FROM QUR'ANIC THOUGHT TO MODERN CHALLENGES: INTELLECTUAL, SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

EDITOR
P o . D . Muhammed SAFDAR BHATTI
FROM QUR’ANIC THOUGHT
TO MODERN CHALLENGES:
INTELLECTUAL, SOCIAL
AND EDUCATIONAL
PERSPECTIVES
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BZT TURAN PUBLISHING HOUSE
Ce i ica e Numbe : 202401
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EDITOR: P o . D . Muhammed SAFDAR BHATTI
FROM QUR’ANIC THOUGHT TO MODERN CHALLENGES:
INTELLECTUAL, SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
OPEN ACCESS
Sugges ed Ci a ion:
Sa da Bha i, M. (2025). FROM QUR’ANIC THOUGHT TO MODERN CHALLENGES: INTELLECTUAL,
SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES. BZT TURAN PUBLISHING HOUSE. DOI: h ps://doi.
o g/10.30546/19023.978-9952-8610-3-7.2025.0039
Language: English
Publica ion Da e: Oc obe 2025
Co e Design By Mehme ÇAKIR
P in and digi al e sions ypese by BZT TURAN Media Co. L d.
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DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30546/19023.978-9952-8610-3-7.2025.0039
iii
PREFACE
In he con empo a y academic wo ld, whe e in e disciplina y app oaches
ha e gained inc easing signi icance, i becomes e e mo e essen ial o e isi
he in ellec ual and cul u al ounda ions o humani y. The s udies p esen ed
in his olume ep esen a di e se ye in e connec ed a emp o add ess he
mul i ace ed dimensions o eligion, socie y, educa ion, and his o y om
bo h classical and con empo a y pe spec i es.
The i s con ibu ions examine he Qu ’ān as a guide o human in ellec
and e lec ion, highligh ing concep s such as con empla ion ( edebbü ),
iʿ ibā , aakkul, adhakku , and uʾyah. Th ough hese, he Qu ’ān no only
di ec s human beings o ecognize he exis ence and uni y o God bu also
emphasizes he esponsibili y o employing eason in unde s anding he
ela ionship be ween God, humani y, and he uni e se. Thinking, in his
ega d, is p esen ed as a undamen al ac o wo ship and a pa hway o u h.
Ano he impo an ocus is on Imam Abū Manṣū al-Mā u īdī, whose
schola ly iden i y and in ellec ual legacy s and a he hea o he Ahl al-
Sunnah adi ion. His epis emological insigh s, as well as his con ibu ions in
kalām, iqh, and a sī , a e e isi ed he e in ela ion o he poli ical, cul u al,
and academic en i onmen o his ime. By si ua ing Mā u īdī wi hin he
ib an in ellec ual milieu o Bukha a, Nishapu , and Sama kand, his s udy
sheds ligh on how he shaped a a ional and ole an discou se ha con inues
o inspi e heological hough oday.
The me apho o e men a ion is hen employed o explo e he dynamics
o social hough . Jus as e men a ion in he biological sense signi ies
ans o ma ion and ma u a ion, he me apho he e encapsula es he e ol ing
p ocesses o eligious, cul u al, and in ellec ual de elopmen ac oss his o y.
F om he Abbasid pe iod o Al-Andalus and he O oman expe ience wi h
he p in ing p ess, and u he in o he digi al age, he analysis demons a es
how alues, no ms, and belie s a e con inuously eshaped h ough indi idual
e lec ion and collec i e in e ac ion.
The olume also add esses con empo a y socio-poli ical issues, such
as he Pales ine ques ion h ough he eyes o p eschool child en, o e ing
a poignan eminde ha poli ical eali ies ine i ably pe mea e educa ional
con ex s and ea ly s ages o iden i y o ma ion. This dimension highligh s
he ole o pedagogy no only as a means o ins uc ion bu also as a ield
deeply a ec ed by global con lic s and s uggles o jus ice.

i
Finally, a his o ical explo a ion o he Bak b. Wāʾil ibe du ing he
calipha e o ʿUma b. al-Khaṭṭāb unde sco es he signi icance o ibal
ne wo ks in adminis a ion, mili a y s a egy, judicia y p ac ices, and
diplomacy. By analyzing hei oles wi hin he b oade policies o go e nance,
he s udy p o ides aluable insigh s in o how p agma ic leade ship and me i -
based appoin men s acili a ed he consolida ion o he ea ly Islamic s a e.
Taken oge he , hese s udies illumina e he in e play o eason and
e ela ion, adi ion and ans o ma ion, indi idual consciousness and
collec i e iden i y, local con ex s and uni e sal alues. They emind us ha
in ellec ual inqui y is ne e con ined o a single domain bu a he lou ishes
a he in e sec ions o heology, his o y, sociology, educa ion, and poli ics.
I is ou hope ha his collec ion will se e as an inspi a ion o schola s
and s uden s alike, encou aging deepe engagemen wi h he endu ing
ques ions o ai h, eason, socie y, and human des iny. By b inging oge he
pe spec i es om he Qu ’ān, Islamic in ellec ual his o y, social heo y,
pedagogy, and ea ly Islamic go e nance, he olume aspi es o con ibu e
o he ongoing dialogue be ween pas legacies and p esen challenges in an
e e -changing wo ld.
F om he Pen o Miss Ma ia Noo
Sa da Bha i: An Ambassado o Knowledge
and Awa eness
D . Muhammad Sa da Bha i is a seasoned ELT
expe wi h 30 yea s IELTS, TOEFL, TEFL & PTE
eaching and aining expe ience ma ked by signi ican
con ibu ions o academia. He has helped housands o
s uden s o o e come hei s uggles and achie e hei
desi ed sco es. His passion o eaching and dedica ion o his s uden s’ success
d i es him o con inually imp o e his eaching me hods and p o ide he bes
possible suppo . He is a Linguis by p o ession, Teache T aine , Resea che
& In e na ional Keyno e & Plena y Speake by expe ience. His academic
excellence was e iden h oughou his s udies, es ablishing a ounda ion
o his u u e endea o s in esea ch and eaching. He has published 90
Resea ch Pape s in nume ous in e na ional pee e iewed esea ch jou nals
e lec ing his dedica ion o ad ancing he ield o ELT, au ho ed ou books
& has supe ised ex ensi ely. He has conduc ed and a ended sco es o ELT
wo kshops and semina s globally. Addi ionally, he has p esen ed mo e han
hund ed keyno e alks a a ious scien i ic con e ences, sha ing his indings
wi h he global scien i ic communi y. His publica ions and p esen a ions
ha e made him a well- espec ed esea che , con ibu ing aluable insigh s
in o ELT. He has a g ea a el his o y. He has been awa ded Hono a y
Doc o a e in ELT and Applied Linguis ics by an Ame ican Uni e si y due
o his ema kable se ices in he ield o ELT. He is a ecipien o mul iple
na ional and in e na ional Awa ds & Gold Medals in ecogni ion o his
ou s anding academic achie emen s. Cu en ly he is eaching in The Islamia
uni e si y o Bahawalpu -Pakis an.
i
ii
CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER 1
REASON AND THINKING IN THE QUR’AN: AN EVALUATION IN THE
CONTEXT OF THE CONCEPTS OF CONTEMPLATION, I’TIBÂR,
TAAKKUL, TEZEKKÜR AND RÜ’YET .................................................................... 1
Mehme KUYUCU
CHAPTER 2
IMAM MĀTURĪDĪ AND THE FORMATION OF HIS SCIENTIFIC IDENTITY:
HIS CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE FIELDS OF KALĀM, FIQH AND TAFSIR
AND THE ROLE OF SCHOLARLY ENVIRONMENT .........................................17
Mehme KUYUCU
CHAPTER 3
THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN
PRESCHOOL EDUCATION ....................................................................................39
Ze nişan AYKAN
Hakan SARIÇAM
CHAPTER 4
FERMENTATION OF SOCIAL THOUGHT AND ITS REFLECTIONS ............61
Mehme A a MIRZAOĞLU
CHAPTER 5
THE BAKR B. WĀʾIL TRIBE DURING THE CALIPHATE OF ʿUMAR: ROLES
IN ADMINISTRATION, MILITARY, JUDICIARY, AND DIPLOMACY ..............77
Kenan ECEOĞLU
CHAPTER 6
LIFE HISTORY OF SYED SHAMSUDDIN SHAH GILANI (MAY ALLAH
HAVE MERCY ON HIM) .......................................................................................... 95
Syed Adnan Hussain Gillani
D Syed Muhammad Fa ooq Shah Gillani
REASON AND THINKING IN THE QUR’AN: AN EVALUATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CONCEPTS
6
and guiding ligh o his message, especially he message o he Qu ’an i sel .
(Ku lue , 1994)
The Qu ’an, he human mind, and he isible ma e ial equi e in ense
men al endea o in h ee a eas o ca y beyond hem: man himsel , including
his own wo ld. We can ca ego ize unde h ee main headings: he ma e ial
and spi i ual exis ence o he li ing and non-li ing his o y. uni e se and he
e ela ion w i en wi h he pen wi h all hings (Qu ’an) We can gi e some
examples o hese i les om he ele an e ses.
Man is eminded o he u h o his c ea ion and called o hink abou
himsel .
I is He Who c ea ed you om dus , hen om semen, hen om an egg,
hen b ough you o h as a baby, hen made you li e so ha you may each
an age o s eng h, hen old age—and he e a e hose among you who ha e
died be o e—and each a ce ain ime. I is hoped ha you may e lec . (H.
Ka aman e al., 2007, Ve se al-Mu’min 40/67)
One o he ields ha he Qu ’an p esen s as a sou ce o a ional e lec ion
is his o y, ha is, he belie s, hough s, and p ac ices o people and socie ies
ha ha e li ed be o e and he esul s o hese belie s, hough s, and p ac ices.
“Ha e hey no a eled in he ea h? I hey had a eled, hey would
ce ainly ha e hea s o hink and ea s o hea . Bu he u h is ha he eyes
a e no blind, bu in he b eas s he hea s a e blind!” (H. Ka aman e al.,
2007, Aya al-Hajj 22/46)
The e a e many. mo e e ses dealing wi h he uni e se and e lec ion on
he cosmic sys em Fo example,
The dead ea h is a sign o hem. We e i e i and b ing o h g ains om
i , and hey ea o hem.
And We ha e made he ein da e palms and ineya ds, and We ha e
caused sp ings o gush o h in hem, ha hey may ea o hei ui . I is no
hei hands ha ha e done hese hings. Will hey s ill no gi e hanks? (H.
Ka aman d., 2007, Aye Yasin 36/33-35)
One o he mos impo an subjec s wo hy o human con empla ion is
he Holy ‘Qu ’an i sel . Qu ’an: I i we e he wo d o anyone o he han
Allah, hey would su ely ind many inconsis encies and con adic ions in i .
(H. Ka aman d., 2007, Aye en-Nisâ 4/82)
Wha he Qu ’an expec s om human beings, especially Muslims, all
his hinking as a esul o ac i i ies, is o c ea e. Because one eigh h o he

MEHMET KUYUCU
7
e ses o he Qu ’an commands science and esea ch, and in his con ex ,
i always ad ises people o lea n science, o ask ques ions, and o each he
u h by means o naza and is idlal. an “In o ma ion Socie y (F. Ka aman,
1998, s. 78)
B. Basic Concep s Exp essing Thinking in he
Qu ’an
1. Fik /Con empla ion
In he A abic dic iona y, he wo d ik means he powe ha di ec s
knowledge owa ds he known. Con empla ion, on he o he hand, is his
powe ac ing acco ding o he in ellec . Acco dingly, naza and con empla ion
a e “ hinking abou he a e ma h o a wo k,” examining and esea ching
hem o each he u h o hings. (el-Cü cânî, 1993, s. 63; el-İs ahani, 2017,
s. k md. 756)
One o he e ms ha comes closes o he meaning o hinking in he
Qu ’an is con empla ion oge he wi h eason. I is men ioned in 18 e ses in
he Qu ’an. (Abdülbâki, 1986, s. k md. 524-525) When hese e ses in he
Holy Qu ’an, which insis en ly command and ecommend con empla ion, a e
aken in o conside a ion, i becomes e y clea ha Allah wan s us o hink
abou he uni e se, ou wo ld, and i s con en s. As a esul , a belie e who
has a good knowledge o as onomy, biology, geology, physics, zoology, and
bo any knows ha he Qu ’an is a di ine e ela ion om Allah and ha he
uni e se sys em will be much be e able o es ablish he connec ion ha is a
magni icen wo k o a showing he exis ence o Allah. (P o . D . Mahmu
Kaya ile Söyleşi, 2020, s. 23)
Bi uni, who, acco ding o his o ians, is he pionee o an h opology,
Hindology, and geodesy, is a good example. He poin s o he ollowing e se,
191 o Su ah Al-Im an, as he eason o his engagemen in science. (Doko,
2017)
“Su ely in he c ea ion o he hea ens and he ea h, and in he day and
nigh al e na ion, he e a e signs o hose who ha e unde s anding. They
emembe Allah and con empla e he c ea ion o he hea ens and he ea h
while hey a e s anding, si ing, and eclining” (Âl-i Im ân 3/190-191).
The e se poin s o disco e ing he connec ion be ween in ellec ual inqui y
and belie in Allah and o a hinking ac i i y in which men al endea o ,
ememb ance o Allah, and con empla ion ollow and complemen each
o he . (Ku lue , 1994)
REASON AND THINKING IN THE QUR’AN: AN EVALUATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CONCEPTS
8
Some o he e ses ela ed a e as ollows: o con empla ion
Ha e hey no hough o hemsel es ha Allah has c ea ed he hea ens
and he ea h and all ha is be ween hem only in u h and o a de ini e
e m? Mos o he people indeed disbelie e in he mee ing wi h hei Lo d
(2007, Aye e -Rûm 30/8).
I is He Who pa ed he ea h and c ea ed in i moun ains and i e s and
c ea ed he ein o e e y ui in pai s. And He co e s he nigh o e he day.
Su ely in all his he e a e signs o a hinking people. (H. Ka aman d.,
2007, Aye e -Ra’d 13/3)
2. Tedebbu
Tedebbü A abic is de i ed om he wo d “dübü .” The dic iona ies s a e
ha . The wo d means “back” as he opposi e o “ on .” Tedbi , de i ed om
he same oo , means o hink abou he end o hings. (el-Cü cânî, 1993, s.
58; el-İs ahani, 2017, s. db md. 349-350)
The e b ‘ adaabbü ’ occu s in ou e ses in he Qu an (Abdülbâki,
1986, s. 252). The meanings o hese e ses a e as ollows:
I i we e he wo d o anyone o he han Allah, hey would su ely ind in
i many inconsis encies and con adic ions (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aye
en-Nisâ 4/82).
(O Messenge !) We ha e sen down his blessed book o you so ha hey
may ponde o e i s e ses and ha hose who ha e unde s anding may ake
admoni ion. (H. Ka aman d., 2007, Aye Sâd 38/29)
Do hey no ponde he Qu ’an? O do hey ha e o e lapping locks o e
hei hea s? (H. Ka aman d., 2007, Aye Muhammed 47/24)
Ha e hey no conside ed his wo d ( he Qu ’an)? O has some hing
come o hem ha did no come o hei o e a he s? (H. Ka aman e al.,
2007, Ve se al-M’minun 23/68)
I is seen ha in e ses, i is always a ibu ed o human beings. In o he
wo ds, he pe pe a o who should hink is a man. In hese places whe e he
e b “ o con empla e” is men ioned, he hings o be con empla ed a e he
wo dقول, آيات e ses, and القرآن Qu ›an. In o he wo ds, he common poin
o he hings o be conside ed is e ela ion. We can s a e ha he di e ence
ha dis inguishes ahaabd al- abboud om o he ac s o hinking is ha i is
an endea o o unde s and in o de o see ha he agen behind he e ela ion
is Allah. Taubabbü is an ac o hinking ha enables us o see ha he Qu ›an
MEHMET KUYUCU
9
could no ha e come om anyone o he han Allah, he abo e, whe e he
e b « o hink» is men ioned. (Uygan, 2018)
3.Zik /Con empla ion
The wo d zik (dhik ) is a cha ac e is ic o he soul ha enables people
o emembe he knowledge hey ha e acqui ed. I is b inging he acqui ed
knowledge o mind. Con empla ion is he ac i i y o emembe ing he
blessings o Allah (al-Is ahani, 2017, p. zk md. 374; Ibn Manzû , .y.). I is
o b ing o mind he gi e o blessings.
I is men ioned in e ses one hund ed and wen y-nine in he Holy Qu ›an
in he impe a i e o m, wen y- wo, and in he e b o m in he sense o a
men al and hea e o o man, one hund ed and se en (Abdülbâki, 1986, p.
zk md.262-263). The ac o hinking is he mos common wo d in he sense
o men al e o .
I he hinking is di ec ed owa ds he pas , i is called and means
« emembe ing, ememb ance, con empla ion. Zik and con empla ion ha e
he same meaning in he dic iona y and mean «bo h ememb ance wi h
he ongue and ememb ance wi h he hea , ecollec ion» (Ku lue , n.d.).
Con empla ion means eminding «ى ٰ
رْٰخُْْ
لْاُا اَمَُهُيٰدْٰحِْا َرِٰ�كَِّذَُتَُفَ اَمَُهُيٰدْٰحِْا ّلَِّ
ضَِتَ ْنَا. I one o
he women ge s con used, le he o he emind he » (H. Ka aman e al., 2007,
Aya al-Baqa a 2/282) is a good example.
Acco ding o Elmali dhik (zik ), hinking ha co e s all s a es o he
human being is an ac o ime. In e ms o he pas , p esen , and u u e, i
co e s. He sees i as a p e equisi e o human expe iences anging om hose
wi h pu e minds who can ead he in isible om he isible o he in isible,
he ac s o e en s om wo ships such as p aye o scien i ic disco e ies. I
is an ac pe o med in o de o see unique wo ks o a and he powe o he
judgmen s o a ibu es and e en Allah he Almigh y by di ing in o he inne
ealm wo ld ( he inne ace o exis ence) o he angelic (Yazı , 2021, p. 445).
As a esul o he ac o hinking poin ed ou by he Qu ›an, we wi ness
ha none o he in en ions, scien i ic disco e ies, and in en ions made
h oughou his o y, whe he in he ield o posi i e sciences o social sciences,
ha e e e con adic ed he u hs poin ed ou o clea ly shown by he Holy
Qu ›an. On he con a y, hese disco e ies and in en ions seem o con i m
he u hs poin ed ou by he Qu ›an. (In e iew wi h P o . D . Mahmu Kaya,
2020)
One o he wo ds de i ed om he oo «zik » is con empla ion.
Con empla ion e e s o wo ac ions. The i s o hese is he endea o o ou
REASON AND THINKING IN THE QUR’AN: AN EVALUATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CONCEPTS
10
hea o e u n and emembe wha we ha e los and o go en om wha we
know. The o he is o place in he mind wha has no been o go en, wha has
been lea ned, wha is known, and wha is hea d and seen.
In o he wo ds, we can say ha i is an endea o o o m a solid hough ,
belie , and knowledge based on he e en s ha happened in he pas , he
p esen , and he u u e. To pu i mo e succinc ly, con empla ion o he
Almigh y by conside ing he signs o unlimi ed me cy in all he beings
c ea ed by Allah in he uni e se and he e idence o Allah›s exis ence, we
can say ha i is he endea o o unde s and me cy and compassion and His
knowledge and powe . The e o e, con empla ion is no a me e hough bu a
de e mina ion o hink, unde s and, and no o ge ha Allah is he Lo d o
he c ea u es by conside ing he wo ks o Allah and using ou mind, in ellec ,
and ac ions. he C ea o (Bilgiz, 2006, pp. 215-216)
4. I’ iba
In he dic iona y, epu a ion and example a e de ined as eaching he
in isible based on he knowledge o he isible. (al-Is ahani, 2017, p. ab
md.632-633
The e is a g ea sign o you in he case o hose wo g oups who ough
agains each o he (a Bad ). One g oup was igh ing in he way o Allah, and
he o he was a g oup o disbelie e s who saw hem clea ly as wice hei
numbe . Allah suppo s whom He wills wi h His help. Su ely he e is a g ea
sign in his o he owne s o clai oyance (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya
al-›Al-›Im ân 3/13).
I means exempla y hinking ha os e s ( aking a lesson) he awa eness
ha and i s con en s a e empo a y and decep i e in he wo ld.
He, om he People o he Book, is he One who d o e ou he disbelie e s
in he i s mass exile. You did no hink ha hey would come ou . And
hey hough ha hei o esses would p o ec hem om Allah. Bu Allah›s
command came o hem om whe e hey did no expec . He pu ea in
hei hea s. So much so ha hey used o wash hei houses wi h hei own
hands and wi h he hands o he belie e s. O people o clai oyance, ake an
example. (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya al-Hash 59/2)
Taking an example is a di e en aspec o con empla ion. We can say ha
i is he ou wa d dimension o hinking. Moun ains, seas, he sun, na ions,
socie ies, and human beings hemsel es a e subjec s o example. Since Allah
did no c ea e he uni e se in ain, a belie e should ne e look a li e wi h
emp y eyes. All he blessings ha Allah has gi en us and he oubles we
MEHMET KUYUCU
11
ha e su e ed a e a e se om which we can lea n lessons i we look a
hem om he pe spec i e o example and wisdom. Ou Lo d ecommends
ha Muslims should look a he wo ld o exis ence wi h an eye o example.
(E baş, 2020, p. 6)
I is also s a ed ha i is used in he sense o aking lessons om e en s and
ac s. I is a me hod o eaching new in o ma ion by compa ing some hing
unknown wi h wha is known. In his con ex , i has he same meaning as
he syllogism me hod ha o ms he basis o he syllogism in logic and
ju isp udence. Ibn Rushd, he wo d « epu a ion,» is known o conside he
e se as e idence o he necessi y o using a ional and iqh syllogism. «O
you who ha e he clai oyance, ake an example.» (H. Ka aman e al., 2007,
Aya al-Hash 59/2. (In e iew wi h P o . D . Mahmu Kaya, 2020)
5. Re lec ion and Re›y
Since hey ha e meanings ela ed o hinking, i is necessa y o include
hese wo ds in his g oup o e ms. “ eemmul” means «concen a ing hough
on an objec in he mind.» Re’y (o u’ye ), on he o he hand, means looking
and seeing wi h bo h he eyes and he hea (in ellec ), simila o he concep
o he e il eye. The in ellec ual con ic ion (i› ikad) o med as a esul o hese
obse a ions is also called a›mmul and e’y. In he Qu ›an, he concep s o
e’y/ ü’ye a e used in he sense o bo h senso y and in ellec ual pe cep ion
(Ku lue , 1994).
(Say: Ha e you e e conside ed ha i Allah we e o keep he nigh on you
un il he Day o Resu ec ion, who is he god besides Allah who can b ing
you ligh ? Will you s ill no hea ? (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Ve se al-Qasas
28/71)
Say: Ha e you seen you pa ne s whom you wo shipped besides Allah?
Show me! Wha on ea h ha e hey c ea ed! O do hey ha e a pa ne ship in
he hea ens! O ha e we gi en hem a book (abou his ma e ) so ha hey
ely on p oo in ha book? Nay! Those w ongdoe s gi e each o he no hing
bu decep ion and p omise. (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya al-Fa i 35/40)
And i you we e o ask hem, «Who c ea ed he hea ens and he ea h?»
hey would ce ainly say, «Allah.» Say: Then ell me. I Allah wishes o ha m
me, can hose whom you wo ship besides Allah emo e he ha m He has
done? O i Allah wills me cy on me, can hey p e en His me cy? Say: Allah
is su icien o me. Those who pu hei us in Him alone. (H. Ka aman e
al., 2007, Ve se Zuma 39/38)

