known as he
“Hund ed Days Re o ms o Wuxu Re o ms,” we e modeled a e he Meiji
Res o a ion o 1868, which had been success ully implemen ed by he
Japanese, and we e a o ably suppo ed by Empe o Guangxu (1875-1908)
(Koç, 2023, p. 1172). The e o ms we e aimed a a wide- anging change.
Acco dingly, many goals we e se , such as mode niza ion in a eas such
as educa ion, cul u e and indus y, ansi ion o democ a ic cons i u ional
mona chy ule, and he de elopmen o capi alis economic p ac ices agains
capi alism (Ke , 2021, p.132). F om Kang Youwei’s e o m p og am, only
mode niza ion in educa ion was implemen ed du ing his eign (Kı ilen,
2013, p.133).
The Hund ed Days Re o m ended when he Emp ess deposed Empe o
Guangxu (1875-1908), whom she had pu on he h one wi h he own hands,
and ook o e he adminis a ion as he Empe o ’s depu y a e pu ing him
unde oom con inemen (Yıldı ım, 2023, p.259).
By 1900, Eu opean s a es we e ac i ely deployed in China. In addi ion o
hei mili a y powe , many ea ies, embassies, missiona ies and ade bases
mean ha all he sec e s o China we e in he hands o o eigne s. One o he
THE BIRTH OF NATIONALISM IN CHINA
46
sec e o ganiza ions in China, he so-called “Yi He Tuan (Hones Ha monious
Fis s)” o “Boxe s,” has been semi-ac i e since he 1700s. The e a e claims
ha hey we e e en ac i e in he expulsion o Jesui Missiona ies om China
in 1747 (Eshe ick, 1988, p.45, ci ed in Gö ez, 2018, p.1). The ebellion
basically s a ed agains he gen y and he Manchu adminis a ion. Howe e ,
as a esul o nego ia ions wi h he ebels, he Emp ess no only succeeded in
using he ebels o he bene i o he go e nmen by u ning hem owa ds
o eigne s bu also suppo ed he ebels (Ebe ha d, 2022, p.331). Wha
dis inguishes he ebellion om o he s is ha , in he pas , ebellions we e
cha ac e ized by hunge , po e y and ha sh wo king condi ions. In his
ebellion, howe e , hunge and po e y we e a he co e, bu he leade s, who
we e enligh ened Chinese, we e well awa e o he causes o hese ha dships
and did no in end o all o emp y p omises as in he pas . Bu mo e ex eme,
he eac ion was no only agains he uppe classes and ule s bu also agains
he colonize s, and as Yıldı ım (2023) emphasizes, “Independence was a
he o e on ” (p.259).
Emp ess Dowage Cixi (1861 - 1908 Regency), whe he she was awa e
o i o no , igni ed he use o na ional consciousness and, hus, na ionalism
in he Boxe s’ Up ising.
On June 5, he ebels called he Boxe s, who dis inguished hemsel es
by hei “ ed, black and yellow u bans,” blockaded he ail oad connec ion
om he capi al Beijing and u ned he ci y upside down. They bu ned and
des oyed e e y hing ela ed o he Wes , killed Chinese people wea ing
Wes e n clo hing and possessions and Chinese who had con e ed o
Ch is iani y, and des oyed ca hed als and chu ches. This was aided by
he palace a my. Meanwhile, he Wes e n powe s and Japan en e ed in o a
se ious alliance and made a mili a y landing in China. This alliance included
Japan, F ance, England, Ame ica, Ge many, Russia, and Aus ia-Hunga y.
Howe e , he alliance o ces in lic ed he mos c uel y on he Chinese. The
o ces en e ed he Fo bidden Ci y, loo ed, aped and killed many Chinese.
Meanwhile, he esiden o eigne s helped he Eu opean soldie s (Jai in,
2024, pp.158-159).
Du ing he in e en ion o he allied s a es agains he Quin a my and
he ebels, he Emp ess and he Empe o , who we e unde house a es , led
he palace o sa e hei li es and only e u ned o Beijing in 1902 (Ke ,
2021, pp.133-134). Howe e , China and he Manchus had e ec i ely los
he adminis a ion and we e condemned o huge wa epa a ions, and in
almos e e y ield, business and adminis a ion had allen in o he hands o
Eu opeans.
ÖZLEM TAN
47
While China was in his p edicamen , de elopmen s in o eign policy and
he e ec s o he wa s e ec i ely b ough China one s ep close o na ionalism.
On he o he hand, he non-gen y communi y, especially in u al China,
su e ed om inancial di icul ies. Bu now, he Chinese we e able o s udy
a home and ab oad, and especially he in ellec uals who s udied ab oad we e
awa e ha na ionalism in Eu ope should also be in China (Ebe ha d, 2022,
p. 333).
The sec e o ganiza ions embedded in China’s cul u e we e now ga he ing
along na ionalis lines and o e olu ion. Mo eo e , hese o ganiza ions
we e able o ecei e bo h ideas and inancial assis ance om in ellec uals
s udying ab oad. “O ganiza ion o he Re i al o China (Xing Zhong Hui)”
In 1894 and again in 1905, e olu iona y o ganiza ions called “Chinese
Re olu iona y Union (Tong Mong Hui)” we e among hem. In pa icula ,
he in ellec ual “Sun Ya -sen,” who was bo n a peasan and educa ed ab oad,
eme ged as he a he o he e olu iona ies. Sun Ya -sen’s basic ideology
was he “Th ee People’s P inciples.” Acco dingly, he i s p inciple was
“Na ionalism, he second p inciple was Democ acy, and he hi d p inciple
was Populism” (Yıldı ım, 2023, p.261-262).
Poli ically, he in ellec uals’ policy o changing China began in 1910 wi h
he es ablishmen o he “P e-pa liamen .” In a sense, hey legi imized hei
own exis ence. They could now make mo es o p o oke o eign con ol,
such as he ans e o o eign-con olled ail oads and such places o he
go e nmen . On he o he hand, hey b ough enligh enmen down o he
gene al ield o a ac he po e y-s icken classes o hei anks (Ebe ha d,
2022, pp.334-335). In ac , in addi ion o all hese de elopmen s, he h one
games wi hin he Quin Dynas y also ligh ened he hand o he e olu iona ies.
Emp ess Cixi killed Empe o Guangxu in 1908 by assassina ion and eplaced
him wi h Xuan ong, who was only 3 yea s old. Cixi did no li e long and
died in he same yea as Empe o Guangxu. In 1911, io s b oke ou , i s
in Guangzhou and Wuhan. The sp ead o e en s o o he egions esul ed in
he abdica ion o he Empe o in 1912 (Jai in, 2024, p.161-162). Howe e ,
his si ua ion was no easy, and he Palace a mies used mili a y o ce agains
he e olu iona ies, esul ing in a kind o ci il wa in which 15 ci ies whe e
he e olu iona ies we e dominan decla ed hei independence. When he
de ea s agains he e olu iona ies did no s op, he palace ound a solu ion
h ough comp omise. Sun Ya -sen, who was in he USA a he ime, was
unanimously decided by he depu ies o be he in e im head o s a e, and he
Republic o China was es ablished on Janua y 1, 1912, wi h a egime change
(Yıldı ım, 2023, p.263).
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ideas o classical economics a e mo ing away om eali y. In he a ionali y
hinking o classical economics, i has been o e looked ha economic ac o s
who a e equipped wi h limi less abili y and knowledge, who a e ea ed
independen ly o hei emo ions and en i onmen , can be in luenced by he
ex e nal en i onmen and hei cogni i e endencies. The ac ha classical
economics does no ca e abou he psychological aspec o people is c i icized
by beha io al economics ad oca es (Sonkaya, 2022).