REASON AND THINKING IN THE QUR’AN: AN EVALUATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CONCEPTS
12
Say: Wha do you say? I i ( he Qu ›an) is om Allah, and you ha e
disbelie ed in i , hen who is mo e as ay ( om he u h) han he who is a
as ay? (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Ve se Fussuli 41/52)
Tell us, hen, wha is he semen ha you pou (in o he wombs)? Do you
c ea e i , o is i we who c ea e i ?
Now ell me wha you ha e sown. Do you inish, o is i we who inish i ?
I we had willed i , we could ha e made i d y ubbish, and you would
ha e been as onished. (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya al-Waqi›a 56/59-65)
Imam Mâ u idî in e p e ed i in wo ways. Fi s ly, he u h is so ob ious
ha he pe son who does no see i and does no accep i should be conside ed
unin elligen . The wo d ü›ye in Su a al-Qasas, 71 e se:
«Tha is o say, while hey we e gi ing hanks, hey we e u ning owa ds
he idols hey wo shipped. wo shipping Howe e , hey knew ha he idols
we e no able o change he nigh in o day o he day in o nigh , which Allah
Almigh y had decla ed. Ye hey delibe a ely abandoned he wo ship o
Allah, who is he One who is able o do all hese hings.» (H. Ka aman d.,
2007, Aye Su a al-Qasas, 71)
The second in e p e a ion is ha he seeing in he e se is seeing in he
mind and hea . I is as i Allah Almigh y said, Will you no lis en o his wi h
you minds? And will you no see in ellec ually? This e se suppo s my
in e p e a ion. (M. I. M. al-Mā u īdī, 2015, pp. 90-91)
Ha e hey no a eled in he ea h ( hose who deny you)? I hey had
a eled, hey would ce ainly ha e hea s o hink and ea s o hea . Bu he
u h is ha he eyes a e no blind, bu he hea s wi hin he b eas s a e blind.
(H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya al-Hajj 22/46)
As a esul , i can be exp essed as he human being›s unde s anding and
accep ance o he u hs ha a e clea ly in on o he eyes and a he same
ime comp ehended by e e yone, wi hou u ning away om he ac s o
being s ubbo n. In o de o man no o see hese ac s, he should only ha e
a o ced exhibi and blind s ubbo nness denial.
6.Taakkul (Reasoning)
Posi i e and nega i e e bs ( aakkul), which occu in 48 places in he
Holy Qu ›an in he o m o means, o hink abou he e ses, and o d aw he
necessa y conclusions. (Abdülbâki, 1986, pp. 468-469) Elmalılı Muhammad
Hamdi In a special sense, he knowledge o Allah is a unc ion o he hea ,
ha is, he in ellec showing wisdom and powe o Acco dingly, he essence
MEHMET KUYUCU
13
o he ac o in ellec ion is he ans e om obse a ion o heo y, om he
senses o he in elligible, and his ans e akes place in acco dance wi h
he equi emen s o he p inciple o illiyya . o Yazı (Ku lue , 1994) In his
sense, he e b aakkul can be gi en he meaning o hinking and easoning
on heo e ical and p ac ical issues. (In e iew wi h P o . D . Mahmu Kaya,
2020)
Some o he e ses on he subjec o hinking ( easoning) a e as ollows:
Allah c ea ed he hea ens and he ea h in u h. Su ely his is a sign
(o Allah›s exis ence and powe ) o hose who belie e. (H. Ka aman e al.,
2007, Aya al-Anqabû 29/44).
Su ely he wo s o c ea u es in he sigh o Allah a e he dea and dumb
who do no hink (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya al-An al 8/22).
Ha e hey no a eled in he ea h ( hose who deny you)? Su ely i hey
had a eled, hey would ha e had hea s o hink and ea s o hea . Bu he
u h is ha he eyes a e no blind, bu he hea s wi hin he b eas s become
blind. (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya al-Haj 22/46).
Ha e you no looked a hose who dispu e abou he e ses o Allah? How
hey a e u ned away ( hey e use o acknowledge i ). (H. Ka aman e al.,
2007, Ve se al-Mu›min 40/69)
Many e ses wi h con en ha e he same meaning and encou age us o
hink. In his sense, he Qu ›an›s in ellec ual pause and abou do no wan us
o do so in a supe icial way, bu in a deep and consis en way ha will enable
us o be awa e o he sub le ies and wisdom o beings. (In e iew wi h P o .
D . Mahmu Kaya, 2020)
Ve ily, in he c ea ion o he hea ens and he ea h, and in he al e na ion
o he nigh and he day, and in he ships ha sail in he sea laden wi h wha
is good o mankind, and in he wa e ha Allah sends down om he sky
and e i es he dead ea h, and in His sp eading all kinds o li ing c ea u es
on he ea h, and in His di ec ing he winds and he clouds ha wai be ween
he ea h and he sky, o a hinking people ( he exis ence and uni y o Allah;
he e a e many p oo s) p o ing (H. Ka aman e al., 2007, Aya al-Baqa a
2/164).
In o de o unde s and he exis ence o Allah, he C ea o , we obse e
he uni e se; i is su icien o look a and hink abou . The sun, he moon,
he s a s, he seas and i e s on he ea h, he wo ld mine als, he plan s, and
he animals necessa ily accep ha hey canno be independen o a c ea i e
powe and a being o wisdom. This me hod and poin o iew is he me hod
REASON AND THINKING IN THE QUR’AN: AN EVALUATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE CONCEPTS
14
o he anbiya and as iya. (al-Ha pu ī, 2016, p. 124) Howe e , in he ele an
e se, i is s a ed ha es ablishing his connec ion be ween God and he
uni e se is ese ed o hose who use hei in ellec .
Conclusion
Undoub edly, he wo d o Allah ha bes explains na u e and he
ela ionship be ween hem is he Qu ›an. Fo his eason, he exis ence and
Allahuni y o man, in o de o es ablish he igh way, his ela ionship in
Allah has suppo ed and e ealed man wi h p ophe s along wi h eason.
When we look a he Qu ›an, which is he di ine e ela ion, we see ha
he mos impo an human endea o is hinking and con empla ion. his In
con ex , he Holy Qu ›an in i es people o use hei in ellec and hink abou
hings in e ses many.
In his s udy, we ha e ied o deal wi h he concep s ela ed o hinking in
he Qu ›an wi hin he amewo k o he ele an e ses. We ha e de e mined
ha many concep s ela ed o hinking a e used. We ha e de e mined he basic
concep s used in he e ses ela ed o hinking as naza , a si , edebbü ,
i› ibâ and aakkul (in ellec ), ezekkü and e›y. In addi ion o hese, he
Qu ›an has an impo an place in he concep s o knowledge, wisdom, book,
basa , uad, hea , basi e , lubb, igh , a e, ayah, beyyine, bu han,
sul an, ib e , and a akkuh, ich con en ela ed o hinking and easoning.
As a as we ha e been able o meanings o he concep s o , a e as ollows:
de e mine, he, we ha e endea ou ed o de e mine he meaning amewo k
in he con ex o he Qu ›ancon empla ion, edebbü , i› ibâ and aakkul
(in ellec ), ezekkü and e›y.
In acco dance wi h he oo meaning, we can exp ess i as he leap o
he in ellec ual mind om he ma e ial pa o he beings o he spi i ual/
me aphysical ield. I is seen ha his emphasis comes o he o e in he
e ses. con empla ion Wha is signaled by con empla ion in he e ses is
o examine and in es iga e hings in o de o each he u h o hem. The
esul o his endea o is o see Allah, he Lo d o he wo lds, behind and o
es ablish he connec ion be ween he c ea o and he c ea ed. he exis ence.
The wo d epu a ion, which is exp essed as an ac ion pe o med by hose
who ha e in ellec , appea s as a di e en aspec o con empla ion in he
e ses. This wo d we see is used in he Qu ›anic con ex in he sense o
aking lessons om e en s and phenomena and aking a lesson. The e o e,
o Muslims, he ealm o exis ence is emp y and is no , bu a ield ha should
be looked a wi h an eye o example and lea ned om pu poseless.
MEHMET KUYUCU
15
Con empla ion is he mos common wo d in he Qu ›an ha exp esses
hinking and men al endea o . emembe ing he blessings o Allah I
appea s as he ac i i y o commemo a ing. I is o b ing o mind he c ea o
o exis ence and he gi e o blessings. And hese blessings Con empla ion
also s ands as an ac o hinking ha co e s all s a es o man. I is an ac ion
pe o med by hose wi h pu e minds who can ead he in isible om he
isible in o de o see he eali ies o e en s. Howe e , when con empla ion
is di ec ed owa ds he pas , i should be no ed ha i means « emembe ing,
ememb ance.»
The wo d a›abbbü appea s in he e ses as an ac o e lec ion ha
enables us o see ha he Qu ›an could no ha e come om anyone o he
han Allah. The e o e, acco ding o he Qu ›an, he common poin o he
hings ha should be s udied is e ela ion. We can say ha he di e ence
ha dis inguishes he ac o e lec ion om o he ac s o hinking is ha i is
an endea o o unde s and in o de o see ha he agen behind e ela ion is
God. (al-Ju jānī, 1993, p. 58)
In he e ses, i is used in a special sense as a unc ion o he hea , i.e., he
in ellec , in he sense o hinking abou he e ses showing he knowledge,
wisdom, and powe o Allah and d awing he necessa y conclusions. In his
sense, he e b aaqqul can be gi en he meaning o hinking abou heo e ical
and p ac ical issues.
Re›y, which is used in he sense o seeing clea -cu u hs, means looking
and seeing wi h bo h he eyes and he hea (in ellec ), jus like he e il eye.
The in ellec ual con ic ion (i› ikad) o med in human beings as a esul o
hese obse a ions is also called e›y. The concep s o e›y/ ü›ye a e also
used in he Qu ›an in he sense o bo h senso y and in ellec ual pe cep ion.
In o he wo ds, i is man›s comp ehension o he u hs in on o his eyes.
Allah Almigh y upon man One o he g ea es blessings is eason. When
he in ellec is used in he ligh o e ela ion, i can lead man o happiness in
his wo ld and he he ea e . In o de o ealize his goal, he Qu ›an in i es
man o e lec on himsel , he uni e se and he beings in i , and he di ine
e ela ion, and o comp ehend he wisdom o hei c ea ion. Fo his eason, i
has been bes owed ha « eading and con empla ing he book o he uni e se
like he Qu ›an should be an indispensable goal o us.» (In e iew wi h
P o . D . Mahmu Kaya, 2020, p. 20)
IMAM MĀTURĪDĪ AND THE FORMATION OF HIS SCIENTIFIC IDENTITY: HIS CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE FIELDS
22
Muhaddi hs Bukhā ī and Dā imī, he commen a o Dahhāq b. Muzāhim,
he heologian Mā u īdī, and he ju is Abū al-Leys al-Sama qandī a e jus
a ew o hem. The schola ly ac i i ies ha s a ed in he egion in he II
(VIII.) cen u y eached hei peak du ing he Sāmānid pe iod. In his pe iod,
Mâ e âünnehi also showed g ea economic de elopmen and he wel a e
le el o he people inc eased. (Rudolph, 2003, pp. 296-298; Us a, 2009)
The Samanid palace in Bukha a had one o he la ges lib a ies in he
Islamic wo ld. The i s mad asas o he Islamic wo ld we e loca ed in his
geog aphy, and he e a e hund eds o mad asas ha ha e su i ed o he
p esen day. Ibn Sina was, who is known no only in he Islamic wo ld bu
h oughou he wo ld, Ibn Sina was om Bukha a, g ew up in he Sāmānid
palace, w o e Maḳāla i’n-na s o Noah II, and wo ked as his physician.
Abū al-Ḥasan al-ʿĀmi ī and A icenna’s eache Abū ‘Abd al-Husayn b.
Ib āhīm al-Nā ilī we e o he impo an philosophe s o he pe iod. In he
ield o medicine, Abū Bak al-Rāzī w o e his amous wo k known as eṭ-
Ṭıbb al-Manṣū ī on behal o Mansū b. Ishaq, he go e no o Rey om he
Sāmānids. Abū Mansū Hasan b. Nūh al-Kum i, he physician o Nūh II and
he eache o A icenna, and Abū Sahl al-Masīhī a e o he amous igu es o
he pe iod in he ield o medicine. o he IV. (X.) cen u y in he Abū Ca’ e
al-Khāzin, one o he mos impo an names in he ields o ma hema ics and
as onomy, se ed he Sāmānids o a long ime. (Özgüdenli, 2003)
In addi ion o he abo e-men ioned poli ical and economic in luences, we
can say ha he Tu kish cul u al cus oms and adi ions and Hana i hough
also con ibu ed o he o ma ion o a as ole ance in his egion and he
a ou ing o schola s.
Ano he issue ha made Imam Ma u idi’s wo k easie was ha he
Samanids, who uled he Mâ e âünnehi egion a ha ime, also alued
wo ldly sciences. Fo his eason, eligious sciences such as a si , hadi h,
iqh, heology and mys icism on he one hand and posi i e sciences such
as chemis y, as onomy, medicine, science and heal h on he o he hand
de eloped in he egion. (Us a, 2009)
II. Teache s o Imam Ma u idi:
Abu Mansu al-Mâ u îdî was a s uden o Imam al-Azam Abu Hani a’s
s uden s. In he sou ces, he e a e i e ypes o eache se ies ela ed o Imam
Ma u idi’s eache s.
Abu Mansu al-Mâ u îdî ook lessons om a leas i e eache s. All o
hese schola s ook lessons om Muhammad al-Shaybani, Abu Yusu , Abu

MEHMET KUYUCU
23
Muqa il al-Sama qandi, and Abu Mu i al-Belhi, he s uden s o Imam al-
Azam Abu Hani a. In o he wo ds, Imam Mâ u îdî s udied om he s uden s
o Abu Hani a’s s uden s. Imam Ma u idi’s eache s, whom he s udied
pe sonally, a e as ollows:
1. Abu Bak Ahmad b. Ishaq b. Salih al-Juzjani,
2. Abu Nas Ahmad ibn al-Abbas al-Iyazi,
3. Muhammad b. Muqa il al-Razi,
4. Nusay b. Yahya al-Belhi,
5. Abu Bak Muhammad b. Ahmad b. Rajah al-Juzjani. (Ak, 2014a, p. 20)
III. Wo ks o Imam Ma u idi:
The ea lies known sou ce o in o ma ion abou Mā u īdī’s li e, wo ks,
iews, s uden s and con empo a ies is Abū al-Muʿūn al-Na ṣīlī’s Tabṣi a al-
adillah. Abū al-Muʿmuʾīn al-Na ṣīlī s a ed ha Imam al-Mā u īdī had o he
wo ks and eco ded he names o wel e o hem, he au ho ship o which is
ce ain. (Özen, 2003) Howe e , we ha e wo wo ks, one o which is Ki ab al-
Tawhid, w i en in he ield o heology, and he o he is Teʿwila al-Qu ʾān,
w i en in he ield o exegesis. We eg e o say ha apa om hese wo
wo ks, o he wo ks o his g ea schola ha e no su i ed. (Akçay & Bulu ,
2005, p. 45; A slan, 2018, p. 230) Wha is pleasing o us is ha hese wo
wo ks ha e been ansla ed in o Tu kish.
These wo ks he w o e in he ields o Ta si , Kalam and Fiqh can be lis ed
as ollows. (Özen, 2003)
a) Ta si .
Theʾwīlā al-Ḳu ʾān: Teʾwīlā al-Ashli’s-sunnah, Teʾwīlā al-Mā u īdiyya,
is a e y impo an wo k in e ms o a sī , bu i also con ains ich in o ma ion
and impo an opinions in he ields o heology, iqh and ju isp udence. In
addi ion, i is a sou ce ha canno be neglec ed in e ms o he c i icism o
belie s and iews o Islamic sec s, non-Islamic mo emen s and eligions.
b) Kalam (Theology)
1. Ki āb al- awḥīd. I is he only comple e wo k o Mā u īdī and deals
wi h he basic issues o heology. A e i s i s edi ion by Fe hullah Huley
(Bei u 1970, 1982; Is anbul 1979; Alexand ia, s.), Beki Topaloğlu and
Muhammad A uchi epublished i . (Anka a 2003), and Beki Topaloğlu
ansla ed i in o Tu kish (Anka a 2002).
IMAM MĀTURĪDĪ AND THE FORMATION OF HIS SCIENTIFIC IDENTITY: HIS CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE FIELDS
24
2. Ki āb al-Maḳālā
3. Redd al-Awāʾili al-adillah li al-Qaʿbī ( o a quo a ion, see al-Na asī,
II, 567).
4. Redd Tehẕībi al-jadal li al-Qaʿbī.
5. Bayān al-wahmi al-Muʿ azila.
6. Redd al-Waʿīd al- usṣāḳ li al-Qaʿbī.
7. Redd al-Uṣūli al-ḫamse li-Ebī ʿOma al-Bāḥilī. The schola whose
iews a e c i icised in his wo k is Abū ʿUma Muhammad b. ʿUma b.
ʿUma b. Saʿīd al-Bāḥilī, one o he p ominen Bas a Muʿ azili es.
8. Redd Ki āb al-Imāma li-baʿżi al-Rawā iż.
9. al-Red ʿale al-Ḳa āmiṭa ( i al-uṣūl).
c) Fiqh.
1. Meʾāḫiẕü (Meʾaẕü) sha āʾiʿ ī uṣūli al- iḳh
2. Ki āb al-Jadal ī uṣūli al- iḳh.
3. al-Rad ʿal al-Ḳa āmiṭa ( i al- u ūʿ).
4. Sha ḥ al-Jāmiʿi al-Saghi
IV. Imam Ma u idi’s Scien i ic Pe sonali y and
Me hod
We ha e endea ou ed o explain he eligious, sec a ian and cul u al
si ua ion in he pe iod when Imam Ma u idi li ed. We can also asse ha he
o ma ion o hese sec s, as a whole heo e ical sys em, occu ed a ha ime.
Al hough Imam Ma u idi himsel g ew up in he Hana i adi ion, he was no
sa is ied wi h his unde s anding. Because we can say ha his adi ion did
no ully sa is y him.
In o de o unde s and he scien i ic pe sonali y and me hod o Imam
Ma u idi, we can ask he ollowing ques ions: Wha was he eason o his
sea ch o a clea e and mo e luminous pa h wi hou being caugh by he
wo ldly and in ellec ual cha m o any o he exis ing sec s in his ime, which
led him o he scien i ic sea ch? Fu he mo e, wha a e he easons why he
as majo i y o Muslims om his e a o he p esen day ha e accep ed and
alued him as an imam and s ill ha e no los any hing om his alue?
In sho , wha makes Imam Ma u idi di e en ? When we answe hese
ques ions, Imam Ma u idi’s scien i ic pe sonali y and why he Imam o he
MEHMET KUYUCU
25
Ahl al-Sunnah and he o iginal ounde o he Sunni heology a e conside ed,
we can unde s and. (Topaloğlu, Beki , 2003)
F om his wo k Ki abu-Tawhid, we unde s and ha Imam Ma u idi
ealised he ollowing abou his ime: E e y eligion and sec membe is
con en wi h wha he has and claims ha he is igh and ue. This si ua ion
does no dis u b he membe s o hese eligions and sec s. E e yone claims
ha hei eligion o sec is igh and o he s a e w ong. Since he u h canno
be so agmen ed and sca e ed, how can one choose one o hem, o how
can one decide on he u h o hese claims, and how can one each he u h?
Mo e p ecisely, wha is he measu e o u h? (Mā u īdī, 2005, pp. 4-13)
Acco ding o Imam Ma u idi, he ways ha lead o he knowledge o
he eali ies o objec s and e en s (hakaiku’l eşya) consis o h ee ypes:
cogni ion h ough he senses, news, and deduc ion. (Mâ u îdî, 2005, p. 9)
The i s o hese is he cogni ion o he senses, which cons i u es he basic
means o knowledge. I is he way o ob aining knowledge accep ed by all
sane people who a e no s ubbo n in accep ing he u h. The second me hod
o acqui ing knowledge is h ough news sou ces. This is also an undeniable
sou ce o in o ma ion. Fo example, a pe son knows hei own name, who his
ela i es a e, he exis ence o his o ical igu es such as Fa ih Sul an Mehme ,
and he exis ence o ci ies and coun ies. This ype o news is di ided in o
wo. The i s is called Mu awa i News and he o he is called News Wahid.
Imam Mâ u îdî conside s he Mu awa i News as news ha is no likely o be
mis aken and he o he as news ha is likely o be mis aken. The hi d sou ce
o knowledge is Is idlal. Reasoning p o ides access o his me hod, also
known as naza . Acco ding o Ma u idiyya, he momen he mind begins o
hink, o become ac i e, i ans o ms in o a ool o knowledge acquisi ion.
In Imam Ma u idi’s hough , easoning is an independen way o ob aining
knowledge. Howe e , his easoning, also known as is idlal, ensu es he
accu acy and eliabili y o in o ma ion de i ed om bo h ou senses
(pe cep ion) and news. The e o e, acco ding o Imam Ma u idi, easoning
is essen ial. In addi ion, i is also he easoning ha de e mines which news
will be classi ied as us wo hy and which will be classi ied as news wahid.
Fo example, acco ding o Imam Ma u idi, he p oo ha he Qu ’an is om
God, as in o ma ion ha comes h ough news, is possible h ough easoning.
God Himsel has p o ed ha he Qu ’an is e ela ion based on his me hod
o easoning. (Mā u īdī, 2005, p. 13)
Acco ding o Imam Ma u idi, God has commanded demons a ion wi h
a ious e ses: “We will show hem Ou signs bo h in he ex e nal wo ld and
in hei souls so ha i may be es ablished o hem ha i is ue. Is i no
IMAM MĀTURĪDĪ AND THE FORMATION OF HIS SCIENTIFIC IDENTITY: HIS CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE FIELDS
26
su icien ha you Lo d is a wi ness o e e y hing? Do no doub ha hey
a e s ill in doub abou mee ing hei Lo d; do no doub ha He encompasses
e e y hing.” (H. Ka aman e al., 2007 ( Ve se Fussila 41/53-54) Wi h many
o he simila e ses, Allah has encou aged people o eason, made i necessa y
o unde s and he unhea d h ough he sensible wo ld, commanded hinking
and easoning, and in o med ha his me hod makes indi iduals awa e o he
u h and shows hem he igh pa h. (Mâ u îdî, 2005, p. 14)
The conclusion d awn om all hese indings is his: Acco ding o
Ma u idiyya, all kinds o news (including hose ha a e us wo hy o
wahid) can be a sou ce o knowledge a e being subjec ed o he il e o
eason. I is only possible o unde s and he di e ence be ween he mi acles
shown by p ophe s and he hings done by magicians and so ce e s o decei e
he eye only h ough easoning. To gi e a clea e example, no one has any
doub , whe he hey belie e o no , ha he Qu ’an is a book e ealed by he
P ophe Muhammad (PBUH). The hesi a ion is whe he Muhammad was a
p ophe o no , o whe he he Qu ’an is e ela ion o no . Mā u īdī says ha
he answe can only be known by easoning.
The mos s iking ea u e o Imam Ma u idi’s pe spec i e on knowledge
pe ains o Habe -i Vahid. Imam Ma u idi pu s o wa d wo c i e ia in o de
o ake Habe al-Wahid in o conside a ion as a sou ce o knowledge. The
i s is o ho oughly examine he condi ions o he a as, and he second
is o e alua e he esul o be ob ained om he con en o he news and o
de e mine i s eliabili y wi hin he amewo k o he ce ain y o ce ain y.
He e we would like o emphasise he ollowing: Acco ding o Imam
Ma u idi, a i and con en c i icism a e no independen c i e ia bu
complemen a y o each o he . In o he wo ds, in o de o news o be accep ed
as a sou ce o in o ma ion and o be ac ed upon, i is no enough o i o pass
he es in e ms o a i, bu i mus also be in acco dance wi h he Qu ’an
in e ms o con en . Howe e , acco ding o Imam Ma u idiyya, e en i he
news e ela ion passes hese wo c i e ia, he e is s ill he possibili y o e o ,
so he e a e wo al e na i es, such as wo king wi h i o no aking i in o
conside a ion a all. Howe e , i i is o be ac ed upon, i mus pass hese wo
c i e ia.
I is seen ha Imam Mā u īdī was e y me iculous abou he news wahid.
Because he sha e o e o and mis ake in his kind o news is a leas as much
as he sha e o being co ec . I is unde s ood ha he also se o he c i e ia in
o de o he poin e o his kind o news o u n in he igh di ec ion. These
c i e ia a e
MEHMET KUYUCU
27
1-Being suppo ed by p ac ice,
2-Compliance wi h he Qu ’an and eason,
3-Compliance wi h he gene ali y o he Sunnah, ijma and he gene al
belwa,
4-Non-con adic ion wi h his o ical news, in o he wo ds, being suppo ed
by sou ces ha p o ide accu a e in o ma ion.
News ha ul ils hese condi ions is a sou ce o accu a e in o ma ion.
(Mâ u îdî, 2005, p. 12; Tuğlu, 2014, pp. 588-590)
Imam Mā u īdī, while emphasising he necessi y o he me hod o
demons a ion, also d aws a en ion o he necessi y o e ela ion and he
need o a p ophe : This is clea om his s a emen s in Ki ab al-Tawhid.
Acco ding o Ma u idi, God has he powe o e eal His will and command
and o p o ec His c ea u es om alsehood and e o in ma e s He wishes.
Al hough he e is a possibili y ha people may all in o e o while easoning,
hei eaching consensus (ijma) on a subjec is only possible hanks o Allah,
who makes hem ag eeable o i depending on he wisdom o announcing His
will. Because, acco ding o Ma u idi, he e is no uni y o human opinions
wi hou he g ace o God due o he di e en pe cep ions and pu poses o
each muj ahid who exp esses an opinion. (Mā u īdī, 2005, p. 12) In addi ion
o he high posi ion and unc ionali y o eason, eason is no comple ely ee
om e o in Mā u īdī hough . The e o e, in o de o be p o ec ed om he
e o s ha may a ise om he in ellec , he e is an absolu e need o eason
as well as ans e ence. (Onay, 2014, p. 387)
Imam Mā u īdī says ha he e is no hing mo e accu a e han he news
p esen ed by he p ophe s and ha he e is no hing else ha can ully sa is y
he hea . (Mā u īdī, 2005, p. 11) Howe e , whe he ha news eally comes
om he p ophe o no needs o be p o ed as a a ional necessi y. Ma u idi’s
in o de o jus i y e ela ion and p ophe hood. This is he eason o eso ing
o eason, eason and easoning.
Mā u īdī places g ea alue on e ela ion and easoning, which he ega ds
as indispensable ools o unde s anding eligion. Since hen, i has been
adop ed by many schola s since his ime. This me hod elies on s iking
a balance be ween in ui ion and eason (Ak, 2014a, p. 20). The p obable
eason o his is he use o eason (is idlal) in unde s anding e ela ion and i
as a sou ce o knowledge ha he clea ly and unde s andably e eals he ole.
Mā u īdī says agains hose who do no accep he ways o acqui ing
knowledge, including in e ence, ha hese a e icks ha he de il has pu

IMAM MĀTURĪDĪ AND THE FORMATION OF HIS SCIENTIFIC IDENTITY: HIS CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE FIELDS
28
in o he human mind in o de o dis ac i om he u h. (Mā u īdī, 2005, p.
15) He who denies a ional inqui y h ough a ional inqui y has no e idence
apa om he e idence he has ob ained. Such indi iduals a e a ionally
obliga ed o acknowledge he necessi y o inqui y. Howe e , Allah Ta’ala
has in i ed His se an s o a ional inqui y and commanded hem o hink
and eason and has in o med hem ha his me hod makes hem awa e o he
u h and shows hem he igh pa h. This is a ional inqui y and e lec ion,
one o he sou ces o knowledge— a p oo o ha . (Mâ u îdî, 2005, p. 14)
In Ma u idi’s sys em o hough , eason is no only he means o knowledge
bu also he li eblood o he whole heological sys em. The eason why al-
Mā u īdī mos ly uses he wo d naza ins ead o in ellec when explaining
he means o knowledge is he implica ion ha in ellec can only p oduce
knowledge i i is unc ional. (A slan, 2014, p. 318) Because i is no enough
o ha e in ellec in human beings; wha is impo an is o use i and hus
bene i om i . TThe e o e, acco ding o Mā u īdī, i can be concluded ha
he in ellec , which does no become unc ional and canno be u ilised, loses
i s cha ac e is ic o being a sou ce o knowledge. (Alpe , 2010, p. 37)
I should be no ed he e ha he unc ion ha Mā u īdī a ibu es o eason
should ne e be likened o he unc ion o enligh enmen and secula eason.
Fo Mā u īdī does no a ibu e o eason a unc ion ha excludes eligion,
bu on he con a y, he a ibu es o i a unc ion ha o esees a be e
unde s anding o eligion and he happiness o human beings in bo h wo lds.
(A slan, 2014, p. 318)
Then a ques ion may come o ou minds: i eason u ns in o a sou ce
o knowledge when i is used, wha is eason and in which subjec s is i
compe en ? Acco ding o Ma u idiyya, i is di icul o de ine he in ellec
i sel . This di icul y is p obably due o he ac ha he conside s he concep
o in ellec one o he mos undamen al, such as exis ence. (Alpe , 2010, p.
37)
E en i he in ellec knows he beau y and ugliness o hings, i is
incapable o knowing i s quali y and essenceFo his eason, he ocused on
he capabili ies and unc ions o he in ellec , a he han de ining i s na u e.
I is possible o lis he unc ions ha Mā u īdī a ibu ed o eason as
ollows:
1. Recognising Allah
2. Unde s anding he Wisdom o he C ea ion o he Uni e se
3. Recognising he Necessi y o Religion
MEHMET KUYUCU
29
4. Tes ing he accu acy o in o ma ion.
5. Managing and Classi ying Objec s
6. Sol ing P oblems and Doub s
7. Dis inguishing Good and E il (A slan, 2014, pp. 320-322)
Among he unc ions o he in ellec poin ed ou in he a icle, he ask o
comp ehending he wisdom o he c ea ion o he uni e se is e y impo an .
This concep o wisdom is he key concep ha Ma u idi explains many issues
in he science o heology. He did no only use he concep o wisdom in he
science o heology, bu also in he science o iqh, in ma e s o wo ship and
muʿāmalā ; he explained he issues wi h wisdom. The e o e, i is necessa y
o know he concep o wisdom in o de o unde s and he Ma u idi hough
sys em. Because “acco ding o Mā u īdī, who is a heological schola ,
e e y hing has a eason o c ea ion, pu pose, and wisdom. No hing in he
uni e se was c ea ed in ain. Only he wise unde s and his si ua ion. I is
he du y o he a ional pe son o unde s and his wisdom and o belie e in
he C ea o . The e o e, se i ude can only be unde s ood in his way. To look
a e e y hing ha happens in he uni e se wi h he eye o wisdom, o ea
people wi h ole ance by seeing hei posi i e and beau i ul aspec s, and o
in oduce he ac s o Allah, ha is, o comp ehend he e en s in his wo ld
wi h he eye o wisdom, o li e peace ully and happily in his wo ld and o
win he he ea e is he hough sys em ha Mâ u îdî unde s ands om he
e se and hadi h abo e.” (O al, 2014, p. 16)
He inhe i ed he schola ly he i age o he mulakallim who belonged o
di e en sec s be o e him and du ing his pe iod, ollowed hei iews and he
me hods hey applied well and p esen ed o iginal me hods and me hods ha
would appeal o cen u ies. The pilla s o his sys em o hough a e easoning,
senses, and ansmission. (O al, 2014, p. 17)
Besides being he ounde o Sunni heology, Imam al-Mā u īdī was bo h
a ju is and a c i ical commen a o who in luenced he schola s a e him. İn
o de o be e unde s and his schola ly pe sonali y, we hink ha i would be
be e o b ie ly ouch upon hese aspec s.
a) Imam Mâ u îdî as a Faqıh (ju is )
Today, i is no possible o lea n al-Mā u īdī’s iews on iqh and usul
al- iqh di ec ly om his own books. Howe e , Teʾwīlā al-Ḳu ʾān con ains
abundan ma e ial on hese disciplines. (Topaloğlu, Beki , 2003) “I is known
ha Mā u īdī augh ju isp udence as well as heology and exegesis. Ibn Yahya
w i es ha he, Abu’l-Hasan al-Rus uğ enî Imam Muhammad al-Shaybānī,
IMAM MĀTURĪDĪ AND THE FORMATION OF HIS SCIENTIFIC IDENTITY: HIS CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE FIELDS
30
made hem ead un il he chap e on zaka . In addi ion, bo h in his wo ks
and in some wo ks ha e e o him, Mā u īdī is e e ed o wi h he i le
o “Faqih.” Fo example, Alaud al-Dīn al-Sama qandī desc ibes Mā u īdī,
he whole o al-Mabsu al-Jāmi al-Kabī , as “ he head o he Hana ī school
o ju isp udence in Mā e ānayn-Sama qand. In addi ion, Mā u īdī on usul
al- iqh as Meāḥiz al-sha ā’i’, Ki āb al-jadal, Sha h al-jāmi al-Sagī , he ac
ha he w o e his wo ks indica es ha he was a g ea ju is . (Ünsal, 2011,
pp. 207-208) Alâuddin al-Sama qandî, who is one o hose who unde s and
Mâ u îdî he bes , explains in his wo k ha Mâ u îdî was a b illian ju is
wi h he ollowing s a emen s: “The science o ju isp udence is a b anch o
he science o heology. The b anch ( e ’) de i es om he oo (main), and
he one who does no de i e om i is no i s descendan . In his espec , he
wo k w i en in he ield o ju isp udence is in acco dance wi h he belie o
he au ho who w o e i (Mizânü’l-Usûl) (Ak, 2017, pp. 159-160).
In conclusion, we can say ha Mā u īdī adop ed and de eloped Abū
Hani a’s me hod in he ield o iqh and ju isp udence as well as in he ield
o heology. Howe e , i can be said ha Mā u īdī, who is acknowledged as
he ounde o he Mā u īdiyya sec in he ield o heology, was a g ea ju is
who con ibu ed o he ins i u ionalisa ion o he Hana i sec .
b) Imam Mâ u îdî as a Mu assi (Commen a o )
Mā u īdī, while in e p e ing he e ses in his a sī , ga e g ea impo ance
o a ional and logical e idence as well as adhe ing o he e idence. His
wo k is a di ec exegesis because i con ains many a ional explana ions.
The e o e, he is conside ed one o he i s ep esen a i es o he adi ion
o di ec exegesis. The ac ha Mā u īdī w o e a di ec exegesis a a ime
when easoning and ij ihād we e owned upon in eligious issues shows
ha he had an impo an place in he science o a sī . I can be said ha
Mā u īdī g ea ly in luenced Zamakhsha i, who li ed in he same cul u e and
geog aphy abou wo cen u ies a e him. (Te’ ila u’l-Qu ’an, Topaloğlu,
Beki , 2003)
Imam Ma u idi w o e his a si , i led Teʾwīl al-Ḳu ʾān’. The mos
impo an ea u e o his a sī , which e lec s he au ho ’s me hod o a sī
and sheds ligh on he de e mina ion o his place in his science, is ha his
a sī was w i en h ough di āyah. Ma u īdi’s basic app oach o he exegesis
o he Holy Qu ’an can be exp essed as elying on bo h eason and eason,
and wi h Nakli e idence while exege ing he Qu ’an, he does no hesi a e o
eso o a ional e idence in coope a ion. While exege ing a e se, he also
e e s o o he ela ed e ses. In his explana ions, Mā u īdī p esen s pe haps
MEHMET KUYUCU
31
he i s and mos beau i ul examples o exegesis , e se by e se. Howe e ,
he ne e loses sigh o he con en o wo ds and concep s wi hin he uni y
o he Qu ’an, and in e e y case he appeals o he a bi a ion o eason.
(Topaloğlu, Beki , 2003)
Mā u īdī, who was well awa e o he conside able weigh o he
adi ionalis unde s anding a ha ime, ealised his powe o adi ion and
a ached g ea impo ance o e ses and hadi hs and e en o he sayings o
he p ominen Companions and abiîn. Howe e , al hough he adhe ed o he
wo ding o all epo s, he ein e p e ed hem in he ligh o eason. Thus,
he did no ully con on he adi ionalis s and ied o unde s and he eal
in en ion o he Di ine Wo d wi h his unique me hod. Al hough he adhe ed
o he wo ding o he Qu ’an and he au hen ic hadi hs, he ein e p e ed and
ein e p e ed hem acco ding o he ime and condi ions in which he li ed.
Fo example, he dis inguished be ween a si and awil by in e p e ing he
hadi h “whoe e says some hing abou he Qu ’an wi h his own opinion, le
him p epa e o his place in he i e” as “whoe e a si ises he Qu ’an wi h
his own opinion, le him p epa e o his place in he i e” and s a ed ha a si
canno be done wi h opinion, bu awil can be done. (Ak, 2017, p. 166)
Acco ding o him, a si is o exp ess a de ini e opinion abou wha
Allah’s in en ion is. Te’wil, on he o he hand, is o p e e one o he possible
in e p e a ions wi hou exp essing a de ini e opinion abou wha Allah’s
in en ion is. Fo his eason, he has ese ed a si o he Companions and
a’wil o he la e ju is s. He d ew a en ion o he ac ha he in e p e a ions
could be only one o he hings in ended by Allah, and he e o e i was w ong
o absolu ise hem. Fo his eason, Mā u īdī, a e in e p e ing he e ses,
says, “God knows bes .” The e o e, Mā u īdī’s dis inc ion be ween a sī and
a sī “sa ed he exege es om a g ea di icul y and p o ided hem wi h
he in ellec ual and heological basis o ac eely in he in e p e a ion o he
Qu ’an.” (Ak, 2017, p. 166)
Mā u īdī was he i s exege e who exege ed he e ses o he Qu ’an
in acco dance wi h he Qu ’an and he Sunnah and es ablished he Ahl al-
Sunnah ai h on a solid basis. (Ak, 2014a, p. 25)
A e him, amous schola s such as Imam al-Ghazali (505/111), Mahmud
b. Uma al-Zamakhsha i (538/1143), Fakh al-Dīn al-Razi (606/1209), Jalal
al-Dīn al-Suyu i (911/1505), and Mahmud al-Alusi (1270/18549) all made
in e p e a ions on Ma u idi’s me hod. (Ak, 2017, p. 168)
In o he wo ds, al-Mā u īdī g ea ly in luenced and acili a ed he wo k o
he la e exege es.