The c i ique hen o ms he s a ing poin o beha io al economics.
Kahneman and T e sky a e he ad oca es o beha io al economics.
Beha io al economics has eme ged as a discipline ha examines he
e ec s and consequences o psychological ac o s in economic a i udes,
decisions and choices. The s a ing poin o beha io al economics is ha
he assump ion o a ionali y ha is alid in adi ional economics is no
alid con inuously and unde all ci cums ances. In beha io al economics,
he opposi e o his a gumen , he assump ion o i a ionali y, p e ails.
Beha io al economics, which is o med on a common denomina o o
economics and psychology and con inues i s de elopmen , conduc s
concep ual, analy ical, empi ical and expe imen al esea ch in his ield,
ocusing especially on cogni i e e o s and delusions (Ak an, 2018). F om
his poin o iew, beha io al economics is in eg a ed wi h many disciplines.
These a e Beha io al Finance, Expe imen al Economics, Neu oeconomics
(Us e , 2024). Sociophysical app oach is also newes pa adigm in his ield
(Ulusoy and Şen, 2019). These ha e been added o beha io al ma ke ing in
ecen yea s. Beha io al Ma ke ing has also explo ed he psychological side
o consume s when making decisions and in es iga ed he ac o s behind
hei decisions. In summa y, when consume s make pu chasing decisions,
he e ec o pu chase aps may be in luenced by sociological, psychological
and economic ac o s (Sonkaya, 2022).
The pu chasing decisions o consume s a e gene ally complex and o en
i a ional. Al hough adi ional ma ke ing models conside consume s as a
a ional decision make , beha io al ma ke ing has ques ioned his assump ion
and highligh ed he psychological and emo ional ac o s ha a ec people’s
decisions. Especially in he las decade, he sp ead o digi al pla o ms has
enabled he analysis o beha io al da a and he applica ion o ma ke ing
s a egies in a mo e p ecise manne .
This a icle examines he basic heo e ical elemen s and applica ion a eas
o beha io al ma ke ing and explains heo e ically how cogni i e biases,
emo ional in luences, and social no ms shape consume beha io . This s udy
aims o examine he psychological dynamics used in beha io al ma ke ing
FUNDA DEMIROĞLU • TOLGA ULUSOY
55
s a egies heo e ically h ough a na ional and in e na ional li e a u e e iew.
In line wi h he pu pose, he scope o he s udy consis s o cogni i e heu is ics,
emo ional and social no ms. F om his poin o iew, in he heo e ical pa ,
he concep s a e explained in de ail based on he pu pose and scope o he
s udy.
2. Theo e ical F amewo k o Beha io al Ma ke ing
Kahneman and T e sky’s (1979) esea ch, which laid he ounda ions o
beha io al economics, aimed a p o ing ha a pe son may no ac logically
and a ionally in si ua ions o unce ain y and isk, has made heo ies and
pa adigms based on assump ions ha limi an indi idual as a a ional
pe son mo e ques ionable (Gazel, 2016, p. 8). Expec a ion heo y, which
is a co ne s one in beha io al economics, is an al e na i e heo y o med
by ma hema ical me hod and expe imen al s udy con a y o he expec ed
bene i heo y (Kıyıla e Akkaya, 2016, p. 140). Kahneman and T e sky
(1979), ad oca es o science, p o ed ha people beha e i a ionally in
momen s o decision. A his s age, he e a e disciplines ela ed o he science
o beha io al economics. I is in he o m o Neu oeconomics, Beha io al
Finance, Expe imen al Economics. Beha io al ma ke ing has also been added
in ecen yea s. Beha io al ma ke ing pa icula ly conce ns why consume s
buy p oduc s and wha in luences hei decision o buy (Demi oglu and
Ozkah eci, 2024).
A his poin , wha shapes he decisions o consume s will be explained
espec i ely in he ligh o he ollowing concep s.
2.1 Cogni i e Heu is ics and Decision-Making
The e a e many ac o s ha shape he decision-making mechanisms o
consume s. A his poin , some cogni i e biases in beha io al economics a e
again among he si ua ions ha shape he decisions o consume s. Some o
hese include cogni i e heu is ics such as aming e ec , he d psychology,
o e con idence bias, men al accoun ing, hedonic co ec ion, loss a oidance.
The headings conside ed among cogni i e biases a ec he pe cep ions and
p e e ences o consume s o a g ea ex en (Ci ek, 2019). Fo example, i we
hink posi i ely and nega i ely abou he ame, he ph ase “90% a ee”
is pe cei ed mo e posi i ely on he packaging o a p oduc han he ph ase
“10% a con ains”. As a esul , al hough i exp esses he same meaning, i can
be hough di e en ly by consume s. This shows ha cogni i e hepa i is has
a g ea e ec on consume s’ pe cep ions and p e e ences. Again, he e ec s
o emo ions on consume decisions, social dynamics and en i onmen al
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ac o s a e also e ec i e in consume s’ decision-making p ocesses. The i les
men ioned below will be explained heo e ically.
● F aming E ec
The main p io i y o he aming e ec is ha a ques ion can be p esen ed
om mul iple di e en pe spec i es. People hink ha hey pe cei e
in o ma ion a ionally and make decisions abou all he ac s ha a e p esen
o wi h he help o memo y. Howe e , he decision making p ocess is a
complex cycle and i is impo an o examine i in many espec s (Güngö
and Habiboğlu, 2019). In his espec , he aming e ec , which is one o
he impo an opics in cogni i e heu is ic and decision-making p ocesses,
is handled.
The aming e ec is a no ion ha explains how people espond in
di e en ways o di e en ways o p esen ing when condi ions a e he same.
He says ha consume s and in es o s a e in luenced by he way op ions a e
p esen ed, as well as he isk o op ions in decision making (Al unöz and
Al unöz, 2017).
Figu e 1. F aming E ec
Sou ce: “h ps://da anissal inans.blogspo .com/2013/07/ce ce eleme-e kisi-
aming-e ec -nedi .h ml”
Al hough he a ows in Figu e 1 a e he same size, hey a e pe cei ed as
la ge by people due o he condi ion o p esen ing he a ow a he bo om.
We see ha he aming e ec , which is among he impo an subjec s o
beha io al economics, is also used in ma ke ing and inancial sciences
(Üs e ,2023). A pic u e s a ing ha he aming e ec is pe cei ed di e en ly
by consume s and in es o s wi h di e en p esen a ion o ms is also shown
below. I is s a ed ha he e is no di e ence be ween 66% emp y and 33%
ull exp essions in he pic u e excep he p esen a ion di e ence (Al unöz
and Al unöz, 2017).
FUNDA DEMIROĞLU • TOLGA ULUSOY
57
Pic u e 1. F aming E ec
Sou ce: “h ps://www.ma ema iksel.o g/ce ce eleme-e kisi-nedi -ka a la imiz-
secenekle in-sunulma-biciminden-nasil-e kileni /”
T e sky and Kahneman explained he si ua ion ha hey a e pe cei ed
di e en ly by bo h consume s and in es o s acco ding o al e na i es unde
he aming e ec wi h he ollowing expe imen al example in hei s udy in
1981. In he expe imen , pa icipan s we e p esen ed wi h wo di e en cases
and asked o choose one o wo di e en op ions o he p esen ed si ua ions.
The expe imen is de ailed below (T e sky and Kahneman, 1981):
“Asia Ou b eak P oblem”
Imagine an Asian Pandemic, which is expec ed o kill 600 people in
he Uni ed S a es. Two op ions a e p oposed o igh his pandemic. Le
us conside ha absolu e scien i ic p edic ions o al e na i e s a es a e he
ollowing op ions:
I A is selec ed, 200 people will su i e.