39
CHAPTER 3
THE PALESTINE ISSUE FROM THE
PERSPECTIVES OF PRESCHOOL-AGED
CHILDREN
Ze nişan AYKAN1
Hakan SARIÇAM2
Abs ac
This s udy, which examined he Is aeli-Pales inian wa h ough he iews
o child en a ending p eschool educa ion, aimed o e eal he ways child en
eac o he c uel y. One o he quali a i e esea ch echniques employed
in he s udy was he phenomenology design. The pa icipan s o he s udy,
which was selec ed wi h he pu pose ul sampling me hod, consis ed o
i e-yea -old child en (n=20) who we e p eschool s uden s. The da a we e
ob ained wi h he semi-s uc u ed “In e iew Fo m” p epa ed by e iewing
he li e a u e and ob aining expe opinions. Con en analysis was used in
he analysis o he ob ained da a. Acco ding o he esea ch, child en’s mos
ypical emo ional esponse o wa is sadness. I was shown ha child en
mos ly use ele isions, able s, and phones o lea n abou wa . Among he
emo ions expe ienced by he child en, ea was p ominen , and he child en
we e conce ned ha he wa could come o Tü kiye. Ano he eac ion o
he child en was an economic boyco o lea e Is ael c uel y. The child en
1 P eschool Teache , Minis y o Na ional Educa ion, [email p o ec ed]
h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0008-4995-8822
2 P o esso Doc o , Si as Cumhu iye Uni e si y, [email p o ec ed]
h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-8723-1199
THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
40
sugges ed ha e e yone should boyco Is aeli goods in o de o suppo
child en in Pales ine. Based on he esea ch indings, i was sugges ed ha
pa en s and eache s should p o ide eal, eliable, age-app op ia e and
cogni i e le el-app op ia e in o ma ion abou wa o p eschool child en in
he p e-ope a ional pe iod, and ha e e yone om he younges o he oldes
should come oge he o a common pu pose in o de o eac o c uel y o
injus ice.
1. In oduc ion
Wa s and disas e s a e among he mos nega i e e en s ha can deeply
a ec child en’s men al wo ld (Özel, 2017). Wa s, which a e decided by
adul s, include inhumane e en s such as dea h, inju y, hunge , losses,
ha assmen , and abuse ha child en do no dese e. In pa allel wi h he
ac ha wa s nega i ely a ec child en’s physical, social, and emo ional
de elopmen a eas, i is ine i able ha hey will damage hei men al
heal h. Millions o child en ha e di ec ly o indi ec ly expe ienced he ha sh
condi ions o wa in he wa s ha ha e been going on o yea s, and a e s ill
li ing oday and a e ic ims o he e o c ea ed by he human ego-sa is ying
ins inc . The ac ha his innocen g oup, whose mos na u al igh o li e
and all o he needs a e imp isoned in he cold ace o wa , is no in ol ed
in he causes o wa and su e s i s consequences wi h hei li es, makes us
ques ion he concep s o jus ice, equali y, and humani y many imes. In he
wa s s a ed by s a es and hei unconscious adminis a o s o easons such
as powe , poli ical gain, eligious goals, economic in e es s, e c., child en,
like many o he li ing beings, die, a e inju ed and disabled, a e le homeless,
de enseless and unp o ec ed. Mo eo e , child en lose hei amilies, iends,
neighbo s, expe ience physical, emo ional and spi i ual collapses, become
ulne able o all kinds o neglec and abuse, and may be dep i ed o heal hy
li ing condi ions, sa e a eas, homes, schools and o he social oppo uni ies.
Simila ly, e en i hey ha e no been di ec ly in ol ed in o expe ienced
wa , a acks, o e o e en s, child en who hink ha hei immedia e
en i onmen is unsa e due o wa news in a ious media ou le s such as social
media, audio isual p ess, adio, and ele ision may expe ience such ea s,
and a ious psychia ic diso de s such as anxie y, wo y, and dep ession
may occu (I mak & Piyal, 2023). Indeed, oday, media and in e ne con en
a e he mos equen ly used o exposed means o ob aining in o ma ion o
child en (Akman & Yıldı ım, 2022).
Child en’s ich s imuli and expe iences can be an ad an age, bu in he
opposi e case, i can u n in o a disad an age. While child en ill hei men al
HAKAN SARIÇAM • ZERNIŞAN AYKAN
41
ep esen a ions wi h wha hey expe ience, wi ness and see closely, hey
can be me aphysically in ol ed in expe iences ha occu in hei dis an
su oundings h ough social media, audio isual p ess and ele ision; hey
can be posi i ely o nega i ely a ec ed by hese e en s hey wa ch and
hea . In addi ion o di ec ly expe iencing some undesi able elemen s such
as wa , a ack, e o is ac s and simila na u al o undesi able elemen s, i is
p edic ed ha being exposed o hese h ough he media can ha e auma ic
e ec s (E den & Gü dil, 2009; E oğlu, 2020).
P eschool child en o en show hei eelings h ough hei beha io s
because hey canno desc ibe he e en s in hei daily li es wi h wo ds, and
hey may no be able o exp ess hei eelings and hough s di ec ly. These
beha io s may a y acco ding o he de elopmen al cha ac e is ics o he
child en, hei age g oups, he en i onmen hey li e in, hei social class,
and many o he a iables (Ca o & Belaise, 2003; Coa es & Schech e ,
2004). P eschool child en’s eac ions o wa can be qui e di e en and
di e se. Du ing his pe iod, child en’s pe cep ions o wa , easons o
wa , hei pa en s’ eac ions, a i udes and beha io s, and beha io s such
as imi a ion and imi a ion can come o he o e. Child en can o en u n o
hei pa en s o elde s o make sense o e en s and phenomena such as wa ,
e o , boyco , dea h, loss, emba go, I aq, Sy ia, Is ael, Pales ine, and he
Middle Eas o o sa is y hei cu iosi y. The conc e e answe s ha pa en s o
elde s gi e o child en’s cogni i e and language de elopmen will no only
sa is y he child’s cu iosi y, bu will also de elop eac ion pa e ns in such
e en s and c ea e mind maps (Pola & Aydın, 2020). In addi ion, child en’s
unde s anding o hese e en s de elops hei empa hy skills; suppo s
hei social and emo ional de elopmen ; and de elops human and cul u al
sensi i i y (Al is e al., 2023; And iessen e al., 2018).
The con as be ween he ea e lec ed in a child’s eyes and he hope
esiding in hei hea symbolizes he ension be ween wa and peace.
Recognizing his duali y is essen ial o unde s anding child en’s emo ional
wo lds and guiding e hical esea ch wi h hem. The phenomenon o wa
does no only sepa a e souls om bodies, bu also e eals mo al decay
and co up ion in o he s o hose who emain. Despi e he ac ha Is ael’s
genocide has las ed o o e a yea and all his ime has no ecei ed he
necessa y eac ion on he wo ld public agenda, no conc e e, angible a i ude
o sanc ion has been aken agains he Is aeli s a e o s op he wa . So much
so ha wa and dea hs ha e been legi imized, and human li e has been
cheapened. In such an en i onmen , child en may no be able o dis inguish
wha is igh and wha is w ong. I is necessa y o show he opp esso ha he
unjus and disp opo iona e ac s o iolence exhibi ed by he wa ad oca es/
THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
42
pa ies who hold powe a e no mo al, ha he e should be many sanc ions
o his, ha a pe son is sac ed and he igh o li e is he mos undamen al
igh , and ha iola ing hese is no accep able. I is hough ha showing ha
he e a e ways o deal wi h injus ice, especially om a child’s pe spec i e,
will shed some ligh on adul s.
On he o he hand, when he clues abou he coping cha ac e is ics o hose
who lea n he pe cep ions o wa and iolence in child en a e conside ed,
i is especially impo an o suppo his pe iod in p eschool. Whe he he
eac ions in he do mi o y con inue and he desi ed awa eness is eached o
no , i will be a wo hwhile s udy o be eco ded on child en in p eschool
le els. The s udy will e eal he e ec s o he social sensi i i y owa ds
Is aeli p oduc s and he boyco mo emen on he consump ion beha io o
p eschool child en. Thus, i is hough ha by ca ying ou suppo i e ac i i ies
in p eschool educa ion ins i u ions, whe e child en i s en e school, social
li e and communi y li e, o main ain his sensi i i y, p eschool child en will
also be included in he consump ion habi s o he boyco mo emen oge he
wi h hei amilies. The pu pose o his s udy is o examine he pe cep ions
o p eschool child en abou wa , mo e speci ically, he Is aeli-Pales inian
wa h ough he eyes o p eschool child en. In line wi h his pu pose, he
ollowing ques ions we e sough in he s udy.
- How do child en make sense o wa ?
- How do child en make sense o peace?
- Wha do child en hink abou he Is ael-Pales ine wa ?
- Wha a e child en doing o s op he Is ael-Pales ine wa ?
- Wha do child en sugges o s op he Is ael-Pales ine wa ?
2. METHOD
In o de o ensu e ha he ques ions o be asked in he esea ch a e clea ,
unde s andable and consis en wi hin a heo e ical amewo k and o each
a consis en esul wi h he indings and in e p e a ions, he quali a i e
esea ch me hod was used. Quali a i e esea ch is a me hod ha e alua es
he esea ch ques ion, he e en s and ac s examined in hei own con ex
and p esen s da a, while also examining he case using an in e p e i e
pe spec i e (Ka a aş, 2017). In his esea ch, he phenomenological design,
one o he quali a i e esea ch me hods, was used. Phenomenology is used o
s udies ha aim o in es iga e he phenomena ha we equen ly encoun e
on a daily basis, a e no o eign o us bu whose ull meaning we canno
HAKAN SARIÇAM • ZERNIŞAN AYKAN
43
unde s and, and i c ea es a sui able esea ch g ound (Yıldı ım & Şimşek,
2016: 69). A phenomenological app oach was adop ed o cap u e child en’s
li ed expe iences ela ed o wa . Al hough hey do no expe ience wa
di ec ly, hey a e ne e heless exposed o i s e ec s (i. e. TV, school, amily).
Wi hin he scope o he esea ch, in-dep h in e iews we e conduc ed wi h
s uden s s udying a he p e-school le el, which is he basic educa ion le el,
using a semi-s uc u ed in e iew o m, and hei pe cep ion o he Is aeli-
Pales inian wa was a emp ed o be e ealed. The esea ch ques ions and
answe s we e ca ied ou in a p ocess based on mu ual in e ac ion. In such
cases, i is ecommended ha child en be p o ided wi h suppo om he
school counselo ollowing he in e iew o p e en any po en ial nega i e
emo ional e ec s.
2.1. Pa icipan s
In o ma ion on 20 p eschool s uden s in Si as p o ince whose opinions
we e consul ed wi hin he scope o he esea ch is gi en in he ables below.
The pa icipan s o he esea ch we e eached by con enience sampling, which
is a non- andom sampling me hod. This sampling me hod is a non- andom
sampling me hod in which he esea che selec s he easies pa icipan s
o each o be included in he sample. Con enience e e s o geog aphical
p oximi y, accessibili y a a ce ain ime o ease o pa icipa ion in he
esea ch. In his con ex , he pa icipan s who a end p eschool educa ion
ins i u ions close o he esea che , shown in Table 1, we e eached in he
esea ch.
Table 1. In o ma ion abou he pa icipan s
Pa icipan Gende Age Pa icipan Gende Age Pa icipan Gende Age
S1 F60 mon hs S8 F60 mon hs S15 M 61 mon hs
S2 F58 mon hs S9 F59 mon hs S16 M 60 mon hs
S3 F61 mon hs S10 F64 mon hs S17 M 62 mon hs
S4 F63 mon hs S11 M 65 mon hs S18 M 63 mon hs
S5 F60 mon hs S12 M 66 mon hs S19 M 64 mon hs
S6 F62 mon hs S13 M 62 mon hs S20 M 66 mon hs
S7 F65 mon hs S14 M 62 mon hs
When he demog aphic in o ma ion o he pa icipan s is examined in
Table 1, 10 (50%) o he pa icipan s a e male and 10 (50%) a e emale
s uden s. The ages o he pa icipan s a e a ound 58-66 mon hs and all o
hem con inue hei educa ion a he p eschool le el. The esea che has no

THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
44
e ec on he dis ibu ion o he pa icipan s o he han he numbe and le el
o he pa icipan s.
2.2. Da a Collec ion Tool
A semi-s uc u ed in e iew o m consis ing o eigh ques ions de eloped
by esea che s o he pu pose was used as a da a collec ion ool. Du ing
he o m de elopmen p ocess, he i s d a o m was de eloped by he
esea che s, hen expe opinions we e sough be o e he ques ions we e
inalized, hus; opinions we e ecei ed om di e en p o essional g oups
including doc o s, eache s, sociologis s, social wo ke s, and lawye s. The
consensus a e o 11 expe s ega ding he co e age and app op ia eness o
each ques ion is 80% and abo e
2.3. Da a Collec ion and Analysis
In e iews we e conduc ed ace- o- ace, audio and ideo eco dings we e
used. The da a collec ion p ocess s a ed on No embe 30, 2024, and he
in e iews we e comple ed and eco ded in app oxima ely 10 days. In o de
o ans o m he aw da a ob ained om he in e iews in o a meaning ul
o m, he deciphe ed in e iews we e e iewed again and subjec ed o con en
analysis. Du ing he con en analysis, he opinions o p eschool child en we e
collec ed unde a ious hemes (ca ego ies) ha could be associa ed wi h
he main and sub-ques ions o he esea ch. Unde each heme, a p ominen
opinion (code), he equency o exp ession o his opinion ( equency), he
code o he pa icipan who exp essed he opinion and quo es om hese
opinions we e included, and he in o ma ion o ganized in his way was
con e ed in o ables. Pa icipan s we e coded as S1, S2, S3, ... S19, S20.
2.4. C edibili y and T ans e abili y
In o de o ensu e he c edibili y o he esea ch conduc ed on he Is aeli-
Pales inian Wa h ough he eyes o p eschool child en, he school whe e
he majo i y o he p eschool child en, who a e he a ge g oup ha can
answe he esea ch ques ions, a e loca ed is he school whe e he esea che
wo ks. The emaining s uden s a e he child en e e ed by he esea che ’s
colleagues. The e o e, long- e m in e ac ion and obse a ion, which a e he
mos impo an s a egies o c edibili y, ha e been p o ided in a way. In he
con ex o ans e abili y, e o s we e made o ensu e ha he s uden s whose
opinions we e sough wi hin he scope o he esea ch we e able o exp ess
hei own hough s as hey we e. The pa en s o he pa icipan s we e also
HAKAN SARIÇAM • ZERNIŞAN AYKAN
45
p omised be o e he in e iew ha in o ma ion such as he child en’s names,
schools, and neighbo hoods would no be included in he esea ch esul s.
2.5. Consis ency and Con i mabili y
The in o ma ion ob ained om he in e iews was la e collec ed by he
esea che s a di e en imes in a ious codes and g ouped unde ce ain
hemes. The esea che s compa ed he codes hey de e mined and a eliabili y
analysis known as he Miles and Hube man (1994) o mula, “ eliabili y =
consensus/ consensus + disag eemen ” was pe o med on he codes whe e
consensus was eached and whe e consensus was no eached, and a esul
o .71 was ob ained (Figu e 1). A e he i s esea che comple ed he s udy,
ano he expe , excep o he second au ho , was consul ed ega ding he
compa ibili y o he hemes and codes o he s udy wi h he subjec and esul
o he s udy, and he s udy was inalized a e he sugges ions.
Figu e 1. Miles and Hube man’s Quali a i e Da a Analysis Model
Figu e 1 illus a es Miles and Hube man’s (1994) in e ac i e model o
quali a i e da a analysis, which consis s o h ee concu en and in e ela ed
componen s: da a educ ion, da a display, and conclusion d awing/
e i ica ion.
2.6. E hics pe mission
A s udy on he Is aeli-Pales inian Wa h ough he eyes o p eschool
child en was conduc ed wi h he applica ion numbe 24_10_17 and he e hics
commi ee app o al was ecei ed om he Si as Cumhu iye Uni e si y
Educa ional Sciences Resea ch P oposal E hics E alua ion Boa d on
30.10.2024 wi h he decision numbe E-50704946-050.04-485196 ega ding
he easibili y o he s udy in he o m o in e iews wi h p eschool child en.
A he same ime, app o al was ecei ed on 19.11.2024 o he esea ch
pe mi submi ed o he Si as P o incial Di ec o a e o Na ional Educa ion
wi h he applica ion numbe MEB.TT.2024.004420 da ed 03.11.2024.
THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
46
3.FINDINGS
This pa o he esea ch includes he hemes, codes, equencies o
codes and di ec quo es om he pa icipan s’ esponses o he ques ions ha
eme ged om he analysis o he answe s gi en o he 8 semi-s uc u ed
in e iew ques ions ha media ed he esea ch’s pu pose and p oblems. The
answe s gi en o he ques ion “Wha do you say o child en abou wa ?”
we e ansc ibed, and he hemes and codes om he con en analysis a e
shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Findings ela ed o he heme o wa
Sub-Theme Codes S uden Code
Emo ional bu den
1. Fea o dea h, Dea h
anxie y
2. Feeling bad
15
S1, S4, S5, S6, S8, S9,
S10, S11, S12, S13, S14,
S16, S17, S18, S20
Beha io s
e lec ions
1.Dea h, killing.
2. Genocide
3. A ack
5 S2, S3, S7, S15, S19
Conc e iza ion 1.Bomb 5 S2, S3, S7, S15, S19
As seen in Table 2, emo ional load, beha io s, e lec ions, and
conc e iza ion sub hemes we e c ea ed ega ding he heme o wa . The
esponses gi en by some o he child en ega ding hese sub hemes and
codes a e gi en below.
S1: Wa is a bad hing, i kills people, hei homes a e des oyed.
S4: E il, eeling bad, eeling emo ions, c ying.
S10: They kill hei mo he s, a he s, and hei belongings, and hey a e
le he e alone.
S3: When i comes o wa , Pales ine comes o my mind, he e was a e y
good li e he e, hen Is ael came and a acked he e, his is genocide, no wa .
S7: Killing child en in he hands o Is ael.
S15: Mu de e Is ael is killing babies in Pales ine, killing child en, killing
all mo he s and a he s, killing uncles, killing uncles.
S2: I i is wa , he bombs a e killing Is aelis.
S19: I wan special ope a ions o go and a es Is ael.
HAKAN SARIÇAM • ZERNIŞAN AYKAN
47
The answe s o he ques ion “Wha would you say o child en abou
peace?” we e ansc ibed, and he hemes and codes o he con en analysis
a e shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Findings ela ed o he heme o peace
Sub- heme Codes S uden Code
Posi i e Emo ions
and Values
1. B o he hood, 2. F iendship, 3.
Lo e,
4. Happiness, 5. Compassion, 6.
Beau y
15
S1, S2, S4, S5, S6, S7,
S8, S9, S10, S11, S12,
S14, S17, S18, S20
Wish/Desi e 1. F eedom, 2. To be sa ed/ escued, 3.
To inish/end 5 S3, S13, S15, S16, S19
As seen in Table 3, posi i e eelings and alues and sub hemes o wishes
we e c ea ed ega ding he heme o peace. The esponses gi en by some o
he child en ega ding hese sub hemes and codes a e gi en below.
S1: To li e in peace be ween wo peoples
S2: The end o he wa means making peace.
S7: Peace, I was upse wi h my iend and hen I hugged and made peace.
S8: Peace is a beau i ul hing.
S11: I is a beau i ul hing; e e yone should make peace.
S12: I wan peace in he wo ld.
S17: When I hink o peace, happiness and peace come o mind.
S3: I wan Is ael o end his now.
S13: Whe e he e is peace, he e is happiness and peace, child en do no
die.
S15: Pales ine o be ee
S16: Child en o be sa ed
S19: Can you please make peace now!
The answe s gi en by he child en o he ques ion o whe e and how hey
hea wa news we e ansc ibed, and he hemes and codes o he con en
analysis a e shown in Table 4.
THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
54
child en, i ep esen s no only a se ious dange bu also a p ocess in which
hei innocen wo ld iew is des oyed, sa e y is los , and he social o de hey
conc e ely unde s and abou he wo ld and li e is sha e ed and disappea s.
The auma caused by such a ha m ul and dange ous phenomenon
can weaken and e en des oy social s uc u es, while nega i ely a ec ing
indi iduals’ physical and men al heal h, leading o long- e m o pe manen
damage and diso de s. This heme emphasizes ha wa lea es las ing ma ks
on bo h indi idual and collec i e memo y, highligh ing ha wa signi ies
no only physical des uc ion bu also men al and emo ional annihila ion.
E en child en who a e no di ec ly exposed o wa may expe ience simila
ea s due o messages ecei ed om a ious media ou le s such as adio
and ele ision b oadcas s epo ing on wa , which con ey ha he wo ld
is an unsa e and dis essing place (Thabe & Vos anis, 1999; 2000). O he
common eac ions obse ed in p eschool child en ollowing wa auma
include ea o da kness o imagina y c ea u es such as mons e s, elling
exagge a ed s o ies abou wa , pe sis en ly asking ques ions ela ed o wa ,
and/o di icul ies in adap ing o changes in li ing condi ions.
Fo p eschool child en, peace gene ally e okes eelings o calmness,
happiness, and beau y. Unde he heme o peace, posi i e emo ions and alues
such as b o he hood, iendship, lo e, happiness, compassion, and beau y a e
p ominen , while hopes and wishes o en include eedom, sal a ion, and
ending con lic . Acco ding o child en, peace—as is wa —can be a a he
abs ac concep . Child en in his age g oup end o pe cei e complex social
and poli ical e en s in he wo ld on a conc e e, emo ional, and expe ien ial
le el. Thei wo ld iew is usually simple , mo e di ec , and empa he ic.
Howe e , wha p eschool child en exp ess abou peace is signi ican ly linked
o hei indi idual de elopmen al s age and social unde s anding.
P eschoole s’ hough s a e la gely shaped by he social in luences hey
ecei e om hei en i onmen . Child en acqui e cues abou social no ms
and alues om hei amilies, eache s, and pee s. Acco ding o social
lea ning heo y, child en lea n social ules h ough obse a ion, in e ac ion,
and modeling. In his con ex , when child en alk abou peace, i is e iden
ha hey ha e in e nalized he alue judgmen s o he cul u e and socie y hey
belong o. Fo example, a child’s esponse abou peace migh be an exp ession
such as “no one pushes anyone.” This e lec s he posi i e beha io s and
social no ms hey obse e in hei social in e ac ions. Educa ional and
en i onmen al ac o s play a c ucial ole in os e ing ole ance and peace ul
beha io s in child en.

HAKAN SARIÇAM • ZERNIŞAN AYKAN
55
P eschool child en epo ed ha hey mos ly accessed news o images
ela ed o he Is ael-Pales ine wa h ough ele ision. Child en in his age
g oup ypically shape hei unde s anding h ough conc e e expe iences,
obse a ions, and emo ional imp essions. In his con ex , one o he key
ac o s in luencing hei comp ehension o a complex concep like wa is he
impac o media, ele ision, and hei immedia e social en i onmen . When
child en see news o images ela ed o wa in news b oadcas s o isuals,
hey usually encoun e emo ional images associa ed wi h iolence, ea , and
pain.
Wi hin he amewo k o Albe Bandu a’s social lea ning heo y, he
media eaches social beha io s o child en h ough modeling. When child en
wa ch iolen images, hey may in e nalize he emo ions and beha io s
associa ed wi h iolence. Addi ionally, he messages con eyed h ough
media can shape child en’s unde s anding o alues and no ms. Ra he han
in ellec ually unde s anding he e il and pain caused by wa , child en end o
eel wha wa means on an emo ional le el.
Since p eschool child en p ima ily ecei e isual in o ma ion h ough
media, iolen images in wa - ela ed news—such as bombs, explosions, and
des oyed buildings—can ha e a g ea e impac on hei pe cep ion. These
isuals may lead o wa being pe cei ed as a igh ening and di icul - o-
unde s and concep o child en. Mo eo e , unless in o ma ion abou he
long- e m auma ic e ec s o wa is p o ided, child en end o pe cei e
hese e en s a a mo e supe icial and senso y le el.
Beha io al eac ions o p eschool child en ega ding he Is ael-Pales ine
wa include hemes such as killing, agg ession, and un ai ac ions; emo ional
eac ions clus e a ound ea , anxie y, ange , and age. As unde s ood om
child en’s esponses, in ense emo ional judgmen s, simpli ied bu ang y
exp essions, and nega i e impac s o wa a e e iden . Child en a his s age
ind i di icul o comp ehend abs ac concep s, complex social e en s, and
mul idimensional ela ionships. Fo hem, concep s like wa , peace, and
eedom a e o en pe cei ed on emo ional and isual le els. The e o e, hei
esponses mos ly con ain sha p dis inc ions and emo ional in ensi y.
Since child en canno g asp he consequences o wa abs ac ly, hey may
some imes hink ha con lic s should be esol ed h ough iolence and he
use o o ce. This si ua ion can be a wa ning sign indica ing ha iolence
should be pe cei ed nega i ely by child en as a way o esol ing p oblems.
P eschool child en’s beha io al expec a ions ega ding wha o he s can do
in he Is ael-Pales ine wa include boyco ing, helping, showing sensi i i y,
THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
56
and p o es ing; emo ional expec a ions encompass ange , us a ion,
hopelessness, compassion, and ea ; while s a e-cen e ed suppo o wishes
in ol e p o ec ing and sa egua ding. I is na u al o child en o de elop
conc e e, empa he ic, and some imes iolence-in ol ed solu ion p oposals
when ying o make sense o concep s such as wa , coope a ion, peace, and
iolence. The esponses child en p o ide o e impo an clues abou how
wa occupies hei men al wo ld and wha social, emo ional, and e hical
pe cep ions hey de elop.
Among he child en’s esponses, posi i e emo ional and empa he ic
exp essions such as helping, suppo ing, and p o ec ing o he s indica e he
p esence o a s ong sense o empa hy a his age. Indeed, Ho man (2000)
emphasized ha empa hy is p ominen ly p esen du ing ea ly childhood. On
he o he hand, answe s such as “We boyco ed; we didn’ buy hei ood,”
o “We should no buy Is aeli p oduc s,” show ha child en a e beginning
o ecognize he concep o e hical consump ion. Likely in luenced by
poli ical messages hey hea om hei amilies o su oundings; child en
call o boyco s o ce ain p oduc s. This demons a es ha hey s a o
unde s and concep s like social jus ice and e hical esponsibili y a an ea ly
age. Kalessopoulou e al. (2023) s a ed ha he sense o social jus ice begins
and can be de eloped in ea ly childhood.
Simila ly, exp essions like “I we we e in hei place, I would wan us
no o buy Is aeli p oduc s,” o “We should buy Tu kish goods,” e lec
child en’s e o s o s eng hen hei own iden i y and sense o belonging.
Child en de elop s ong iden i y eelings based on he alues di ec ed by
hei amilies, communi ies, o na ions. A his poin , concep s o solida i y
and na ional powe come o he o e on . Child en in e nalize ce ain alues
ela ed o hei na ional iden i y and pe cei e how hey should ela e o o he s
based on hese alues. In s udies conduc ed in China, Li (2015) and Hong
and Liu (2022) ound ha na ional iden i y exis s om ea ly childhood, using
spo - and play-based assessmen s.
This s udy, which examines a la ge-scale issue such as he Is ael-Pales ine
wa in p eschool child en, has ce ain limi a ions. P eschool-aged child en
lack abs ac hinking skills, making i di icul o hem o unde s and
complex social and poli ical e en s. I may no be possible o child en in his
age g oup o ully comp ehend all he dynamics o a la ge-scale con lic like
he Is ael-Pales ine wa . The e o e, his esea ch p ima ily aims o measu e
child en’s pe cep ions o wa and iolence, hei emo ional esponses, and
hei capaci y o empa hy.
HAKAN SARIÇAM • ZERNIŞAN AYKAN
57
De eloping a heal hy unde s anding o wa among child en may no
be su icien ly clea and comp ehensi e as a esul o esea ch conduc ed
wi h limi ed in o ma ion. S udies in ol ing p eschool child en a e
gene ally conduc ed using me hods such as obse a ion, su eys, and semi-
s uc u ed in e iews. Howe e , due o child en’s limi ed language skills,
cogni i e de elopmen , and a en ion spans, he accu acy and eliabili y o
hese me hods may be es ic ed. Especially in in e iews on abs ac and
complex opics like wa , child en’s esponses may no be su icien ly deep
o meaning ul.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Media, ele ision, and he immedia e social en i onmen ha e a signi ican
impac on p eschool child en’s pe cep ions o wa . Since child en in his age
g oup ha e limi ed abili ies o unde s and complex social e en s like wa , he
messages hey ecei e om media and hei su oundings o en di ec hem
owa d emo ional and isually based pe cep ions. In his case, media and
close social ci cles can di ec ly in luence how child en pe cei e he wo ld.
The e o e, o help p eschool child en es ablish a heal hie ela ionship wi h
media con en , media li e acy educa ion should be p o ided o pa en s and
eache s.
The esponses gi en by p eschool child en indica e ha hey do no ha e
a deep unde s anding o wa , bu de elop s ong emo ional eac ions based
on he emo ional imp essions, media con en , and a i udes o hei amilies.
Child en in his age g oup end o espond mo e emo ionally o wa and a emp
o unde s and concep s such as iolence, peace, and eedom. They eel he
ha ms and igh ening aspec s o wa , bu hei solu ion p oposals gene ally
aim o ensu e hei own sa e y and peace. Consequen ly, p eschool child en
may ein o ce hei ea s abou wa h ough iolen con en hey encoun e
in he media. I is essen ial o ensu e ha media, especially ele ision and
digi al pla o ms, do no display inapp op ia e con en o child en. Values
such as peace, ole ance, and empa hy should be emphasized. Educa ional
p og ams should be de eloped o help child en c ea e peace ul solu ions
ins ead o iolen ones. Educa o s and pa en s can o ganize ac i i ies o
os e empa hy de elopmen among child en. Child en’s de elopmen o
empa hy and lea ning o peace ul con lic esolu ion me hods should be
suppo ed. Educa o s and amilies should each child en alues such as
coope a ion, ole ance, and empa hy. These alues no only help child en
unde s and nega i e e en s like wa bu also play a i al ole in heal hy social
de elopmen .
THE PALESTINE ISSUE THROUGH THE EYES OF CHILDREN IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
58
To p e en child en om adop ing iolen solu ions, media con en mus
be moni o ed. Since child en p ocess opics like wa and iolence isually
and emo ionally, iolen media messages may lead hem o no malize
iolence. Educa ional ma e ials should be selec ed o suppo child en in
de eloping peace ul solu ions.
Looking a he wa - hemed indings o he s udy on p eschool child en’s
pe spec i es ega ding he Is ael-Pales ine con lic , i is e iden ha p eschool
child en assign meaning and exhibi eac ions o he wa h oughou all a eas
o hei li es in hei immedia e en i onmen . Pa icula ly, child en in he
p eschool pe iod show sensi i i y and emo ional esponses such as ea ,
ange , anxie y, and us a ion. The child en exp essed ha bo h hey and
hei amilies wan o help Pales inians. In his con ex , child en demons a ed
selec i e beha io when going o ma ke s o shopping, especially a oiding
Is aeli p oduc s, and e en wa ned amily membe s abou his.
I is sugges ed ha adul s ake a mo e ac i e ole beyond me ely e lec ing
on wha should be done in such sensi i e ma e s ha a ec child en deeply.
The e ec i eness o b and boyco s as meaning ul p o es ools (e en
emba goes can be conside ed) should be ecognized a he han dismissed o
unde es ima ed. The signi ican impac o economic losses can be obse ed
in he educ ion o S a bucks b anches o he isk o Is aeli-o igin p oduc s
being wi hd awn om ma ke s.
Al hough s udying an abs ac concep such as wa wi h p eschool child en
p esen s ce ain limi a ions, i is impo an o no e ha hei pee s in o he
coun ies expe ience wa as a conc e e eali y. The e o e, his s udy aimed o
explo e how child en pe cei e and make sense o an abs ac and dis essing
concep such as wa . Fu u e esea ch on simila opics may help p e en
po en ial nega i e expe iences by employing de elopmen ally app op ia e
ques ions and illus a i e examples o child en.
HAKAN SARIÇAM • ZERNIŞAN AYKAN
59
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298. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00127-1
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CHAPTER 4
FERMENTATION OF SOCIAL THOUGHT AND
ITS REFLECTIONS
Mehme A a MIRZAOĞLU1
ABSTRACT
This s udy employs he me apho o e men a ion o analyze he
ans o ma ion p ocesses o social hough . While biologically e men a ion
e e s o he con e sion o subs ances by mic oo ganisms, in he social
sciences i symbolizes he ma u a ion and e olu ion o ideas and belie s wi hin
socie y. The e men a ion o social hough cap u es he men al, cul u al, and
spi i ual ans o ma ions ha indi iduals and communi ies unde go h ough
engagemen wi h alues, no ms, and belie s. F om he pe spec i e o he
sociology o eligion, his p ocess is essen ial o unde s anding how belie s
in luence bo h indi idual consciousness and collec i e iden i y. In e nal
e men a ion e e s o he eshaping o eligious in e p e a ions by indi iduals
and hei adap a ion o social no ms, whe eas ex e nal e men a ion deno es
he ans o ma ion o eligious s uc u es wi hin socie y h ough economic,
cul u al, and echnological in e ac ions. His o ical examples include he
Abbasid pe iod, he Islamic ci iliza ion o Al-Andalus, and he in oduc ion
o he p in ing p ess in he O oman Empi e. In con empo a y socie y,
social media and digi aliza ion se e as mode n ca alys s accele a ing bo h
indi idual and socie al eligious e men a ion.
1 D ., Minis y o Ag icul u e and Fo es y, Anka a, Tu kiye, ORCID Code: h ps://o cid.
o g/0000-0003-3732-5477, e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
FERMENTATION OF SOCIAL THOUGHT AND ITS REFLECTIONS
62
Indi idual ans o ma ion occu s h ough p ac ices such as p aye ,
educa ion, and cul u al exchange, while social e men a ion acili a es he
es uc u ing o collec i e consciousness and no ms. The Qu ’anic p inciples
o change, knowledge, eason, i ue, jus ice, and libe a ion om dogma ism
eme ge as ounda ional alues suppo ing his p ocess. These p inciples
p omo e conscious pe sonal ans o ma ion, he e olu ion o social ela ions,
and he ma u a ion o collec i e consciousness.
Ul ima ely, he e men a ion o social hough ep esen s a con inuous
and dynamic p ocess ex ending om indi idual awa eness o collec i e
s uc u es. The me apho o e men a ion p o ides a powe ul concep ual
amewo k o unde s anding how indi iduals ein e p e belie and alue
sys ems, in e ac wi h social no ms, and con ibu e o cul u al e olu ion a
bo h sociological and heological le els.
Keywo ds: Sociology o Religion, Fe men a ion, Social Fe men a ion,
Though Fe men a ion
In oduc ion
Acco ding o Bauman, who assigns a signi ican ole o sociology, i s
mos aluable unc ion is o p esen seemingly simila phenomena om
unexpec ed pe spec i es, p omp ing a c i ical e-examina ion o wha is
aken o g an ed, unse ling ce ain ies, and he eby s imula ing he slowly
p og essing imagina ion (Bauman, 2010, p. 238). Bauman’s cha ac e iza ion
o sociology as a ool o ques ioning he amilia and s imula ing he
imagina ion highligh s he signi icance o me apho ical app oaches used o
explain he hough wo lds o socie ies and emphasizes he unc ion o hese
me apho s in unde s anding he mul idimensional na u e o social phenomena.
The hough wo lds o socie ies ha e been a emp ed o be explained h ough
a ious me apho s ac oss di e en his o ical pe iods. These me apho s
e eal bo h he ways in which he human mind comp ehends eali y and
he mul idimensional s uc u e o social phenomena. In ecen yea s, i
has been obse ed ha me apho s de i ed om biological, ecological, and
chemical p ocesses ha e been in ensi ely used in he analysis o hough
and cul u e wi hin he sociology li e a u e. In his con ex , he me apho
o e men a ion p o ides a p oduc i e amewo k o unde s anding he
o ma ion, ma u a ion, and ans o ma ion o social hough . Fe men a ion,
he decomposi ion and chemical changes p oduced by enzymes sec e ed
by mic oo ganisms in o ganic ma e , can in he social sciences ep esen
he p ocess by which ideas and hough s ans o m wi hin socie y and
ake on new o ms. Pa icula ly in e ms o he sociology o eligion, he
MEHMET ATA MIRZAOĞLU
63
e men a ion o social hough se es as a powe ul me apho o explain
how belie s, eligious in e p e a ions, and alues p oduced a he le el o
collec i e consciousness unde go ans o ma ion.
Jus as in biological e men a ion, ideas unde go speci ic p ocesses wi hin
socie y, ans o ming, acqui ing new meanings, and aking on di e en
o ms wi hin a cul u al con ex . This a icle examines he e men a ion o
social hough om he pe spec i e o he sociology o eligion, explo ing i s
e ec s on bo h indi iduals and socie y. The e men a ion o social hough
e eals how belie s, alues, and no ms e ol e o e ime and highligh s
he e lec ions o his e olu ion on indi idual consciousness and collec i e
iden i y.
1. Fe men a ion o Social and Religious Though
Fe men a ion is he p ocess by which subs ances in na u e a e ans o med
by mic oo ganisms, a ans o ma ion ha has played signi ican oles in
a eas anging om ood p oduc ion o bio echnology. The e men a ion o
hough , on he o he hand, e e s o he men al and cul u al ans o ma ions
o indi iduals and socie ies. In his p ocess, belie s, alues, and ways o
hinking a e shaped by en i onmen al ac o s, his o ical e en s, and socio-
cul u al dynamics. The e men a ion o social hough in ol es no a s a ic
accep ance bu a con inuous p ocess o enewal and ans o ma ion.
The e men a ion o eligious hough holds pa icula signi icance in
his con ex . Al hough belie sys ems may appea as ixed s uc u es ha
indi iduals accep as no ms, o e his o ical p ocesses hese belie s ans o m
due o social e en s, scien i ic de elopmen s, and cul u al in e ac ions. One
o he mos s iking examples o his p ocess in Islamic his o y is he Abbasid
pe iod. In pa icula , wi h Caliph Al-Ma’mun’s es ablishmen o he Bay
al-Hikma (Tü kiye Diyane Vak ı, .y.), ideas om Ancien G eek, Pe sian,
and Indian cul u es we e syn hesized wi h Islamic hough , accele a ing
he e men a ion o eligious hough . Du ing his pe iod, he dialogue
be ween philosophy, science, and heology opened new ho izons o Islamic
in ellec ual de elopmen .
Among Wes e n hinke s, Webe add esses he ole o eligion in social
change, no ing ha indi iduals’ belie s a e shaped by an “in e nalized wo ld
o meaning.” Acco ding o Webe , eligion is no me ely a dogma ic s uc u e
in he p ocess o making sense o li e, bu a phenomenon ha e ol es in
in e ac ion wi h social condi ions (Webe , 2001, p. 78). This pe spec i e
p o ides an impo an ounda ion o unde s anding how he e men a ion o
eligious hough ope a es a bo h indi idual and collec i e le els.
FERMENTATION OF SOCIAL THOUGHT AND ITS REFLECTIONS
70
4. Dynamics and Fe men a ion o Social
T ans o ma ion
Socie y is no s a ic. E e y socie y possesses i s own unique dynamism
and expe iences change o a ying deg ees. The pe cei ed s abili y o one
socie y is ela i e o he le el o change in ano he ; in i sel , no socie y is
en i ely s a iona y. Change may occu wi h low in ensi y in one socie y and
high in ensi y in ano he , p og essing slowly in some and apidly in o he s.
Wi hin his amewo k, i can be said ha change a ies acco ding o ime
and he speci ic socie y. In any case, change is an inhe en cha ac e is ic
o e e y human communi y. E e y socie y is simul aneously a cons uc ,
empo al, his o ical, and con inuously con on ed wi h a p ocess o ongoing
ans o ma ion (Okumuş, 2019, p. 21).
Socie ies a e ine i ably subjec o a p ocess o change o e ime, and
he di ec ion o his change is shaped by he in ellec ual ans o ma ion o
indi iduals. Socie ies unde go ans o ma ion as ime p og esses; howe e ,
his ans o ma ion does no occu spon aneously. I gains momen um
h ough he in ellec ual e o s and ques ioning minds ha sus ain i . Wha
enables social ans o ma ion is no passi e accep ance bu , a he , c ea i e
hough ha expe iences discom o and igge s change.
Social change and in ellec ual p oduc ion gain momen um no h ough
a s a ic mind bu h ough indi iduals who expe ience discom o , ques ion
exis ing condi ions, and s i e o anscend es ablished no ms. When he
mind eels he need o mo e beyond en enched pa e ns o hough , i en e s
a kind o e men a ion p ocess. This p ocess begins wi h he indi idual’s
discom o wi h p e ailing pa adigms, which subsequen ly leads o inqui y,
c i ique, and he cons uc ion o new ideas.
F om a sociological pe spec i e, c ea i e e o se es no only as an
indi idual in ellec ual ac i i y bu also as a ca alys o social ans o ma ion.
Ma x explains social change h ough he concep o “aliena ion.” Acco ding
o him, indi iduals’ dissa is ac ion wi h he exis ing o de gi es ise o he
desi e o cons uc new social s uc u es (Ma x, 1959, p. 34). This sense o
discom o ac s as a igge o he e men a ion o hough . In Tu key, wi h
he ise o social media, indi iduals ha e begun o shape hei belie s h ough
pe sonal inqui y a he han elying solely on adi ional eligious au ho i ies.
His o ically, majo in ellec ual mo emen s, philosophical e olu ions,
and a is ic b eak h oughs ha e o en eme ged om minds ha could
no econcile wi h he exis ing o de . The Enligh enmen , he Indus ial
Re olu ion, eminis mo emen s, and pos mode n c i iques can, o some