I he B condi ion is selec ed, 1/3 pe son will be sa ed and 2/3 people will
lose hei li es.
When i comes o which one o choose, he majo i y o he pa icipan s
chose op ion A wi hou aking isks. P opo ionally, he op ion o 72% A and
he op ion o 28% B we e p e e ed.
I C is selec ed, 400 people will lose hei li es.
I he D condi ion is selec ed, 1/3 p obabili y will no lose anyone, 2/3
p obabili y will lose 600 people.
Again, in he second case, be ween he wo op ions, pa icipan s chose o
ake isks his ime and he 22% C 78% D op ion was p e e ed.
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These wo si ua ions a e explained in he expec a ion heo y, “While
people do no p e e o ake isks in al e na i es ha exp ess p o i , hey
exhibi a isk-o ien ed si ua ion in al e na i es ha con ain loss. Howe e ,
i should be no ed ha he poin is ha i means he same hing in he case
o wo. The only di e ence be ween hem is ha he esul s o he i s
condi ion a e explained by he numbe o su i o s, and he second si ua ion
is explained by he numbe o people who los hei li es. In his case, he
p e e ed de ini ions in exp essing he p oblem show ha i is e y impo an
in e ms o people’s pe cep ions and choices (Gazel, 2016).
● He ding Psychology
The s a e o ac ing wi hou hinking a ionally by looking a he a i udes
and decisions o o he s is explained in he ield o beha io al economics
by concep s such as “he ding e ec ”, “he ding psychology”, “bandwagon
e ec ” (Ak an, 2018). In beha io al ma ke ing, i is also e e ed o as he
“bandwagon e ec ”.
The concep was men ioned in he li e a u e in he ea ly 1950s. She was
in oduced o he li e a u e by He ey Leibens ein in he o m o BWE
me apho in economic and social psychological e ms (Rook, 2006, p. 76).
BWE is explained in he li e a u e ha i is ela ed o he impulses ha ac i a e
he p imi i e pa om he pa s o he human b ain (Ko kmaz e Dal, 2020).
In Leibens ein (1950), BWE was de ined as an inc ease in demand o a
p oduc as a esul o o he people consuming he same p oduc s. In sho ,
i ep esen s he willingness o indi iduals o buy a commodi y by being
nudged by o he people. (Leibens ein, 1950).
● O e con idence bias
A la ge numbe o esea ch on cogni i e psychology sugges s ha
people gene ally ha e an o e con idence endency and in he p i a e ield,
hey ha e an o e con idence endency, which is linked o he accu acy o
hei in o ma ion. Psychological indings show ha o e con idence ends
indi iduals o o e es ima e hei knowledge, unde es ima e isks, and
exagge a e hei abili y o con ol e en s. S udies show ha 80% o d i e s
ind hei d i ing capabili ies abo e a e age. I is seen ha people end o
ha e an o e con idence endency no only in hei d i ing abili ies bu in
mos subjec s (Döm, 2003). F om his poin o iew, consume s gene ally
exagge a e hei own knowledge and capabili ies. This is especially obse ed
in in es men decision-making p ocesses and plays an impo an ole in
shaping ma ke ing messages.
FUNDA DEMIROĞLU • TOLGA ULUSOY
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The wo d p ejudice, comes om he La in wo d “p aejudicum” and
means “p ejudice”. I is li e ally exp essed as a p ede e mined p o ision
abou some hing o an indi idual (Al unöz and Al unöz, 2017).
The endency o o e con idence is also known as he illusion o
knowledge. People assume hey know mo e o be e han wha hey know
because hey assume hey ha e mo e o be e in o ma ion o can in e p e i
be e (Güngö and Demi el, 2018).
● Men al Accoun ing
In 1980, Richa d Thale in oduced he concep o men al accoun ing o
w i ing h ough his wo k (Wilkinson and Klaes, 2018, p. 16). The concep o
he au ho is a se o cogni i e heu is ics used by indi iduals and households
o o ganize, e alua e and ollow economic ac i i ies (Thale , 1995).
T e sky and Kahneman aimed o analyze he concep in he a icle s udy
hey conduc ed in 1981 by asking he ques ion whe he consume s will go
o he o he s o e a he decision s age i he p oduc s hey o e hei p ices
a e gi en discoun s in ano he s o e. The esul s eached in he a icle s a ed
ha i he e e ence poin s o he consume s a e mo e p ice-wise, hey will
no go o he o he s o e i he p ice is educed, bu i he e e ence poin is
less, hey will go o he o he s o e i he discoun is ealized (T e sky and
Kahneman, 1981).
Ano he s udy was conduc ed by Smi h and Sinha in 2000. In he a icle,
an expe imen al design asks consume s which o he h ee discoun op ions
hey would choose. The op ions we e a p ice p omo ion wi h 50% discoun
espec i ely, an ex a p oduc p omo ion in he o m o one ee o one buy,
and a 50% mixed p omo ion o wo p oduc s. Al hough he e a e equal
ma ginal bene i s in hese h ee op ions, consume s chose he i s wo mo e
op ions in hei answe s. The au ho s aimed o measu e men al accoun ing
while c ea ing op ions he e (Smi h and Sinha, 2000).
● Hedonic Co ec ion
Hedonic co ec ion is based on he hypo hesis ha indi iduals e alua e
hei gains sepa a ely in o de o inc ease hei happiness le els, bu ake
o al loss in o accoun o educe he sadness caused by loss (Seze and Demi ,
2015, p. 71). Thale and Johnson desc ibed he hedonic co ec ion in a 1990
pape . (Thale and Johnson, 1990):
• Keeping ea nings sepa a e
• Consolida ion o losses
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• Sepa a ing small gains om big losses
• Combining small losses wi h big gains
A oidance o Loss
Loss a oidance beha io ends o appea g ea e han gains wi h he
equi alen o losses,” and indi iduals gene ally end o a oid aking isks in
he case o loss while a oiding isk in he case o gain. In he a icle s udy
conduc ed by Kahneman and T e sky in 1979, loss a oidance is explained
by an expe imen al s udy (Kahneman and T e sky, 1979):
Du ing he game, you ha e de ini ely ea ned 3000 TL om he game and
i you wan o inc ease you winnings o 4000 TL, you need o choose one
o hese wo op ions. You can inc ease you cu en ea nings by 80%, bu
you will no gain any hing by 20%. In his case, we would p e e he exac
beha io ins ead o aking isks. As a esul o he expe imen , 80% o people
chose 3000 TL and p e e ed he inal gain.
In summa y, he beha io o a oiding losses is s a ed as “I is he case ha
a oiding loss is p e e able o ob aining gains because he unhappiness ha
people will hea om losing he hings hey ha e is mo e han he happiness
o ha ing he hing in ques ion” (Al unöz and Al unöz, 2018).
2.2 The E ec o Emo ions on Pu chasing Decision
The as majo i y o consume beha io consis s o emo ional eac ions.
When examining consume beha io , i is simila o beha io al economics
in common g ound. People ha e an emo ional s a e as a decision-making
c i e ion in hei pu chasing decisions. Fo example, eeling happy can cause
he consume o make mo e pu chases and exhibi isky beha io s. The
mo ing and ene gizing music played in a s o e can enable he consume o
make decisions as e . Feelings o anxie y and ea can lead consume s o
sa e al e na i es (Özkah eci e al., 2023). Insu ance companies’ campaigns
ha cause ea impulses bene i om his e ec .
● Posi i e emo ions and nega i e emo ions
In s udies ela ed o emo ion, ca ego iza ion o emo ions acco ding o
hei ypes is handled unde di e en assump ions. The e a e posi i e and
nega i e emo ions ha a e impo an in people’s li es and ha can be aken
as a basis o exp essing hei a i udes. While posi i e emo ions a e he
emo ions ha occu in ma e s ha comply wi h he alues o he pe son
and c ea e posi i e e ec s in achie ing hei goals, nega i e emo ions a e
de ined as eelings ha occu in si ua ions ha con lic wi h he alues o
FUNDA DEMIROĞLU • TOLGA ULUSOY
61
he pe son and c ea e nega i e e ec s du ing he a ainmen o hei goals
(Bilgine , 2017). Again, in ano he s udy, posi i e emo ion is exp essed as
ac i e pleasu e and pleasu e om li e; Nega i e emo ion is exp essed by
ac i a ing unpleasan emo ions such as s ess, ea , ange o he indi idual
(Gençöz, 2000).
Ma ke ing esea che s aim o in luence consume a i udes and beha io s
based on emo ions (Odabaşı e Ba ış, 2015). In e ms o consume beha io ,
posi i e emo ions a e exp essed as joy, accep ance, expec a ion and su p ise
among he eigh main emo ions; nega i e emo ions a e exp essed as ea ,
ange , sadness, disgus (Odabaşı and Ba ış, 2015).
2.3 Social No ms and Re e ence G oups
Social no ms a e one o he impo an ac o s ha a ec people’s
consump ion beha io . Especially wi h he widesp ead use o social media,
people a e mo e p one o adop he eques s o e e ence g oups. Social no ms
and e e ence g oups lead consume s o ake ac ion by being in luenced by
he decisions o o he s. The “bes selle s” lis s o popula p oduc s on social
media a e examples o his e ec .
Social P oo Ma ke ing means pe suading o he s o buy he p oduc we
sell using wha a g oup o people hinks. This can be done by showing good
e iews om o he consume s o by showing ha expe s o amous people
like you p oduc . I ’s abou making people eel hey’ e making a popula
and eliable choice when choosing you p oduc . Among he social e idence
ypes; use -gene a ed con en , happy consume e iews, mul iple pu chase
o he p oduc and high e iews o he p oduc , ie he wisdom o he c owd,
news and awa ds in he p ess, and imp essi e ma ke ing s a egies can be
coun ed (Vaghasiya, 2024). In summa y, indi iduals can make decisions
in luenced by he choices o o he consume s. Fo example, he ac ha a
p oduc is on he “bes selle s” lis a ec s he consume ’s decision pe cep ion
posi i ely. This is one o he ac o s ha he consume is a ec ed in he
pu chasing decision phase.
I is he main s a ing poin o consume beha io o be p ocessed as a
ool ha indica es social s a us. The social s a us o pe sons is conside ed a
unc ion o hei ela i e weal h, and i is also assumed ha his weal h can
be obse ed by o he s. Thus, people de e mine hei consump ion pa e ns
by choosing om p oduc s ha a e acqui ed by in luencing he public, ha
p o ide s a us and mo e use ul p oduc s o hei own needs. This concep ual
ligh is based on Veblen’s basic iew o ‘ conspicuous consump ion ‘
(Açıkalın and E doğan, 2004). In summa y, luxu y b ands make a di e ence
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by appealing o consume s’ desi e o s a us. A limi ed numbe o p oduc s
can igge mo e consume s’ desi e o buy.
3. Applica ion A eas o Psychological Dynamics
Shaping Consume Decision-Making P ocesses in
he Ligh o Beha io al Ma ke ing
3.1 Beha io al Ma ke ing in he Digi al Wo ld
The digi al wo ld de elops pe sonalized ma ke ing s a egies by ollowing
he a i udes o consume s in eal- ime. In doing so, e-comme ce si es make
dynamic adjus men s in he p ices o p oduc s based on he pas spending
p ice scales o consume s. Again, consume s’ likes, commen s, condi ions
o he mos pu chased p oduc s, phenomena hey choose, sco e scale,
o e ing p oduc sugges ions acco ding o he as es o o he consume s,
e c. i also adap s o he dynamic p ocess. By o e ing ecommenda ion
algo i hms, digi al pla o ms such as Ne lix, Amazon, o example, o e
ecommenda ions based on p e ious consume beha io , which in his case
allows o inc eased c oss-selling oppo uni ies. As a esul , beha io al
ma ke ing in he digi al wo ld shows a dynamic p ocess (Demi oğlu and
Ulusoy,2024).
3.2 Neu oma ke ing
Ano he s a egy ha is among he applica ion a eas o psychological
dynamics is he use o neu oma ke ing echniques in ma ke ing s a egies.
Neu oma ke ing aims o unde s and he subconscious eac ions o consume s
in hei pu chasing decisions.
Neu oma ke ing can p o ide guidance o in luencing consume s’ i e-
sense o gans h ough posi i e s imuli (smells, music, colo s, e c.), exp essing
people’s emo ional biochemis y (Bayasso a and Kazan, 2016). Fo example,
colo s and smells p e e ed in he s o e en i onmen a e consciously designed
o inc ease consume sa is ac ion.
4. Li e a u e Re iew
Beha io al ma ke ing d aws a en ion as a mul idisciplina y ield ha
d aws on disciplines such as psychology, economics and sociology. In his
con ex , a comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew on he psychological dynamics
a ec ing consume decisions has been conduc ed. Below a e some key
sou ces ha con ibu e o beha io al ma ke ing li e a u e: These s udies
FUNDA DEMIROĞLU • TOLGA ULUSOY
63
o e di e en pe spec i es in unde s anding consume beha io and lay he
ounda ions o beha io al ma ke ing.
Kahneman and T e sky (1979) c ea ed an al e na i e heo y o he
sho comings o he expec ed u ili y heo y. This heo y is expec a ion
heo y. In he expec a ion heo y, people emphasize ha hey make i a ional
decisions, and acco ding o he heo y, people ha e p o en ha hey a oid
isks in case o gain and ha hey make isky decisions in case o loss.
T e sky and Kahneman (1981) obse ed ha a p oblem can be p esen ed
in di e en amewo ks and di e en esul s can be ob ained in he esul s
o he expe imen . In he s udy, he e ec s o amewo ks on p e e ences
we e compa ed wi h he e ec s o pe spec i es on pe cep ual appea ance.
The esul s a y depending on he op ion p esen ed. Al hough he meaning
o posi i e and nega i e aming is he same, i has a ec ed hei decisions
by being pe cei ed di e en ly by consume s.
Thale (1985) in oduced a new model o consume beha io using he
in e sec ion o cogni i e psychology and economics. The model is a consume
beha io model ha ies o exp ess he p ocess o coding, classi ying and
e alua ing people’s economic esul s. As a esul o men al accoun ing,
a ious in e ences ha e been de eloped o ma ke ing, especially in he ield
o p icing.
In Ba a and Holb ook (1990), ypologies o emo ional esponses o
ad e ising we e es ablished wi hin he amewo k o consume s. As a esul ,
he e has been emphasis on changing consume decisions.
Richins (1997) e iews he emo ional measu emen s cu en ly used in
consume esea ch and he heo ies on which hey a e based, concluding
ha he cu en measu emen s a e no i o he pu pose o measu ing
emo ions abou consump ion. The a icle desc ibes six expe imen al s udies
ha e alua e he ield o consume emo ions, iden i y an app op ia e se
o consump ion emo ion iden i ie s (CES), and compa e he use ulness
o his se o iden i ie s wi h he use ulness o o he me ics in assessing
consump ion- ela ed emo ions.