MEHMET ATA MIRZAOĞLU
71
ex en , be seen as p oduc s o minds unse led by he s a us quo. In his
con ex , he o ien a ion o a es less mind owa d c ea i e e o unc ions
no only as an indi idual in e nal p ocess bu also as a d i ing o ce ha
ans o ms social dynamics.
Discom o as he sou ce o in ellec ual e men a ion se es no only
as he impe us o indi idual c ea i e p ocesses bu also as a p ecu so o
collec i e ans o ma ion. Social p og ess is la gely made possible h ough
he c ea i e e o s o indi iduals unse led by exis ing s uc u es, and hese
e o s ha e his o ically laid he ounda ion o adical changes. P ocesses o
social change cons i u e one o he mos e iden a enas o he e men a ion
o social hough . While eligion in adi ional social s uc u es was o en
ega ded as ixed and immu able, he p ocess o mode niza ion has led o he
eshaping o eligious belie s acco ding o cul u al and social con ex s.
One o he mos impo an aspec s o unde s and abou social change is
ha i is an objec i e phenomenon, independen o alue judgmen s. F om
a sociological pe spec i e, social change is nei he inhe en ly good no bad;
i simply e e s o ans o ma ions occu ing wi hin he social s uc u es
and a angemen s o a socie y o g oup. In his con ex , social change is
a non-no ma i e, objec i e concep and does no ca y an in insic alue
judgmen . While i may p oduce posi i e ou comes o one socie y, i can
simul aneously gene a e nega i e e ec s. The same p ocess o change may
s eng hen one socie y while weakening ano he . Mo e impo an ly, a change
deemed bene icial o one socie y may esul in ad e se consequences o
ano he , and he e e se is also possible (Okumuş, 2019, p. 23). In summa y,
social change can se e as a ac o ha enables socie ies o sus ain hei
exis ence, bu i can also lead o hei disin eg a ion o collapse (c . Okumuş,
2015b, p. 17-50). The ou comes o change a y depending on a socie y’s
in e nal dynamics, en i onmen al condi ions, and how i manages he p ocess
o ans o ma ion.
5. P inciples o he Qu ’an and he Founda ion o
Social Fe men a ion
The e men a ion o social hough e e s o he men al, cul u al, and
spi i ual ans o ma ion p ocesses expe ienced by indi iduals and socie ies
o e ime. This p ocess is cha ac e ized by he ma u a ion o ideas, he
acquisi ion o new meanings, and hei e olu ion in o di e en o ms
wi hin a social con ex . F om he pe spec i e o he sociology o eligion,
social e men a ion is a c ucial concep ha allows o he analysis o how
belie sys ems impac indi idual consciousness, collec i e iden i y, and
FERMENTATION OF SOCIAL THOUGHT AND ITS REFLECTIONS
72
social o de . The Qu ’an p o ides he ounda ional p inciples ha guide
his p ocess, suppo ing he e men a ion o social hough . P inciples
such as change, knowledge, eason, goodness, jus ice, and libe a ion om
dogma ism highligh he dynamic s uc u e o socie ies and hei po en ial
o ans o ma ion.
Fe men a ion Based on he P inciple o Change: The Qu ’an emphasizes
ha social change is bo h ine i able and di ec ly connec ed o human will.
5.1. Fe men a ion Based on he P inciple o Change: The Qu ’an
emphasizes ha social change is bo h ine i able and di ec ly connec ed
o human will. The e se, “Indeed, Allah will no change he condi ion o
a people un il hey change wha is in hemsel es” 2 highligh s ha social
ans o ma ion is connec ed o he esponsibili y o indi iduals. Humans
a e en us ed wi h he ole o icege ency on Ea h, ac ing as esponsible
agen s wi hin he social change p ocess o dained by God. The e o e, i is
essen ial o conside he o de and ules wi hin a eas o change, o e alua e
his o ical e en s consciously, and o ul ill social esponsibili ies diligen ly
(Said, 2015, s. 36).
5.2. Fe men a ion Th ough Knowledge and Science: Knowledge is
a undamen al sou ce o social ans o ma ion. The e se, “A e hose who
know equal o hose who do no know?”3 emphasizes he decisi e ole o
knowledge in bo h indi idual ma u a ion and socie al p og ess. Addi ionally,
he e se, “He has subjec ed o you wha e e is in he hea ens and wha e e
is on he ea h; indeed, in ha a e signs o a people who e lec ”4 ad ises
he conscious con empla ion and obse a ion o na u e and he uni e se,
ein o cing he impo ance o knowledge in bo h socie al and indi idual
de elopmen .
5.3. Fe men a ion Based on he P inciple o Reason and Re lec ion:
The Qu ’an cons an ly calls humans o hink and exe cise eason. The e se,
“They emembe Allah s anding, si ing, and lying on hei sides and e lec
on he c ea ion o he hea ens and he ea h” 5 emphasizes he ole o in ellec
and con empla ion in he ans o ma ion o social hough .
5.4. Fe men a ion Th ough Goodness and Vi ue: Social e men a ion
is shaped by he alues o goodness and i ue. The e se, “Do no le e il
and good be equal. Repel e il wi h ha which is be e ; hen he one be ween
2 Ra’d, 13/11.
3 Zuma , 39/9.
4 Ja hiyah 45/13.
5 Al-i Im ân, 3/191.
MEHMET ATA MIRZAOĞLU
73
whom and you he e was enmi y will become as hough he we e a wa m
iend”6 clea ly demons a es he ans o ma i e e ec o goodness on
social con lic s. Social ma u a ion becomes possible h ough he sp ead o
goodness and a oidance o w ongdoing. In his con ex , he e se, “Le he e
be among you a communi y ha in i es o goodness, enjoins wha is igh ,
and o bids wha is w ong. Those a e he success ul ones” 7
emphasizes
ha social solida i y mus be buil on a mo al ounda ion. Simila ly, he
e se, “Coope a e in igh eousness and pie y, bu do no coope a e in sin
and agg ession”8 highligh s he impo ance o g ounding solida i y wi hin
an e hical amewo k. These e ses show ha eligion uni es indi iduals
a ound a common goal o goodness and ha goodness ac s as a cen al
ac o accele a ing socie al ans o ma ion wi hin he e men a ion p ocess.
The e o e, social e men a ion is no me ely a cogni i e p ocess bu also
equi es mo al ans o ma ion, wi h eligion unc ioning as a undamen al
o ce p o iding he no ma i e and e hical amewo k o his ans o ma ion.
5.5. Fe men a ion Based on he P inciple o Jus ice: Jus ice is a
undamen al condi ion o he con inui y o social o de . The e se, “O
you who ha e belie ed! Be pe sis en ly s anding i m in jus ice, e en i i
is agains you sel es, you pa en s, o you ela i es”9 highligh s he
ounda ional ole o jus ice in social ans o ma ion and demons a es ha a
heal hy socie y is only possible h ough a jus sys em. Simila ly, he e se,
“O you who ha e belie ed! S and i m o jus ice as wi nesses o Allah, e en
agains you sel es o you pa en s and ela i es. Le no ha ed o a people
p e en you om being jus ”10 emphasizes he impo ance o objec i i y
and eedom om p ejudice, unde lining he cen al ole o jus ice in he
ma u a ion o social consciousness. These e ses illus a e ha jus ice is a
undamen al elemen in he e men a ion p ocess, uni ing indi iduals and
socie y, enabling ans o ma ion, and es ablishing social balance.
5.6. Pu i ica ion om Dogma ism and C i ical Fe men a ion: The
Qu ’an calls on indi iduals o a oid blind imi a ion and unc i ical accep ance.
The e se, “When i is said o hem, ‘Follow wha Allah has e ealed,’ hey
say, ‘No, we ollow wha we ound ou o e a he s upon.’ Bu wha i hei
o e a he s knew no hing and we e no guided?”11 illus a es how dogma ism
6 Fussila , 41/34.
7 Al-i Im an, 3/104.
8 Al-Ma’idah, 5/2.
9 An-Nisa, 4/135.
10 Al-Ma’idah, 5/8.
11 Al-Baqa ah, 2/170.
FERMENTATION OF SOCIAL THOUGHT AND ITS REFLECTIONS
74
cons i u es an obs acle o social de elopmen . Con e sely, he e se, “Those
who lis en o speech and ollow he bes o i - hey a e he ones whom Allah
has guided o he igh pa h”12 encou ages open-mindedness, guiding
indi iduals o e alua e di e ing pe spec i es and consciously de elop hei
unde s anding. In he con ex o he sociology o eligion, his unde sco es
ha indi iduals mus ac i ely shape hei own unde s anding wi hin he
p ocess o social and in ellec ual e men a ion.
F om a con empo a y sociological pe spec i e, he Qu ’an’s p inciples o
change, knowledge, eason, goodness, jus ice, and libe a ion om dogma ism
enable indi iduals and communi ies in mode n socie ies o con inuously
eshape hei eligious hough s and p ac ices, ans o m social ela ions, and
os e a conscious and dynamic p ocess o social e men a ion.
Conclusion
This s udy highligh s he concep ual po en ial o e ed by he me apho o
e men a ion in explaining he ans o ma ion p ocesses o social hough and
eligious belie s. While e men a ion, as a biological p ocess, e e s o he
ans o ma ion o o ganic ma e , in he social sciences i p o ides a powe ul
analogical amewo k o unde s anding how ideas and belie s e ol e, ma u e,
and a e econ igu ed o e ime. A he indi idual le el, in e nal e men a ion
deno es he ein e p e a ion o hough s, he in e naliza ion o belie s, and a
enewal a he le el o consciousness, whe eas a he socie al le el, ex e nal
e men a ion acili a es he eme gence o new laye s o meaning in collec i e
consciousness h ough cul u al, economic, and echnological in e ac ions.
In his way, indi idual expe iences and social in e ac ions o m a mu ually
ein o cing cycle o ans o ma ion, playing a decisi e ole in he e olu ion
o social hough .
Al hough he e men a ion me apho has no been sys ema ically
add essed in he li e a u e, i o e s an o iginal app oach o cap u ing he
mul idimensional na u e o social and eligious ans o ma ion p ocesses.
This p ocess, ex ending om he indi idual o he collec i e, shaped o e
ime and os e ing social ma u a ion, can be ega ded as a no el analy ical
ool in he social sciences. In pa icula , wi hin he con ex o he sociology
o eligion, his pe spec i e p o ides aluable insigh s in o how indi iduals
ein e p e hei belie and alue sys ems, in e ac wi h social no ms, and
con ibu e o inno a ions eme ging wi hin collec i e consciousness.
12 Zuma 39/18.
MEHMET ATA MIRZAOĞLU
75
The p inciples o he Qu ’an— ega ding change, knowledge, eason,
goodness, jus ice, and libe a ion om dogma ism—eme ge as ounda ional
ene s suppo ing social e men a ion. These p inciples enable indi iduals o
consciously and delibe a ely shape hei hough s and beha io s, ans o m
social s uc u es, and ma u e collec i e consciousness. In mode n socie ies,
he con inuous eshaping o eligious hough and p ac ices by indi iduals
and communi ies, he ans o ma ion o social ela ions, and he de elopmen
o a dynamic e men a ion p ocess a e di ec ou comes o hese p inciples.
The e men a ion o social hough is a mul i-laye ed, dynamic, and
con inuous p ocess ex ending om indi idual consciousness o collec i e
s uc u es. The in ellec ual ene gy and inno a ion gene a ed h ough
indi idual e men a ion con ibu e o b oade social e men a ion; hus, social
change is ueled by c ea i e hough and conscious ans o ma ion. Jus as
e men a ion p oduces ans o ma ion h ough pa ience and in e ac ion,
social hough and belie s con inuously unde go enewal and ma u a ion,
shaping he ajec o y o socie al de elopmen .
This pe spec i e can p o ide a obus concep ual ounda ion o bo h
heo e ical and applied esea ch in unde s anding social and eligious
change, opening new a enues o schola ly deba e in he li e a u e. Fu u e
s udies may analyze he e men a ion me apho using quali a i e and
quan i a i e me hods, e ealing mo e conc e e indica o s o indi idual and
socie al ans o ma ions and laying he g oundwo k o new me hodological
app oaches in he social sciences.

FERMENTATION OF SOCIAL THOUGHT AND ITS REFLECTIONS
76
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Mi zaoğlu, M. A. (2025). Din e Toplumsal Dayanışma. Konya: Pale Yayınla ı.
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Okumuş, E. (2019). Toplumsal Değişme e Din (5. Baskı.). İs anbul: İnsan Yayınla ı.
Okumuş, E. (2024). Medeniye Bakışı. İs anbul: İnsan Ki ap.
Said, C. (2015). Bi eysel e Toplumsal Değişmenin Yasala ı. (İ. Ku lue , Çe .) (8. Baskı.).
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Seligman, B. B. (2003). Çağdaş Düşüncenin Ku ucula ı. (S. Al ıpa mak, Çe .) (1. Basım.).
Anka a: Ye yüzü Yayıne i.
Taplamacıoğlu, M. (1961). Din Sosyolojisi Gi iş. Anka a: Anka a Üni e si esi İlahiya
Fakül esi Yayınla ı no:32.
Tü kiye Diyane Vak ı. ( .y.). Bey ülhikme. Islam Ansiklopedisi. Geliş a ihi Eylül 14, 2024,
gönde en h ps://islamansiklopedisi.o g. /bey ulhikme
Webe , M. (2001). The P o es an E hic and he Spi i o Capi alism. (T. Pa sons, Çe .). Lon-
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77
CHAPTER 5
THE BAKR B. WĀʾIL TRIBE DURING
THE CALIPHATE OF ʿUMAR: ROLES IN
ADMINISTRATION, MILITARY, JUDICIARY,
AND DIPLOMACY1
Kenan ECEOĞLU2
Abs ac
The Bak b. Wāʾil ibe, wi h i s wide geog aphical dis ibu ion ac oss
he A abian Peninsula and i s s a egic p esence along he Pe sian on ie ,
played a cen al ole in bo h adminis a ion and mili a y conques s du ing
he calipha e o ʿUma b. al-Khaṭṭāb. Thei p e-Islamic encoun e s wi h he
Sasanian Empi e endowed hem wi h knowledge o he enemy’s e ain,
ac ics, and language, which la e p o ed ad an ageous in he cou se o
he Islamic conques s. D awing on classical his o ical, biog aphical, and
genealogical sou ces, his s udy employs a biog aphical analysis me hod
o classi y he oles o ibe membe s in mili a y, adminis a i e, judicial,
and diploma ic ields, he eby si ua ing hem wi hin ʿUma ’s b oade
policies o go e nance and appoin men s. The indings indica e ha Bak
b. Wāʾil igu es such as al-Mu hannā b. Ḥā i ha commanded a mies and
1 This s udy builds upon a pape I p esen ed a he 3 d In e na ional Pe a Con e ence on
Theology and Islamic S udies, en i led ‘The Appoin men Policies o Caliph ʿUma : The
Case o he Bak b. Wāʾil T ibe.’ Tha pape was subsequen ly e ised and expanded in o
he o ma o a book chap e .
2 D ., Tü kiye, [email p o ec ed], h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4196-0716
THE BAKR B. WĀʾIL TRIBE DURING THE CALIPHATE OF ʿUMAR: ROLES IN ADMINISTRATION, MILITARY
78
spea headed campaigns, while o he s like Bashī b. Ḥaṣaṣiyya and Qu ba
b. Qa āda se ed as depu y commande s in c i ical ba les. The appoin men
o Abū Ma yam, a o me pa icipan in he iddah who la e epen ed, as
judge o Bas a illus a es ʿUma ’s p agma ic emphasis on compe ence and
ein eg a ion a he han lineage. Likewise, hei deploymen in diploma ic
missions e lec ed bo h hei cul u al p oximi y o Pe sia and hei capaci y
o c oss-cul u al nego ia ion. O e all, he case o he Bak b. Wāʾil ibe
demons a es ha ʿUma ’s policies we e guided by me i , accoun abili y, and
p ac ical need. This p agma ic app oach no only ensu ed apid p og ess in
he conques s bu also acili a ed he in eg a ion o di e se ibal expe iences
in o he ins i u ional amewo k o he ea ly Islamic s a e.
In oduc ion
The Bak b. Wāʾil ibe was among he mos powe ul and in luen ial
b anches o he Rabīʿa ibal con ede a ion, playing a decisi e ole no only
in he p e-Islamic pe iod bu also in he ea ly Islamic conques s (Ibn Khaldūn,
1988, p. 360). T acing i s lineage back o ʿAdnān, one o he descendan s o
P ophe Ismāʿīl, he ibe s ood ou as one o he mos deeply oo ed A ab
communi ies, no ed o i s ma ial iden i y, wide geog aphical dispe sion,
and poli ical in luence. The Bak b. Wāʾil ibe was subdi ided in o s ong
clans such as Banū Ijl, Banū Ḥanī a, Banū Shaybān, Banū Taym Allāh,
Banū Qays, and Banū Zuhl, whose genealogies we e aced o he sons o
Bak b. Wāʾil—ʿAlī, Yashku , and Badhan (Ibn al-Kalbī, 1988, ol. 1, p.
45; Ibn Ḥazm, 1983, p. 307; al-Qalqashandī, 1982, p. 130). Thei se lemen
ac oss di e se egions ende ed he ibe a key ac o bo h wi hin he A abian
Peninsula and in he ou wa d-looking expansion o he ea ly Islamic poli y.
O iginally based in he icini y o Mecca, he ibe g adually dispe sed
ac oss he Peninsula due o mig a ions in sea ch o pas u e and wa e
esou ces as well as in e ibal con lic s (Kablan, 2015, p. 24). Thei membe s
came o inhabi egions such as he Yemen Tihāmah, al-Yamāmah, Bah ain,
he Sawād o I aq, and he en i ons o Ubulla (al-Majlisī, 1983, ol. 15, p.
184). The Banū Ḥanī a, o whom Musaylima belonged, consolida ed powe
pa icula ly in al-Yamāmah (al-Wāqidī, 1990, pp. 21, 50; al-Masʿūdī, n.d.,
p. 239), asse ing dominance o e he egion’s e ile and expansi e lands.
Meanwhile, he Banū Shaybān ex ended hei au ho i y no hwa d in o al-
Jazī a and Diyā Bak , secu ing a s a egic on ie . The endu ing oponym
Diyā Bak , adi ionally associa ed wi h his ibe (Yāqū al-Ḥamawī,
1995, ol. 1, p. 224; ol. 2, p. 134), unde sco es hei deep imp in on he
geog aphical memo y o he egion.
KENAN ECEOĞLU
79
Following he ad en o Islam and he dea h o he P ophe , membe s o
he Bak b. Wāʾil ibe pu sued di e gen pa hs. Some pa icipa ed in he
idda (apos asy) mo emen s and a emp ed o es ablish con ol in Bah ain
(al-Wāqidī, 1990, p. 50), only o be subdued by he i m policy o Caliph Abū
Bak and he o ces dispa ched unde ʿAlāʾ b. al-Ḥaḍ amī (Ibn Saʿd, 2001,
ol. 5, pp. 278–279). O he s, howe e , emained loyal o Islam, coope a ing
wi h he caliphal au ho i y and he eby es o ing he ibe’s c edibili y and
us wo hiness.
By he calipha e o ʿUma , he Bak b. Wāʾil ibe assumed a pa icula ly
p ominen ole in he Pe sian campaigns. The leade ship o al-Mu hannā
b. Ḥā i ha al-Shaybānī, commande o he i s majo expedi ion agains
Pe sia (al-Wāqidī, 1990, p. 217; al-Balādhu ī, 1996, p. 238), p o ides
he clea es example o his ajec o y. His leade ship illus a ed no only
mili a y acumen bu also he mu ual us ha had been es ablished be ween
he cen al au ho i y and he ibe. Ye he con ibu ions o Bak b. Wāʾil
membe s we e no limi ed o he ba le ield; hey also se ed ac i ely in
adminis a i e (al-Fasawī, 1967, ol. 4, p. 35; Ibn Ka hī , 1997, ol. 10, p.
27; Ibn al-A hī , 1997, ol. 2, p. 316), judicial, and diploma ic oles, hei
pa icipa ion ex ending in o subsequen pe iods (al-Yaʿqūbī, 2001, p. 114)
and con ibu ing signi ican ly o he ins i u ionaliza ion and consolida ion o
he Islamic s a e.
The Bak b. Wāʾil ibe hus ans o med i s p e-Islamic ma ial e hos
in o ins i u ional esponsibili ies wi hin he amewo k o he nascen Islamic
poli y. By aligning hemsel es wi h he cen al au ho i y, hey became
in luen ial ac o s in he poli ical, mili a y, and adminis a i e balances o he
ea ly calipha e (Eceoğlu, 2025. pp. 243–260). This a icle examines he oles
unde aken by membe s o he Bak b. Wāʾil ibe du ing he calipha e o
ʿUma —ac oss he sphe es o adminis a ion, mili a y o ganiza ion, judicia y,
and diplomacy—in o de o highligh he p inciples guiding he Caliph’s
appoin men policies and o demons a e how hese ibal con ibu ions
o med a cohe en whole.
One o he easons o selec ing he Bak b. Wāʾil ibe as he ocus o
his s udy is he limi ed s a e o schola ship on he subjec . A su ey o he
li e a u e e eals ha he only comp ehensi e wo k de o ed speci ically
o his ibe is he mas e ’s hesis o Yūsu Kablan, which in es iga es he
ibe’s socio-poli ical posi ion in he p e-Islamic pe iod and he biog aphy
o al-Mu hannā b. Ḥā i ha. By con as , he p esen a icle does no con ine
i sel o a single igu e. Ins ead, i unde akes a holis ic assessmen o
mul iple membe s o he ibe du ing he calipha e o ʿUma , iden i ying and
THE BAKR B. WĀʾIL TRIBE DURING THE CALIPHATE OF ʿUMAR: ROLES IN ADMINISTRATION, MILITARY
86
119). Following he decisi e Muslim ic o y a al-Qādisiyya, Saʿd b. Abī
Waqqāṣ en us ed Bešī wi h deli e ing he news o iumph and he spoils
o Madāʾin o Caliph ʿUma in Medina (al-Ṭaba ī, 1967, ol. 4, p. 22). Thus,
Bešī played a dual ole in he mili a y-adminis a i e amewo k o he
ime: i s as depu y commande in momen s o c isis, and la e as he o icial
emissa y ca ying news and spoils o he cen al au ho i y.
3.3. Abū Ma yam al-Ḥana ī
Iyās b. Subayḥ b. al-Muḥa iš b. ʿAbd ʿAm al-Ḥana ī, be e known by
his kunya Abū Ma yam (Ibn Saʿd, 2001, ol. 9, p. 90), was ini ially aligned
wi h Musaylima bu la e epen ed, emb aced Islam, and li ed he ea e as
a commi ed Muslim, acco ding o he epo o Ibn Saʿd. Some adi ions
a ibu e o him he slaying o ʿUma ’s b o he Zayd b. al-Khaṭṭāb du ing he
Ba le o al-Yamāma, hough al e na i e accoun s iden i y ano he igu e as
esponsible (Khalī a b. Khayyāṭ, 1977, p. 108; Ibn Qu ayba, 1992, p. 180;
al-Balādhu ī, 1988, p. 97). Sou ces also eco d an exchange be ween him
and Caliph ʿUma : when Abū Ma yam eminded him o a supplica ion a e
elie ing himsel , ʿUma e o ed, “Was i Musaylima who ga e you his
uling?” (Ibn Ḥaja , 2008, ol. 1, p. 428)
Unde ʿUma ’s au ho i y, Abū Ma yam was appoin ed judge (qāḍī) in
Baṣ a (Fasawī, 1981, ol. 2, p. 243; ol. 3, p. 68; Ibn al-A hī , 1997, ol. 2,
p. 373) du ing he go e no ship o ʿU ba b. Ghazwān, con inuing b ie ly in o
he enu e o al-Mughī a b. Shuʿba. Following his emo al, he go e no ship
and judicia y o Baṣ a we e en us ed o al-Mughī a (A a , 2020, p. 61), and
subsequen ly he o ice o judge was assigned o Kaʿb b. Sū al-Azdī (Ibn
Saʿd, 2001, ol. 9, p. 91).
Repo s also men ion Abū Ma yam’s appoin men as go e no o
Rāmhu muz, in he egion o he Euph a es basin (Khalī a b. Khayyāṭ, 1977,
p. 140; al-Balādhu ī, 1988, p. 97, 374; Ibn Ḥaja , 2008, ol. 11, p. 475). In
a qaṣīda composed by Yazīd b. Qays and add essed o ʿUma ega ding he
adminis a o s o Ah āz and i s su oundings, Abū Ma yam is men ioned
c i ically o ce ain p ac ices. In consequence, ʿUma is said o ha e
con isca ed hal o his p ope y o he public easu y (Ibn Ḥaja , 2008, ol.
11, pp. 473-475).

KENAN ECEOĞLU
87
4. AN ASSESSMENT OF ʿUMAR’S PRINCIPLES OF
APPOINTMENT
In his sec ion, he cha ac e is ics o he indi iduals om he Bak b.
Wāʾil ibe appoin ed by ʿUma will be examined in o de o iden i y he
undamen al p inciples guiding his appoin men s. Thus, by ocusing on a
single ibal case, he c i e ia employed by he Caliph in selec ing o icials
will be analyzed. When he asks and quali ies o he a o emen ioned igu es
a e conside ed, i becomes e iden ha se e al co e p inciples unde pinned
ʿUma ’s app oach o appoin men s. These p inciples a e discussed in de ail
below.
One o he o emos easons o he appoin men o membe s o he Bak
b. Wāʾil ibe was hei geog aphical loca ion. F om he p e-Islamic pe iod
onwa d, his ibe had inhabi ed a as egion s e ching om he Tihāma
o Yemen, h ough Yamāma and Baḥ ayn, up o I aq, Ubulla, al-Jazī a, and
Diyā Bak in he no h. Du ing ʿUma ’s eign, hese e i o ies lay di ec ly
on o jus behind he on s o conques . Such p oximi y p oduced wo
ou comes: i s , he apid mobiliza ion o oops and he managemen o
supply lines h ough local expe ience; and second, he swi es ablishmen o
ci il adminis a ion in conque ed a eas h ough local elemen s. The ac i i ies
o Suwayd b. Qu ba in he Bas a–Ubulla egion o o Qu ba b. Qa āda in
o ganizing he adminis a ion ollowing he conques o Ubulla illus a e he
adminis a i e ad an ages o his p oximi y.
A second ac o was he popula ion s eng h and mili a y cul u e o Bak
b. Wāʾil. This endowed hem wi h a signi ican posi ion in ʿUma ’s policy
o balancing ibal powe . A la ge manpowe base, swi ly assembled ca al y
and aiding uni s, and he mobili y o a semi-nomadic li es yle enabled
igu es such as al-Mu hannā b. Ḥā i ha and Mazʾū o o ganize e ec i e
mili a y con ingen s in a sho ime. Ye , o ʿUma , numbe s alone did no
cons i u e a measu e o me i ; a he , la ge o ces became p oduc i e only
when kep unde he supe ision o cen al au ho i y. Fo his eason, he
Caliph subjec ed commande s o s ic o e sigh h ough co espondence,
accele a ed communica ions wi h a cou ie sys em, and in oduced o a ion
and dismissal when necessa y. The con olled wi hd awal o al-Mu hannā
a e he Ba le o he B idge, ollowed by he eo ganiza ion o his o ces,
e lec s no only his pe sonal capabili y bu also his disciplined o e sigh .
A hi d p inciple lay in he p e-Islamic con ac o Bak b. Wāʾil wi h he
Sāsānids, which p o ided hem wi h supe io amilia i y wi h he e ain.
The his o ical con lic s o he Shaybān clan along he Tig is p oduced a cad e
THE BAKR B. WĀʾIL TRIBE DURING THE CALIPHATE OF ʿUMAR: ROLES IN ADMINISTRATION, MILITARY
88
well acquain ed wi h Sāsānid mili a y o ganiza ion, supply ou es, mo ale
and psychology, and he condi ions o land and clima e. ʿUma ’s eliance
on al-Mu hannā and his ci cle on he I aqi on was he e o e no me ely
a choice o mili a y s eng h bu also a delibe a e call upon local expe ise
and ins i u ional memo y. This knowledge o he ield no only accele a ed
ic o ies in he conques s bu also os e ed cau ious s a egies—such as
wi hd awal, eg ouping, and nego ia ion— ha educed losses.
Fou h, membe s o he ibe we e na u al candida es o diplomacy
and embassies. Thei p oximi y o he on ie s, hei ies wi h he Sāsānids
h ough bo de s, ade, and aids, as well as hei in e ac ion wi h mul ilingual
en i onmen s, ga e hem possible amilia i y wi h Pe sian and local dialec s,
all o which enhanced hei e ec i eness as en oys. The missions o Maʿbad,
Mudā ib, Mazʾū , and Fu ā o he Sāsānid commande Rus am, among o he s,
demons a e ʿUma ’s commi men o a diploma ic s a egy ha combined
p oclama ion, nego ia ion, and in elligence alongside mili a y ope a ions.
He e, he c i e ia o selec ion we e no ibal iden i y bu eligious in eg i y,
he o ical skill, composu e, and command o local languages and cus oms.
Thus, while p oximi y may ha e acili a ed selec ion, me i ul ima ely
de e mined he appoin men .
A i h dimension conce ns ʿUma ’s policy owa d indi iduals in ol ed
in he idda (apos asy) mo emen s. The in ol emen o ce ain Bak b.
Wāʾil igu es in his episode illus a es he Caliph’s cau ious ye p agma ic
app oach in appoin men s. Ra he han ejec ing epen ance and ein eg a ion
ou igh , he e alua ed local social con ex s and pe sonal abili ies, assigning
such indi iduals o app op ia e pos s unde close supe ision. In his way, he
bo h ein o ced social econcilia ion and enhanced local legi imacy. Ye his
openness emained condi ional upon accoun abili y: go e no s and judges
accused o misconduc we e in es iga ed, subjec ed o inancial penal ies, o
emo ed om o ice. This model may be seen as a p ac ical mani es a ion o
he balance be ween me cy, cen al au ho i y, and law.
Conclusion
The mili a y, adminis a i e, and diploma ic oles assumed by membe s
o he Bak b. Wāʾil ibe du ing he calipha e o ʿUma p o ide signi ican
insigh s in o he public adminis a ion o he pe iod. Thei engagemen
in di e se ields demons a es ha he Caliph did no p io i ize ibal
a ilia ion in appoin men s bu a he emphasized me i , compe ence, and
us wo hiness. Mo eo e , he close supe ision o hese appoin ees ensu ed
ha public au ho i y was exe cised wi h jus ice and anspa ency. The case o
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Bak b. Wāʾil hus o e s one o he clea es illus a ions o ʿUma ’s policy o
appoin men s, which e ol ed a ound he p inciples o jus ice, me i , cen al
o e sigh , and ibal balance. In o he wo ds, ʿUma ’s choices we e shaped
less by he ques ion o “who” a pe son was han by “whe e, wha , why,
and how” hey could se e e ec i ely. His app oach o he dis ibu ion o
esponsibili ies ocused no me ely on pe sonal backg ound (lineage, ibe,
o p es ige) bu on an indi idual’s capaci y o ac wi hin speci ic con ex s,
unde gi en condi ions, owa d de ined objec i es, and by app op ia e
me hods.
This e idence shows ha ʿUma was able o ans o m he geog aphical
posi ion and his o ical expe ience o Bak b. Wāʾil in o asse s o he
s a e wi hou iola ing he p inciple o ibal balance. The Caliph nei he
g an ed p i ileges o his own ibe no monopolis ic ad an ages o Bak b.
Wāʾil; ins ead, he main ained a b oad-based ep esen a ion ha p ese ed
equilib ium in he dis ibu ion o powe . The sphe e opened o Bak b. Wāʾil
was one in which hei ad an ages o p oximi y, numbe s, and expe ience
we e combined wi h me i and kep unde s ic supe ision. The posi ion
o his ibe unde ʿUma e eals a model o success eme ging om he
in e sec ion o s uc u al ac o s (geog aphy, demog aphy, and his o ical
con ac ) and go e ning p inciples (jus ice, me i , balance, and o e sigh ).
This model acili a ed bo h he apid p og ess o he conques s and he
es ablishmen o las ing adminis a i e s uc u es in newly annexed egions.
P oximi y o he on ensu ed logis ical e iciency and speed; p e-Islamic
con ac wi h he Sāsānids p o ided in elligence and linguis ic amilia i y;
la ge popula ion numbe s supplied ein o cemen capaci y; and pos - idda
ein eg a ion o e ed oppo uni ies o ehabili a ion and legi imacy.
ʿUma channeled hese ad an ages no h ough pe sonal loyal y bu
h ough compe ence and accoun abili y o he s a e. He was unhesi an in
eplacing an appoin ee when a mo e capable igu e eme ged. The case o
Bak b. Wāʾil he e o e makes isible he a ional o ien a ion and ins i u ional
endency o he ea ly Islamic s a e. I demons a es ha conques s could only
be consolida ed when local expe ience was p ope ly in eg a ed wi h he
gene al p inciples o he s a e. ʿUma ’s appoin men policies hus s and as a
his o ical guide o how his in eg a ion was achie ed.
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95
CHAPTER 6
LIFE HISTORY OF SYED SHAMSUDDIN
SHAH GILANI (MAY ALLAH HAVE MERCY
ON HIM)
Syed Adnan Hussain Gillani1
D Syed Muhammad Fa ooq Shah Gillani2
Abs ac
A spi i ual pe son is someone who a ends o his spi i as a means o
connec ing o o he s and embodying he a ibu es o uncondi ional lo e,
peace, au hen ici y, humili y and wisdom. He seeks meaning and pu pose in
li e by connec ing o some hing la ge han hemsel es which may o may no
in ol e eligion. He o en exhibi s cha ac e is ics like compassion, pa ience,
humili y and au hen ici y and may engage in p ac ices like medi a ion o ac s
o se ice. Such indi iduals a e o en sel -awa e and emo ionally ma u e and
may ha e a s ong sense o empa hy and in ui ion. As a Walliullah, he has a
close connec ion wi h Allah, cha ac e ized by ai h, pie y and obedience. He
is also pa ien , cu ious, kind, humble, embodied and p one o wonde , wi h
someone who consciously connec s o some hing la ge . In ac a spi i ual
pe son is basically a good pe son. The cu en s udy will shed ligh on he
li e his o y o Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (May Allah ha e Me cy on
Him) and his eligious se ices o he humani y. He was such a nice spi i ual
1 PhD Schola , Depa men o Islamic S udies, The Islamia Uni e si y o Bahawalpu -Pa-
kis an, [email p o ec ed]
2 Sibling Academy o Quali y Educa ion, Bahawalpu -Pakis an [email p o ec ed]
LIFE HISTORY OF SYED SHAMSUDDIN SHAH GILANI (MAY ALLAH HAVE MERCY ON HIM)
102
35. Haz a Syed Abdul Qadi Khamis (RA)
36. Haz a Syed Hamid Ganj Bakhsh Thali h (RA)
37. Haz a Syed Noo ullah Shah Gilani (RA)
38. Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA)
Religious and Wo ldly Se ices o Syed
Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA)
Religious Con ibu ions
Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA) held a unique and dis inguished
s a us among con empo a y schola s. His app oach o eligious se ice was
excep ional o his ime. Whene e he a eled o business, a la ge numbe
o people would accompany him, asking eligious ques ions and seeking
guidance. Many indi iduals who s udied unde him wen on o dedica e hei
li es o he se ice o Islam.
One no able name among his disciples is Syed Akba Shah Bukha i (RA),
who spen 12 yea s in he company o Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA)
in Mohalla Ganj Sha i , Bahawalpu a e pledging allegiance (Bay’ah) o
him. La e , upon his spi i ual mas e ’s ins uc ions, he mo ed o Mul an
o p each Islam. He b ough housands o people o he pa h o u h and
egula ly men ioned his men o in his poe y, e lec ing he deep impac Syed
Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA) had on him spi i ually and in ellec ually.
Poe y o Akba Shah:
“Who is Mi za? Who is Sahibaan?
A new s o y begins wi h Syed Akba Shah.
I ca e no o he wo ld; only my Mas e ’s pain I seek.
I eci e he Kalima o he P ophe and send blessings upon him.”
Elsewhe e, he says:
“Pe ec and comple e is my Pi (spi i ual guide), Shamsuddin Gilani,
A adian sun among sain s, b inging spi i ual ease,
A ue lo e , uni ed wi h God, knowe o hidden sec e s,
Possesso o Madinan knowledge and cus odian o di ine mys e ies.”

SYED ADNAN HUSSAIN GILLANI - DR SYED MUHAMMAD FAROOQ SHAH GILLANI
103
Whe he o business o p eaching, Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA)
guided he people whe e e he wen and augh hem o se e humani y.
Whene e someone o e ed him a gi , he would immedia ely dis ibu e i
among he people si ing a ound him. His gene osi y was ema kable. Fo
ins ance, he Nawab o Bahawalpu , one o his admi e s, would p esen
aluable gi s o him, bu he would dis ibu e hem in he Nawab’s p esence.
E en when he Nawab o Bahawalpu g an ed him land o eside on, he
allowed o he s o se le on i when hey eques ed. Many o hose amilies
con inue o eside he e o his day. He was a pious and compassiona e pe son,
wi h a unique s a us bo h spi i ually and socially.
P eaching o Islam
Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA) a eled om A ghanis an o India
(now Pakis an) p eaching in many ci ies and illages. Th ough his e o s,
many non-Muslims accep ed Islam a his hands.
He isi ed Bahawalpu e e y yea , and du ing his s ay, news o his
pie y, hones y, and wo ship sp ead h oughou he ci y. When he Nawab
o Bahawalpu hea d o his, he pe sonally came o mee him and was so
imp essed ha he joined his spi i ual ci cle.
Su ism
(“In Islamic lands, especially he Indian subcon inen , spi i uali y is seen
as de achmen om he wo ld and closeness o God.”)
Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA) p ac iced he same eachings he had
lea ned om his a he Syed Noo ullah Shah Gilani (RA). Du ing jou neys
wi h his a he , he no iced ha whene e hey camped, his a he would
become comple ely imme sed in wo ship o days, se e ing all wo ldly
in e ac ions.
Following in his a he ’s oo s eps, he oo became deeply in ol ed in
wo ship and wi hd ew om wo ldly a achmen s, spending days solely in
he ememb ance o God.
Se ice o Humani y
Se ing God’s c ea ion has always been a hallma k o he Sayyid amilies
(descendan s o he P ophe ). They ha e shown immense espec and ca e
o he people.
LIFE HISTORY OF SYED SHAMSUDDIN SHAH GILANI (MAY ALLAH HAVE MERCY ON HIM)
104
Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA) was known o his compassion and
igh eousness. He augh people bo h social e ique e and eligious ma e s. I
weal hy people o e ed him any hing, he would dis ibu e i among he poo
si ing nea by. I someone came o him wi h a need — whe he inancial o
in ellec ual — he would s i e o ul ill i .
His gene osi y, modes y, b a e y, and loyal y we e ma chless. Helping
he poo and ca ing o he needy was his belo ed ac i i y. His household
was blessed wi h abundance and i ue.
Business and T ade
He inhe i ed he amily business o d y ui s and con inued his ade
wi h de o ion. He o en a eled in ca a ans and main ained a Su i, asce ic
li es yle.
His ances o s and o he amily membe s egula ly b ough ca a ans om
Swa , Bune , and Ghazni o De a Ghazi Khan, Mul an, and Bahawalpu o
ade. Whe e e hey se led o ade, a neighbo hood called “Ganj-e-Sada ”
(T easu e o he Sayyids) would de elop.
Thus, a eas in De a Ghazi Khan, Mul an, and Bahawalpu whe e he li ed
o ade a e s ill known as “Ganj” neighbo hoods. His sh ine, and hose o
his son Syed Imam Din Shah Gilani (RA), his b o he s, and o he ela i es
a e loca ed in Mohalla Ganj Sha i , Bahawalpu .
Demise
Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA) passed away in Mohalla Ganj Sha i ,
Bahawalpu on 28 h Dhu al-Qi’dah 1212 AH, co esponding o 15 h May
1798 (Tuesday). His sh ine is loca ed on he eas e n side, nex o his son
Syed Imam Din Shah Gilani (RA), who had passed away oughly en days
ea lie .
Unable o bea he g ie o losing his only child, and ha ing no o he
o sp ing, Syed Shamsuddin Shah Gilani (RA) oo depa ed his wo ld sho ly
a e . His blessed sh ine emains in Ganj Sha i , Bahawalpu -Pakis an. May
his pu e soul es in e e nal peace! Aameen
105
CHAPTER 7
THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL
COMMUNITY IN RESOLVING THE
ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT: A
COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS
D . Muhammad Sa da Bha i1
Miss Ma ia Noo 2
Rao Sha i Mansoob3
D . Ali Ijaz4
Abs ac
The clash be ween Is ael and Pales ine is one o he mos p o ac ed
and mul i a ious dispu es in he biosphe e, oo ed in some deep his o ical,
eligious and poli ical con ex s. A i s co e, his con lic e ol es a ound
con ending igh s o he iden ical land and has gi en ise o signi ican
ensions and iolence o decades. The in e na ional communi y can play a
c ucial ole in esol ing his con lic wi h a ious app oaches and le els o
success. The cu en s udy analyzes he Is aeli-Pales inian con lic , ocusing
1 Depa men o So wa e Enginee ing, The Islamia Uni e si y o Bahawalpu -Pakis an
[email p o ec ed]
2 Depa men o English, The Go . Sadiq College Women Uni e si y, Bahawalpu -Pakis-
an, [email p o ec ed]
3 Sibling Academy o Quali y Educa ion, Bahawalpu -Pakis an [email p o ec ed]
4 In e na ional Uni e si y o Ky gyzs an [email p o ec ed]
THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY IN RESOLVING THE ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT
106
on i s his o ical backg ound, cu en s a us and po en ial peace ul esolu ion.
I highligh s he ongoing con lic , oo ed in na ional na a i es, e i o ial
claims and eligious sen imen s. This con lic emains a deeply en enched
and mul i ace ed issue. While eaching a sus ainable peace ag eemen is
challenging, i is no impossible. A comp ehensi e app oach ha add esses
he co e issues and in ol es bo h op-down and bo om-up e o s, as
well as consis en in e na ional media ion, is he mos likely pa h owa ds
a esolu ion ha espec s he igh s and aspi a ions o bo h Is aelis and
Pales inians. Howe e , i will equi e a commi men o dialogue, comp omise
and he long- e m ision o a peace ul coexis ence. The analysis emphasizes
he need o enewed diploma ic e o s, us -building and a conduci e
nego ia ion en i onmen o p omo e unde s anding and dialogue among
in ol ed pa ies. I also examines he in e na ional communi y’s e o s, key
playe s, challenges and po en ial solu ions. The s udy sugges s ha Is ael
and Pales ine should engage in di ec , uncondi ional nego ia ions wi hou
p econdi ions, add essing co e issues like bo de s, e ugees, Je usalem, and
secu i y. The global communi y should play a cons uc i e ole in media ing
he cease- i e p ocess. P omo ing people- o-people ini ia i es can build
us and unde s anding among Is aelis and Pales inians. To encapsula e,
he esea che highligh s he complexi ies o he Is aeli-Pales inian clash
in mode n in e na ional ela ions and he c ucial ole o he in e na ional
communi y in esol ing i .
Keywo ds: Is ael, Pales ine, Con lic , Wa , Peace building.
In oduc ion
One o he mos unsol able dispu es o he pas cen u y is s ill he
Is aeli-Pales inian clash. The Middle Eas Peace P ocess’s (MEPP)
epea ed ailu es call o a ee alua ion o he s a ing ole o he global
communi y in assis ing he pa ies in esol ing hei di e ences. E en
among hose en us ed wi h p omo ing peace, his disag eemen , like ew
o he s, elici s implici assump ions, biases, and p econcep ions. Finding
measu es ha e ec i ely add ess Is aeli and Pales inian g ie ances
equi es a clea and objec i e analy ical pe spec i e on he issue.
The in e na ional communi y has spen he las hi y yea s p omo ing he
no ion ha he only way o end he issue is o wo k wi h Is ael o build a
p ac ical Pales inian s a e. The global communi y b oadly suppo s a wo-
s a e solu ion, en isioning a Pales inian s a e es ablished wi hin he e i o ies
occupied by Is ael in he 1967 wa , including Eas Je usalem, he Wes Bank,
and Gaza, wi h bo de s based on p e-1967 lines. The Eu opean Union is he
DR. MUHAMMAD SAFDAR BHATTI - MISS MARIA NOOR - RAO SHARIF MANSOOB - DR. ALI IJAZ
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main con ibu o , con ibu ing abou US $35 billion o Pales inian egions
be ween 1993 and 2018 in o de o accomplish his goal.
Because o i s subs an ial in ol emen in he MEPP, h oughou he las
hi y yea s, he in e na ional communi y also bea s some esponsibili y o
he pa ies’ ailu e o close he gaps in hei s ances. As will be seen la e ,
some s uc u al-cogni i e laws in Wes e n a emp s o esol e he con lic
ha e con ibu ed o he MEPP’s ailu e.
This pape in es iga es he undamen al belie s ha guide he in e na ional
communi y’s a i ude owa d he MEPP ini ia i e in he se ing o he Is aeli-
Pales inian and e alua es whe he o no hese p esump ions p omo e o
impede he pu sui o peace. This s udy enhances knowledge on con lic
esolu ion h ough examining he undamen al men al models ha a ec
and shape in e na ional policy-making, pa icula ly in ela ion o he Is aeli-
Pales inian clash. Along wi h he ami ica ions o u u e peacemaking
in he Is aeli-Pales inian a ena, i also examines he undamen al
issues con on ing he global communi y in he pos -MEPP wo ld.
The de ini ion o he wo d “in e na ional communi y” is gi en a he beginning
o he pape , which hen looks a he successes and ailu es o he MEPP.
The second segmen , “MEPP Accomplishmen s,” desc ibes in wha way
he peace p ocess has imp o ed he Is aeli-Pales inian dynamic gene ally
in command o p esen a ai e pic u e o i and o place i s signi icance
o u u e peacemaking. A b ie summa y o he cu en opinions on he
MEPP’s sho comings and how his s udy u ns in o hem is gi en in he hi d
sec ion, “The Peace Model and i s Failu es.” The MEPP’s p ima y s uc u al
laws and alse p esump ions a e desc ibed in he nex h ee pa s, along
wi h how hey jeopa dized bo h Is ael’s long- e m secu i y and Pales inian
sel -de e mina ion. “Policy G oup Think in he Dono Communi y,” pa
ou , add esses he p ima y s uc u al weakness a gumen . The i h sec ion,
“Res aining Pales inian Sel -De e mina ion,” looks a how Pales inians’
poli ical lexibili y has been limi ed by o eign aid, which has also made
hem mo e elian on i . Sec ion 6 hen examines how Is ael is a isk o
“Unde mining Is ael” as a esul o he MEPP’s ailu e. Sec ion 7, “A Pos -
Oslo Wo ld—Oppo uni ies and Challenges,” is he pape ’s concluding
sec ion. I looks a he T ump plan as well as o he possible e en s in he
Is aeli-Pales inian clash and how hey can impac u u e con lic esolu ion.