In Cialdini and Golds ein (2004), i co e s ecen de elopmen s in social
impac li e a u e and p ima ily ocuses on compliance and compliance
esea ch published be ween 1997 and 2002. The s udy emphasizes he ways
in which a ge s in e ac wi h ex e nal o ces o c ea e sec e , indi ec and
unawa e social impac p ocesses.
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In he case o Tu key, he high dependence on ene gy impo s exace ba es
he impac o oil p ice shocks on mac oeconomic balances. In he s udy by
E oğlu and Bu sal (2020), he ole o he ene gy de ici in Tu key’s cu en
accoun de ici dynamics and he quali y o i s inancing a e analyzed. The
s udy emphasizes he signi ican sha e o he ene gy de ici in he cu en
accoun de ici and a gues ha con olling he ene gy de ici is c i ical o
he sus ainabili y o he cu en accoun de ici . In pa icula , i is s a ed ha
he policy se o be ollowed in he igh agains he ene gy de ici should
be o mula ed by aking in o accoun Tu key’s s eng hs and weaknesses
(E oğlu and Bu sal, 2020). In his amewo k, he impac o ene gy subsidies
on he iscal balance is no only limi ed o he budge balance, bu is also
di ec ly ela ed o he o eign ade and cu en accoun balances.
Ene gy Subsidies In he Face o Oil P ice Shocks
Ene gy subsidies a e a widely used policy ins umen o p o ec consume s
and p oduce s agains p ice shocks, especially o ossil uels such as oil
and i s de i a i es. Howe e , i is also clea ha he cos o subsidies is a
signi ican bu den on he public budge . Sa ı unalı (2021)’s s udy on Tu key’s
ene gy policies in he con ex o en i onmen al secu i y and ene gy supply
secu i y emphasizes ha Tu key’s ene gy needs a e la gely me om ex e nal
sou ces and ha ossil ene gy consump ion is high. While his si ua ion
inc eases ex e nal dependence on ene gy, he in ensi e use o ossil esou ces
also poses a isk in e ms o en i onmen al secu i y. Among Tu key’s ene gy
a ge s, expanding he use o domes ic and enewable ene gy esou ces
and esou ce di e si ica ion a e p io i ized (Sa ı unalı, 2021). Howe e ,
he con inua ion o ossil uel subsidies h ea ens bo h iscal balance and
en i onmen al sus ainabili y.
The ole o ene gy subsidies in he ace o oil p ice shocks is no limi ed
o economic and iscal dimensions; he e a e also social and poli ical e ec s.
Spikes in ene gy p ices may ad e sely a ec low-income households in
pa icula , leading o an inc ease in ene gy po e y. Pehli anoğlu and Yılmaz
(2022)’s s udy on ene gy po e y and he measu es aken by coun ies du ing
he Co id-19 pandemic emphasizes ha p oblems in access o ene gy deepen
social inequali ies. In he s udy, i is s a ed ha coun ies’ in e en ions in
he ene gy ield a e gene ally insu icien , ocusing mo e on cash-based aid,
and measu es such as p ice egula ion o ene gy bills and disconnec ion
bans ha e been implemen ed in a limi ed numbe o coun ies (Pehli anoğlu
and Yılmaz, 2022). This inding sugges s ha ene gy subsidies also play an
impo an ole as a social policy ins umen .
ONUR BAYRAM
71
The impac o ene gy subsidies on iscal balance should also be e alua ed
in e ms o sus ainabili y o public expendi u es and con ol o budge
de ici s. In Uğu (2014)’s s udy on he ole o ca bon-ene gy axes in educing
g eenhouse gas emissions, i is s a ed ha he exemp ions g an ed o ene gy-
in ensi e sec o s and compe i ion-sensi i e segmen s, he use o ax e enues
o gene a e public e enue, and he lack o a global cha ac e o ca bon-
ene gy ax p ac ices cause a loss o e iciency in ca bon-ene gy axes (Uğu ,
2014). This shows ha ene gy subsidies simila ly b ing along e iciency and
sus ainabili y p oblems in e ms o public inance. In pa icula , he cos o
subsidies leads o budge de ici s, which h ea ens he iscal balance in he
long un.
The e ec s o oil p ice shocks on he iscal balance a e no limi ed o
subsidy policies; he s uc u e and egula ion o ene gy ma ke s also play
a decisi e ole in his p ocess. İnançlı, Figan and Dilek (2020)’s s udy on
egula ions in Tu kish ene gy ma ke s concluded ha ene gy ma ke s ha e
na u al monopoly cha ac e is ics and ha egula ions can posi i ely a ec
ma ke pe o mance (İnançlı e al., 2020). In his con ex , he e ec i eness
and cos o ene gy subsidies a e closely ela ed o he egula ions in he
ma ke s uc u e. In pa icula , ma ke -based mechanisms and egula ions
should be implemen ed e ec i ely o mi iga e he impac o p ice shocks.
Among he policy al e na i es o ene gy subsidies, encou aging he
ansi ion o enewable ene gy has an impo an place. In Topçu (2018)’s
s udy on he ansi ion o a low ca bon economy, i is emphasized ha he
ossil uel sec o con inues o domina e, de eloped coun ies and indus ies
main ain hei monopoly posi ion as p o ide s o low ca bon echnologies,
ma ke -based mechanisms such as emissions ading a e suppo ed as new
a eas o p o i o companies, and dep i a ions and p oblems a ise in e ms o
bo h ene gy and clima e jus ice (Topçu, 2018). In his amewo k, educing
ossil uel subsidies and inc easing incen i es o enewable ene gy s and
ou as an impo an al e na i e o policymake s in e ms o bo h main aining
iscal balance and ensu ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y.
Financing and incen i e models o he ansi ion o enewable ene gy
should also be conside ed in e ms o es uc u ing ene gy subsidies. In
Akdağ and Gözen (2020)’s compa a i e s udy o in es men and inancing
models o enewable ene gy p ojec s, i is s a ed ha a ious models such
as eed-in a i s, eed-in p emiums, g een ce i ica es, auc ions and open
auc ions, design based on me e ing, p ojec inancing, hi d-pa y owne ship,
ene gy coope a i es, equi y-based c owd unding, g een bonds and enewable
ene gy unds a e applied (Akdağ and Gözen, 2020). I is s a ed ha hese
ENERGY SUBSIDIES AND FISCAL BALANCE IN THE FACE OF OIL PRICE SHOCKS: POLICY ALTERNATIVES
72
models can educe he dependence on subsidies in an e ec i ely unc ioning
ma ke and posi i ely a ec he iscal balance. In pa icula , i is emphasized
ha auc ion and open auc ion models a e inc easingly being used ins ead o
ixed p ice gua an ee and p emium gua an ee, and he design based on me e
measu emen is p e e ed o small-scale acili ies (Akdağ and Gözen, 2020).
P omo ing he ansi ion o enewable ene gy is impo an no only o iscal
balance bu also o ene gy supply secu i y and en i onmen al sus ainabili y.
Dışkaya (2017) s udy on he impac o enewable ene gy on Tu key’s ene gy
secu i y om a poli ical economy pe spec i e a gues ha he ansi ion o
enewable ene gy educes ex e nal dependence and en i onmen al haza ds
om ossil and nuclea ene gy, and suppo s economic g ow h by inc easing
employmen h ough new indus ies (Dışkaya, 2017). In his con ex , shi ing
ene gy subsidies om ossil uels o enewable ene gy is conside ed as a
policy al e na i e ha will s eng hen bo h iscal balance and ene gy secu i y.
In he p ocess o es uc u ing ene gy subsidies, de elopmen s in
in e na ional ene gy ma ke s and global ene gy policies should also be aken
in o accoun . In Bay aç (2009)’s compa a i e s udy on global ene gy policies
in e ms o oil and na u al gas esou ces, i is s a ed ha he US, EU, China,
India and Tu key a e ying o ca y ou mul i ace ed policies o ob ain he
ene gy hey need om al e na i e sou ces in an unin e up ed, cheap and
secu e manne , despi e he p oblems aced by Russia and I an, which a e
impo an ac o s in global ene gy ma ke s, in ma ke ing hei esou ces
(Bay aç, 2009). In his amewo k, he impac o ene gy subsidies on he
iscal balance is shaped no only a he na ional le el bu also by he dynamics
o compe i ion and coope a ion in in e na ional ene gy ma ke s.
Conclusion
In conclusion, he e ec s o ene gy subsidies on iscal balance and
policy al e na i es in he ace o oil p ice shocks equi e a mul idimensional
and in e disciplina y analysis. In ene gy-impo ing coun ies, oil p ice
luc ua ions pu se ious p essu es on public inances, and he sus ainabili y
o ene gy subsidies is di ec ly ela ed o nume ous policy objec i es such as
social jus ice, en i onmen al sus ainabili y and ene gy secu i y. The e o e,
es uc u ing ene gy subsidies and de eloping al e na i e policy op ions a e
c i ical o main aining bo h iscal balance and social wel a e. The li e a u e
summa ized abo e e eals he key dynamics and challenges ha need o be
aken in o accoun in policy design in his a ea.
ONUR BAYRAM
73
Re e ences
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CHAPTER 7
A SEMI-CONCEPTUAL MODEL PROPOSAL:
OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY ADDICTION
WITH TEXT MINING
Ayhan KALINER11
Öme TELLI
In oduc ion
Digi al de ices (sma phones, able s, lap ops), which ha e become an
indispensable pa o he digi al age, a e inc easingly in eg a ed in o ou
daily li es o a ious pu poses such as communica ion, in o ma ion and
en e ainmen (Des Ma ais, 2024). Wi h he global inc ease in he use o
he in e ne and social media, a signi ican po ion o he wo ld’s popula ion
is ac i ely engaged in hese pla o ms (Mille , 2025). In ac , some s udies
sugges ha he use o echnology has addic i e po en ial, simila o addic i e
subs ances and beha io s such as obacco, alcohol o gambling (Ka akose
e al., 2022) This clea ly demons a es he se iousness o he issue and he
u gency o unde s anding and add essing i . The pe asi eness o echnology
in ou li es and i s addic i e po en ial shows how impo an i is o unde s and
and add ess his phenomenon. The global inc ease in social media usage
a es u he emphasizes he p e alence o exposu e o po en ially addic i e
echnologies (Mille , 2025).
11 Cumhu iye Uni e si y, Facul y o Economics and Adminis a i e Sciences, Depa men
o Managemen In o ma ion Sys ems, Tu key, [email p o ec ed], h ps://o cid.
o g/0009-0003-5322-2520
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Technology addic ion has a ious nega i e e ec s a indi idual and
socie al le els. F om a psychological pe spec i e, i can inc ease he isk o
anxie y, dep ession, mood diso de s, loneliness, low sel -es eem and “Fea o
Missing Ou ” (FOMO)(Wang, 2023). Social e ec s include social isola ion,
s ained in e pe sonal ela ionships, educed ace- o- ace in e ac ion,
cybe bullying and neglec o social ac i i ies (Wang, 2023). In he cogni i e
domain, possible links ha e been obse ed wi h educed a en ion span,
di icul y ocusing, cogni i e o e load, educed wo king memo y capaci y
and demen ia-like symp oms (CSP Global, 2020). In addi ion, physical
symp oms such as eye s ain, headaches, sleep diso de s and unheal hy
li es yle habi s a e also among he consequences o echnology addic ion.
These wide- anging nega i e e ec s o echnology addic ion emphasize ha
he p oposed model should add ess he mul i ace ed na u e o his p oblem.
The po en ial link be ween high social media use and suicidal hough s,
especially among young people (Des Ma ais, 2024), shows how c i ical his
issue is.
Cu en me hods o measu ing and analyzing echnology addic ion ha e
a ious limi a ions. The ongoing con o e sy in de ining and diagnosing
echnology addic ion and he lack o a uni e sally accep ed “gold s anda d”
ins umen is a signi ican challenge (Samaha e al., 2018). Cu en diagnos ic
c i e ia, such as In e ne Gaming Diso de in he DSM-5, ha e been c i icized
o o e -inclusi eness and applicabili y o b oade echnology use (Muse i
e al., 2016). Sel - epo ques ionnai es such as Young’s In e ne Addic ion
Tes (IAT) and he Be gen Social Media Addic ion Scale (BSMAS) ha e
sho comings, including s uc u al inconsis encies, ou da ed i ems, cul u al
di e ences, and a ocus on speci ic addic i e p ocesses a he han he
en i onmen (Muse i e al., 2016). These limi a ions highligh he need o
al e na i e app oaches ha can p o ide mo e nuanced and comp ehensi e
in o ma ion. The ongoing deba e on diagnos ic amewo ks and he
sho comings o sel - epo ools illus a e he impo ance o explo ing new
me hods o unde s anding echnology addic ion.
Tex mining me hods o e al e na i e analysis possibili ies wi h new da a
sou ces such as social media and online o ums. Tex mining is he p ocess
o ex ac ing meaning ul in o ma ion om uns uc u ed ex da a (Kahya-
Özyi midokuz, 2016). Social media and online o ums a e ich sou ces o
eal-wo ld da a ha e lec use s’ expe iences, opinions and beha io s ela ed
o echnology use (Bon che a & Rou , 2014). Tex mining echniques such
as sen imen analysis and opic modeling can be used o unde s and public
opinion, iden i y ends, and disco e hemes ela ed o echnology addic ion
in hese da a sou ces (Mille , 2025). This po en ial o ex mining o e s a
AYHAN KALINER
77
p omising al e na i e by o e coming some limi a ions o adi ional me hods
and enabling he analysis o la ge-scale, na u ally occu ing da a.
The aim o his pape is o de elop a semi-concep ual model p oposal based
on exis ing heo e ical knowledge and small-scale ex mining applica ion.
The epo will syn hesize he exis ing li e a u e on echnology addic ion,
explo e how ex mining can be applied o analyze da a om social media
and online o ums, and based on his syn hesis, p opose a semi-concep ual
model o guide u u e esea ch in his a ea.
Theo e ical Backg ound
Technology Addic ion
Technology addic ion is de ined as he compulsi e, p olonged and
uncon ollable use o digi al de ices o media, which has de imen al
e ec s on use s’ psychological o physical heal h (Ka akose e al., 2022).
This condi ion can mani es in a ious o ms, including in e ne addic ion,
social media addic ion, online gaming addic ion, sma phone addic ion,
online shopping addic ion and cybe sex addic ion. The e m “digi al
addic ion” is used as a b oade concep ha encompasses dependence on
a ious digi al de ices (Reddy, 2021; Reiche e al., 2021). The di e en
ypes o echnology addic ion a e impo an o unde s anding which digi al
pla o ms o ac i i ies indi iduals a e o e ly a ached o. Fo example, some
indi iduals may show excessi e in e es in social media, while o he s may
become addic ed o online gaming o cons an web su ing. These di e en
ypes may equi e sepa a e s udy o unde s and he unde lying mo i a ions
and consequences o addic ion.
Va ious ools and c i e ia ha e been de eloped o measu e and classi y
echnology addic ion. The DSM-5 (Diagnos ic and S a is ical Manual
o Men al Diso de s, 5 h Edi ion) includes diagnos ic c i e ia o In e ne
Gaming Diso de , and he ICD-11 (In e na ional Classi ica ion o Diseases,
11 h Re ision) includes a diagnosis o Gaming Diso de (Mee e al., 2024).
Sel - epo ques ionnai es a e also widely used; Young’s In e ne Addic ion
Tes (IAT) and i s de i a i es (Samaha e al., 2018) and he Be gen Social
Media Addic ion Scale (BSMAS) and Be gen Facebook Addic ion Scale
(BFAS) (Ma e al., 2025) a e some o hese ins umen s. The e a e also o he
scales such as he Compulsi e In e ne Use Scale (CIUS) and he Addic ion
Tes o Families (IAT-F) (Besse e al., 2019). These ins umen s and
classi ica ions p o ide an impo an basis o assessing he p e alence and
se e i y o echnology addic ion. Howe e , each o hese ins umen s has i s
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own limi a ions and c i icisms, e lec ing he complex na u e o echnology
addic ion and he di icul ies in measu ing i .
The e a e se e al isk ac o s and consequences o echnology addic ion.
Psychological isk ac o s include p e-exis ing men al heal h p oblems
(dep ession, anxie y), impulsi i y, low sel -es eem and h ill-seeking.
Social isk ac o s include loneliness, lack o social suppo , pee p essu e
and in e pe sonal di icul ies. En i onmen al ac o s include he easy
accessibili y and ease o use o he in e ne and digi al de ices (Wang, 2023).
Nega i e consequences o echnology addic ion include academic ailu e,
unheal hy die , sleep dep i a ion, social wi hd awal and physical heal h
p oblems (Ce niglia e al., 2017; Nakshine e al., 2022). These isk ac o s
and consequences illus a e how echnology addic ion a ec s a ious aspec s
o indi iduals’ li es. In pa icula , he p esence o psychological and social
isk ac o s may make some indi iduals mo e ulne able o echnology
addic ion, while he nega i e consequences clea ly demons a e he bu den
o addic ion on he indi idual and socie y.
Tex mining
Tex mining, also known as ex analy ics o na u al language p ocessing
(NLP), e e s o he p ocess o ex ac ing meaning ul in o ma ion om
uns uc u ed ex da a. This discipline uses a a ie y o echniques o analyze
ex da a and unco e pa e ns, d awing om a ious ields such as linguis ics,
compu e science and s a is ics.
The basic echniques o ex mining a e as ollows:
• Wo d F equency: Iden i ies p ominen e ms by de e mining he num-
be o epe i ions o wo ds in a co pus o ex (Pa k e al., 2021).
• TF-IDF (Te m F equency-In e se Documen F equency): A s a is ical
measu e used o assess he impo ance o a wo d in a documen colle-
c ion (Ri aldi & Fadlil, 2024).
• Wo d Cloud: A isual ep esen a ion o wo d equencies; he size o
each wo d indica es i s ela i e equency (Shahid e al., 2017).
• LDA (La en Di ichle Alloca ion): A opic modeling echnique used
o disco e hidden opics in a documen collec ion (Tahe & Hasan,
2025).
• Sen imen Analysis (Opinion Mining): Iden i ies he emo ional one
o opinion (posi i e, nega i e, neu al) exp essed in a piece o ex
(Sabe i & Saad, 2017).
AYHAN KALINER
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• Named En i y Recogni ion (NER): Iden i ies and classi ies named en-
i ies (e.g., people, o ganiza ions, loca ions) in ex (Baigang & Yi,
2023).
Tex mining has a wide ange o uses in he social sciences. I can be used
o analyze public opinion, ack eme ging issues, and s udy social phenomena
(Hassani e al., 2020). I can also be applied o unde s and consume p e e ences
and b and pe cep ion, iden i y ends and in e es s h ough hash ag analysis
(Chae, 2015), and explo e heal h- ela ed in o ma ion and pa ien expe iences
in online o ums and social media (Chang e al., 2019; Sa yasachi, 2022).
These di e se applica ions in social sciences demons a e how ex mining is
a powe ul ool o unde s anding complex social phenomena.
The e a e also ex mining applica ions speci ic o echnology addic ion.
Some o hese applica ions include analyzing social media da a (e.g.,
Twi e , Reddi , Ins ag am) o unde s and pa e ns o d ug use and addic ion
(Nas alah e al., 2020), examining online o um discussions on men al heal h
and addic ion (Sa yasachi, 2022) and iden i ying help-seeking beha io s
and suppo communi ies o addic ion on online pla o ms (Valdez &
Pa e son, 2022). These academic s udies demons a e how ex mining
can be e ec i ely used o s udy beha io al addic ions such as echnology
addic ion in online en i onmen s.
Indi idual And Cocial E ec s O Technology Addic ion :
Li e a u e Re iew
The psychological e ec s o echnology addic ion on indi iduals a e
qui e di e se. Anxie y when sepa a ed om echnology (nomophobia) and
ea o missing ou on wha is happening on social media (FOMO) a e
common psychological symp oms o his addic ion (CSP Global, 2020). The
need o be cons an ly connec ed and he compulsion o check social media
no i ica ions can lead o inc eased le els o anxie y in indi iduals. This is
pa icula ly common in young people, and can be caused by he endency
o cons an ly see o he people’s “pleasan ” expe iences on social media
and compa e hei own li es wi h hem. The ela ionship o echnology
addic ion o dep ession is also a equen ly esea ched opic (Wang, 2023).
In some cases, indi iduals use he in e ne as a ool o escape bo edom o
loneliness, while excessi e sc een ime may mask unde lying dep ession
o anxie y (Domingues‐Mon ana i, 2017; Jull e al., 2008). O e - eliance
on echnology can also lead o mood egula ion p oblems, low sel -es eem
and nega i e e ec s on o e all men al heal h (Hassan e al., 2020). The e
is esea ch sugges ing a link be ween high social media use and sel -ha m
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Figu e 1. Wo ld cloud o echnology addic ion sen ences
Thema ic clus e ing (K-means)
To iden i y la en hema ic g oupings wi hin he da ase , K-Means
clus e ing was applied o he TF-IDF ma ix using Sciki -lea n’s KMeans
unc ion (ini = “k-means++”, max_i e = 300). Based on concep ual
easoning and p elimina y e alua ion using he elbow me hod, he numbe o
clus e s was se o k = 3, ep esen ing dis inc domains o emo ional, social,
and cogni i e/academic expe ience.
Each clus e e lec ed a seman ically cohe en sub ield o echnology
addic ion discou se:
Table 2. Summa y o hema ic clus e s ıden i ied h ough k-means analysis
Clus e Thema ic Domain % o Co pus Dominan Te ms
0Cogni i e/Academic Impac 34.6% ocus, p oduc i i y, sleep, con ol
1Emo ional E ec s 32.4% anxious, o e whelmed, es less
2Social Isola ion 33.0% lonely, disconnec ed, sc olling
Clus e sepa a ion and cohesion we e u he assessed ia Silhoue e
Coe icien , yielding an a e age sco e o 0.62, indica ing accep able
clus e ing pe o mance o sho - ex co po a.
AYHAN KALINER
87
Quali a i e clus e in e p e a ion
To deepen he in e p e i e insigh o he clus e s, each g oup was manually
examined, and i e ep esen a i e exp essions we e selec ed pe clus e o
illus a e i s hema ic essence. These sample ex s we e ligh ly e ined o
cla i y while p ese ing hei o iginal seman ic s uc u e.
• Cogni i e/Academic Clus e (Clus e 0): Tex s emphasized dec-
eased a en ion span, dis up ed p oduc i i y, and excessi e gaming
o sc een ime in e e ing wi h academic o wo k- ela ed asks. E.g.,
“Gaming akes up mos o my ee ime and ha ’s a ec ing my sleep.”
• Emo ional E ec s Clus e (Clus e 1): Domina ed by eelings o de-
pendency, anxie y, es lessness, and emo ional a igue. E.g., “I o en
eel o e whelmed by cons an no i ica ions.”
• Social Isola ion Clus e (Clus e 2): Included s a emen s e e encing
de achmen om eal-li e in e ac ions and a p e e ence o digi al
communica ion o e ace- o- ace ela ionships. E.g., “I p e e ex ing
o e in-pe son con e sa ions mos o he ime.”
These hema ic illus a ions e eal how subjec i e expe iences o
echnology addic ion a e discu si ely encoded in dis inc ye o e lapping
ways.
In eg a ed concep ual model ou pu
Syn hesizing lexical equencies, TF-IDF sco es, and hema ic clus e ing
esul s, he s udy p oduced an in eg a ed semi-concep ual model ou lining
he mul idimensional s uc u e o echnology addic ion. This model posi s ha
emo ional dis ess, social wi hd awal, and cogni i e/academic dys unc ion
a e no isola ed consequences bu in e wo en beha io al pa e ns,
consis en ly e lec ed in he e e yday language o a ec ed indi iduals.
The concep ual model is ep esen ed isually in Figu e 2, which
illus a es how he h ee co e clus e s ela e o one ano he h ough sha ed
linguis ic ma ke s and o e lapping expe ien ial domains. The diag am
also highligh s key e ms associa ed wi h each domain and indica es hei
po en ial diagnos ic ele ance o u u e digi al beha io esea ch.
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Figu e 2. Desc ip ion o he semi-concep ual model
Discussion And Conclusion
The indings o his s udy e eal a mul i-dimensional s uc u e unde lying
echnology addic ion, as cap u ed h ough compu a ional analysis o use -
gene a ed ex ual con en . By in eg a ing lexical equency me ics, TF-IDF
weigh ing, and hema ic clus e ing, he s udy o e s a concep ual amewo k
ha a icula es how emo ional s ain, social disconnec ion, and cogni i e
dis up ion a e linguis ically encoded in exp essions ela ed o digi al o e use.
Consis en wi h p io li e a u e emphasizing he psychological and
beha io al consequences o excessi e echnology engagemen (Kuss &
G i i hs, 2015; Mon ag e al., 2021), he emo ional dimension iden i ied
he e—cha ac e ized by e ms such as “anxious,” “ es less,” and
“o e whelmed”—demons a es how a ec i e dis ess is p ominen ly
embedded in he discou se. No ably, hese exp essions we e no only
equen bu also con ex ually unique, as shown by hei high TF-IDF sco es,
ein o cing hei cen ali y in he digi al dependency na a i e.
AYHAN KALINER
89
The second majo clus e , ep esen ing social isola ion, esona es
wi h exis ing heo e ical models ha associa e echnology addic ion wi h
wi hd awal om in e pe sonal ela ionships (Caplan, 2010). Linguis ic
indica o s wi hin his clus e , such as “igno e eal-li e in e ac ions” and
“p e e ex ing o e in-pe son con e sa ions”, sugges a displacemen o ace-
o- ace sociali y by media ed communica ion. This ansi ion is no me ely
beha io al bu discu si e, e ealing a shi in how indi iduals a icula e hei
ela ional engagemen in echnologically sa u a ed en i onmen s.
The hi d hema ic clus e ocuses on cogni i e and academic
unc ionali y, echoing esea ch linking echnology o e use wi h dec eased
a en ion span, p oduc i i y loss, and academic unde pe o mance (Asi &
Kazi, 2024; Shanmugasunda am & Tamila asu, 2023; Xie e al., 2023). The
eme gence o e ms like “hu s p oduc i i y”, “lack o ocus”, and “can’
concen a e” e lec s how cogni i e a igue mani es s no only in beha io
bu also in sel - e lec i e language. These insigh s indica e ha linguis ic
exp essions may se e as p oxies o iden i ying ea ly ma ke s o cogni i e
s ain due o digi al o e use.
Impo an ly, he semi-concep ual model p oposed in his s udy does no
aim o eplace clinical o psychome ic app oaches bu a he o complemen
hem h ough a linguis ic pe spec i e. By mapping use na a i es in o
s uc u ed clus e s, he model o e s a sca old o u u e esea ch in p edic i e
diagnos ics, ea ly in e en ion design, and digi al beha io moni o ing.
Fu he mo e, he me hodological design—me ging s a is ical ex analysis
wi h concep ual ca ego iza ion—p esen s a eplicable amewo k applicable
o adjacen domains such as gaming diso de , social media a igue, o online
lea ning bu nou .
In summa y, he in eg a ion o NLP-based echniques wi h heo e ically
g ounded in e p e a ion has enabled a nuanced unde s anding o echnology
addic ion as bo h a beha io al synd ome and a discu si e cons uc ion. The
esul ing model no only co obo a es exis ing indings in he ield bu also
in oduces a linguis ically in o med analy ical lens o u u e explo a ions.
Conclusion
This s udy p esen ed a semi-concep ual model o echnology addic ion
de i ed om compu a ional ex analysis echniques. By in eg a ing
wo d equency me ics, TF-IDF weigh ing, and hema ic clus e ing, he
esea ch iden i ied h ee dominan impac domains—emo ional dis ess,
social isola ion, and cogni i e/academic dis up ion— equen ly e lec ed
in e e yday language. The model p o ides a no el lens h ough which
A SEMI-CONCEPTUAL MODEL PROPOSAL: OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY ADDICTION WITH TEXT MINING
90
echnology addic ion can be unde s ood no solely as a clinical o beha io al
condi ion, bu also as a discu si e cons uc obse able in na u al language
use. Impo an ly, he analy ical amewo k demons a ed in his s udy can
se e as a eplicable empla e o u u e esea ch aiming o explo e digi al
beha io pa e ns h ough linguis ically g ounded me hods. As he bounda ies
be ween digi al and li ed expe iences con inue o blu , models ha b idge
compu a ional e idence wi h concep ual in e p e a ion become essen ial
ools o bo h academic inqui y and applied in e en ion design.
Recommenda ions
Based on he indings o his s udy, u u e esea ch on echnology addic ion
may bene i om inco po a ing linguis ically in o med app oaches in o ea ly
de ec ion sys ems. Educa ional ins i u ions, men al heal h p o essionals,
and digi al pla o m designe s a e encou aged o u ilize discu si e pa e ns
iden i ied h ough ex mining as indica o s o emo ional dis ess, cogni i e
dis up ion, and social wi hd awal. Addi ionally, in eg a ing eal- ime
linguis ic moni o ing in o digi al well-being ools may p o ide non-in asi e
and scalable al e na i es o beha io al isk assessmen .
Limi a ions and s eng hs
One limi a ion o his s udy lies in he ela i ely small and language-
speci ic da ase , which may limi he gene alizabili y o he indings ac oss
di e se linguis ic o cul u al con ex s. The absence o demog aphic da a
also p ecludes subg oup analysis based on age, gende , o digi al habi s.
Howe e , he s udy’s majo s eng h is i s no el in eg a ion o compu a ional
ex analysis wi h concep ual modeling, p o iding a scalable and eplicable
amewo k o explo ing echnology addic ion h ough na u al language.
The use o unsupe ised machine lea ning and quali a i e in e p e a ion
enhances bo h me hodological igo and in e p e i e dep h.
AYHAN KALINER
91
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