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Explo ing he Meaning o “in e na ional
communi y”
The majo i y o dono coun ies, mos ly om he Wes , ha suppo he
wo-s a e way ou as hei main policy p oposal a e e e ed o “in e na ional
communi y”. The “land o peace” a i ude, which was ounded in he
Resolu ions o UN Secu i y, is alida ed by he endo semen o he ounding
o a iable Pales inian s a e wi hin he 1967 bo de s by hese na ions. These
coun ies main ain co dial diploma ic ies wi h Is ael and a e majo inancial
suppo e s o he Pales inian s a e-building s uggle. The en i ies comp ise
Eu opean Union membe na ions including F ance, he Ne he lands, he UK,
Spain, Ge many and he No dic coun ies o Iceland, Sweden, Finland and
Denma k, and Canada, Japan. His o ically, he US championed he Oslo
peace p ocess and played a pi o al ole in i s main enance. The Middle
Eas Peace P ocess was buil on in e na ional consensus, en isioning a
con iguous Pales inian s a e wi hin he 1967 bo de s, encompassing he
Wes Bank and Gaza S ip, wi h Eas Je usalem as i s capi al. Howe e ,
he T ump adminis a ion’s “Peace o P ospe i y” plan ma ked a signi ican
depa u e om his global consensus, in oducing a new ajec o y o he
wo-s a e solu ion. The Ame ican plan p i a ely delinea es new bo de s
ex ending signi ican ly beyond he 1967 bo de s, in eg a ing up o 30% o
he Wes Bank in o Is ael, wi h Je usalem lacking sha ed so e eign y, and
Pales inian s a ehood dependen upon he ul illmen o go e nance and
secu i y c i e ia es ablished by he US and Is ael. Al hough he idea may be
disc ee ly abandoned by a new go e nmen o Ame ica, i s implemen a ion
has i e ocably unde mined yea s o e o s and unde sco ed he necessi y
o sus aining a uni ied in e na ional pe spec i e on os e ing peace in his
domain.
MEPP Accomplishmen s
The Middle Eas e n Peace P ocess has p oduced many expe s, s a ion
o ice s, analys s o poli ics, peace wo ke s, peace delega ions, T ack II
schola s, and special coo dina o s since he 1993 Oslo Acco ds. Va ious
diploma ic e o s ha e un olded, including behind- he-scenes nego ia ions,
o mal condemna ions om go e nmen s, and o es by he UN Secu i y
Council and Gene al Assembly. Despi e c i icism o e hi y yea s la e , he
Oslo Ag eemen s ha e achie ed speci ic objec i es. Pales inians buil up
s uc u es h ough he bo om up wi h echnical knowledge and con ibu o
unding o p epa e o independence. The UN decla ed in 2011 ha
Pales inian “o icial ope a ions a e now adequa e o he p ope unc ioning
DR. MUHAMMAD SAFDAR BHATTI - MISS MARIA NOOR - RAO SHARIF MANSOOB - DR. ALI IJAZ
109
o a s a e,” ci ing Wo ld Bank and IMF epo s. Uni ed Na ions s a es
ha , he Pales inians a e eady o ope a e as a public in e ms o he ule
o law, equali y o all, economic secu i y, cul u al di e si y, medical ca e,
sa e y and secu i y anspo a ion, and access o clean wa e . In e na ional
coope a ion was necessa y o c ea e and p epa e Pales inian ins i u ions
o s a ehood. Alongside assis ing Pales inians in hei p epa a ion o
sel -go e nance, dono na ions ha e p o ided limi ed suppo o con lic
esolu ion. This in ol es acili a ing p i a e discussions in which he pa ies
can in e ac di ec ly wi h one o he . While many ma e s we e deemed
excessi ely con en ious o add ess, se e al Wes e n na ions con on ed
hem di ec ly, acili a ing behind- he-scenes discussions among he pa ies
and ul ima ely de ising s a egies o esol ing undamen al di icul ies.
To add ess he issues o Pales inian e ugees, he Re ugee Wo king G oup
was ounded in a Con e ence in Mad id in 1991, and Canada’s posi ion as
he “glo y holde ” o his g oup is an example o his. A e ha , Canada
quie ly pa icipa ed in wha was called he “O awa P ocess,” ini ia i es
ha ook place be ween 1997 and 2001 and in ol ed bo h Is aelis and
Pales inians. By b inging Is aelis and Pales inians oge he , he In e na ional
De elopmen Resea ch Cen e (IDRC) con inued o wo k wi h he suppo
o he Canadian go e nmen o ind ou a p ope solu ion o add ess he
conce ns o he Pales inian e ugees. This solu ion would include measu es
such as eimbu semen , eloca ion, and epa ia ion. A amewo k o he
sha ed adminis a ion o he con en ious ci y wi hou lowe ing he s anda ds
o ei he side’s so e eign y claims was o e ed by he Je usalem Old Ci y
Ini ia i e, o which Canada also pa icipa ed.
The global communi y’s accomplishmen s in he MEEP included
p epa ing he Pales inians o s a ehood, placing he amewo k o a
ba gained peace ime, and keeping he public’s a en ion on he need o
esol e he issue. Labeling laws ha di e en ia ed hings eady in Jewish
colonies om hose made in Is ael we e enac ed by Eu opean na ions in
esponse o hese ini ia i es. Eu opean e o s o se s anda ds and aise
co po a e consciousness a e no pa o he MEPP, bu hey ha e helped
solidi y he co e p inciple ha a angemen s a e no cons i u ional and ha
he in e na ional communi y mus ejec hem i hey wan o end he igh .
These s eps upheld he idea o a Pales inian s a e symbolically, e en hough
hey accomplished li le o change he cu en ci cums ances.
THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY IN RESOLVING THE ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT
110
The Peace Model and I s Failu es
The sou ces ha ha e c i icized he MEPP, and hei c i icisms help
o explain why he in e na ional communi y has no been able o make
signi ican p og ess in esol ing he con lic . The e ha e been nume ous
ailed a emp s a peace alks a e Canada’s mos ecen T ack II discussions.
A numbe o schola s ha e poin ed ou ha Is ael has been able o main ain
an economical occupa ion wi h he help o dono s, which has diminished he
incen i e o seek a se lemen wi h o mal poli icans. Acco ding o Mandy
Tu ne , Is ael was able o implemen i s “me hods o con olling popula ion
o ensu e pa icipa ion o he p ocess o occupa ion” in Pales inian lands
because o Wes e n peacebuilding s a egies ha included adminis a ion,
secu i y coope a ion, and neolibe al economics. Acco ding o Ben-Po a
(2008) and Tu ne (2011), he MEPP was inadequa e since i did no change
he engagemen e ms o make Is aelis and Pales inians in e ac as equals o
o ix he powe imbalance. The e was an ini ial law in he app oach since he
wo sides’ unde s andings o mu ual acknowledgmen we e oo di e en o
make i wo k in p ac ice. Some a gue ha he Eu opean Union’s pa icipa ion
in he p ocess hinde ed e o s o esol e he dispu e, ocusing on he EU’s
ole speci ically. Al hough he EU’s goal o ge ing he pa ies o coope a e
wi h each o he ’s plans in good ai h and make necessa y concessions is
admi able, i has led o con en ious p ocedu es ha ha e made a nego ia ed
se lemen less likely.
Hugh Lo a obse es ha al hough Eu opean Union s a es p o ess hei
dedica ion o he wo-s a e solu ion, hey hesi a e o u ilize he equisi e ools
o ac ualize i . He a gues ha by pe pe ua ing a lawed model, including
EU membe ’s s a es a e unde pe o ming collec i ely. Ins ead o assuming
a p oac i e ole, hey me ely se e as in e media ies du ing successi e
phases o Uni ed S a es-led diplomacy. Despi e he nume ous ins i u ions
and o ganiza ions comp ising he MEPP, including he Qua e ’s o ice and
a ious egional special en oys, hey ha e ailed o es ablish an ins i u ional
amewo k o ela ional space conduci e o he de elopmen o mi iga ed
an agonism. The Uni ed S a es’ pa is equally signi ican in analyzing he
collapse o he MEPP.
Acco ding o Khaled Elgindy, one o he key easons o he peace
p ocess’s ailu e is a longs anding Ame ican local “blind spo ” ha igno es
he eno mous powe misma ch be ween he sides and Pales inian poli ical
eali y. Mo e ela ed o he cu en a gumen a e he possible down o he
coun p ejudices o MEPP wo ke s. B own and Ne enbe g a gue ha he
MEPP has de ol ed in o a “ açade” ha “con inces only i s membe s o i s
DR. MUHAMMAD SAFDAR BHATTI - MISS MARIA NOOR - RAO SHARIF MANSOOB - DR. ALI IJAZ
111
iabili y,” and ha global leade s’ negligence and ejec ion o local eali ies—
pa icula ly Pales inian poli ical degene a ion and ejec ion by Is aeli o he
al e na i e solu ion—ap ly de ines he cu en s a e o he con lic ’s ecen
his o y. These expec a ions a e epi omized in he sha ed dono con ic ion
ha he ci cums ances o peace will ul ima ely be a o able on bo h sides,
and ha should concu en ly con inue o bols e he MEPP. This assump ion
neglec ed o conside e ol ing ci cums ances ha ende ed he o ma ion o
a Pales inian s a e in he Wes Bank p og essi ely imp ac ical. Acco ding o
Peace Now, an Is aeli NGO, 116,300 Is aeli se le s we e esiding in he Wes
Bank a he commencemen o he peace p ocess in 1993. As o Janua y 2020,
he popula ion o Jewish se le in he Wes Bank, wi hou Eas Je usalem,
has epo edly eached 463,535. In Eas Je usalem, 218,000 Is aelis esiding,
which he majo i y o he global communi y conside s unlaw ul. Ce ain
Wes e n leade s delibe a ely dis ega ded his di icul u h, while o he s did
so unin en ionally; ye , nea ly all MEPP o icials unc ioned wi hin he same
cogni i e amewo k and emb aced compa able unde lying belie s.
Va ie y o sou ces c i icize he MEPP, showing he global communi y’s
incapaci y o meaning ully ad ance con lic esolu ion. O he ailed peace
ini ia i es a e Canada’s la es T ack II alks include Bill Clin on’s 2000
Camp Da id peacekeeping summi , he 2001 Taba ci y alks, he 2002 A ab
Con lic Ini ia i e, he 2003 Gene a Summi , he Middle Eas Qua e ’s 2003
Roadmap, he 2007 Annapolis alks, and he 2014 Ke y p ocedu e. Some
schola s asse ha dono suppo has allowed Is ael o uphold a cos -e icien
occupa ion o e an ex ended du a ion, hence diminishing he impe us o seek
a o mal poli ical esolu ion. The MEPP’s insu iciency has been asc ibed o
i s inabili y o add ess he powe dispa i y be ween he pa ies o o amend
he engagemen condi ions ha would acili a e equal in e ac ion be ween
Is aelis and Pales inians. The sys em was inhe en ly damaged om he ou se ,
as he pa ies’ pe cep ions o mu ual acknowledgmen we e excessi ely
a ied o enable p ac ical applica ion. The c edi able objec i e o o cing he
pa ies o unde ake necessa y comp omises by genuine coope a ion, in he
absence o in luence, has led he EU o pa icipa e in di isi e p ocesses ha
appea o diminish he scena ios o a discussed se lemen .
Dono G oup hink: A Challenge o E ec i e Policy
To ho oughly analyze he global communi y’s a i ude o he MEPP, i
is essen ial o examine he policymake s’ no ms which hey employed in
de eloping policies and p og ams o he egion. In eac ion o c i iques
ega ding he diminishing oppo uni y o a wo-s a e esolu ion, a p e alen
THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY IN RESOLVING THE ISRAELI-PALESTINIAN CONFLICT
118
ou da ed no ion o he wo-s a e solu ion as he only pa h o peace, o will
he MEPP policy communi y ecognize he eali y o he one-s a e oday?
Because he pa ies conce ned a e unable o esol e he Is aeli-Pales inian
con lic on hei own, he in e na ional communi y is essen ial o inding
a se lemen . The in e na ional policy communi y mus econside i s
unde lying p esump ions abou he egion, inco po a e he lessons lea ned
om he MEPP, and con inue o con on he men al ba ie s ha impede he
c ea i e hinking necessa y o a long- e m esolu ion o his con lic be o e
i can success ully esume con lic esolu ion.

DR. MUHAMMAD SAFDAR BHATTI - MISS MARIA NOOR - RAO SHARIF MANSOOB - DR. ALI IJAZ
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iden i ied as “Pales inian Jews,” he majo i y o Pales inian Jews, a c ucial
pa o he Pales inian people, began o iden i y wi h he Zionis mo emen
a he u n o he 20 h cen u y, se ing hemsel es apa om he es o
hei own people1. Howe e , Pales inian Ch is ians we e and s ill a e p oud
o be Pales inian A abs, and his p ide has only g own s onge wi h he
de elopmen o Zionism.
As p e iously s a ed, he e m Pales ine unde wen mul iple phases
o e olu ion. His o y p o ides ample p oo o Pales ine’s c ea ion,
encompassing no jus i s manda o y bo de s bu also, occasionally, po ions
o “o he ” e i o ies. None heless, Pales ine has always been a pa o a
la ge empi e, and we will ne e ind a dis inc pa e n ha would iden i y
Pales ine as a geog aphical uni wi hin i s oughly equi ed bo de s. The
concep ’s poin illis ic bo de s a e no his o ically ixed, bu i is as a ma e
o loca ion and iden i y. Pales ine and he o he na ions and e i o ies
ha su ound i (Jo dan, Sy ia, and Lebanon) a e no dis inguished by
his his o ical backg ound; hey we e all in e connec ed and a pa o
la ge empi es. Du ing he Assy ian, Babylonian, Pe sian, G eco-Roman,
Byzan ine, A ab-Islamic, and O oman empi es, se e al o hese egions—
including Pales ine—enjoyed a deg ee o independence o au onomy. A
de ailed accoun o Pales ine’s his o ical e olu ion o e he ages is ou side
he pu iew o his a icle. None heless, i is impo an o no e ha in he 18 h
and 19 h cen u ies, a semi-independen s a e wi hin he O oman Empi e was
ounded in he no he n egions o Pales ine, occasionally encompassing
he cen al egion as well, wi h Ac e se ing as i s capi al. This s a e was
led by Dhahi al-‘Uma (Manna’ 2000, p. 47 ). Pe iodic au onomy wi hin
Pales ine pe sis ed un il he 1831–1840 Egyp ian conques in a ious o ms.
Dhahi al-‘Uma is ega ded by ce ain his o ians om a ious backg ounds
as he o igina o o he concep o he con empo a y Pales inian independen
s a e. O he s belie e ha he es ablishmen o a Pales inian en i y and iden i y
began wi h he 1834 Pales inian up ising agains he Egyp ians. A leas om
a cul u al pe spec i e, a g owing numbe o Pales inians, including hose
who ep esen ed Pales ine in he O oman Pa liamen , joined he c i icism o
he O oman Empi e’s policies o u ning i s subjec s—including he A abs—
in o Tu ks by he end o he 19 h cen u y. These p ac ices pe sis ed un il
he u n o he 20 h cen u y, leading o an inc easing amoun o “localism,”
pa icula ly Pales inian localism (Manna’ 2000, p. 26-37).
The subjec o how he “Pales inians” ela e o Pales ine has been b ough
up by a numbe o his o ians. Ra he han being a genuine discussion o
iden i y, his subjec should be in e p e ed in he con ex o he denial o
poli ical igh s. Pales inian iden i y, acco ding o his school, is me ely a

DR. MUHAMMAD SAFDAR BHATTI - MISS MARIA NOOR
135
esponse o he Zionis cause and i s claim o Pales ine (Khalidi 1997, p.
89). He e, we mus dis inguish be ween an iden i y ha de eloped om
he mobiliza ion o eac ions, con lic s, and impo an abe an ac s, and
iden i y in i s his o ical, social, and cul u al dimensions. No socie y has
e e aced pe sis en di icul ies wi hou e o mula ing, eshaping, and
es uc u ing i s iden i y. Undoub edly, du ing he pas cen u y, Pales inian
iden i y has unde gone signi ican ans o ma ions and ad ancemen s, which
we e undoub edly in luenced by Zionis asse ions. Like any o he iden i y
ha is subjec ed o ep ession and denial, his one is cha ac e ized as being
ex emely ib an and ha ing a s ong capaci y o in eg a ion and adap a ion.
Undoub edly, he Pales inians’ igh agains Zionism and he ea e he s a e
o Is ael had a signi ican impac on hei iden i y in pa icula as well as on
he Pales inian people in gene al. Wi hou he ension, his iden i y canno be
comp ehended.
Rega dless o loca ion o his o y, Pales ine gained in e na ional
ecogni ion as a symbol o libe a ion and he igh agains colonialism, a
leas since he 1960s, and in La in Ame ica, A ica, and he Middle Eas
in pa icula . Yasse A a a was one o he mos well-known igu es in he
wo ld since his pho o wi h his ku iyya was shown all o e he wo ld as a
symbol o Pales ine. Whe he o no he Pales inians hemsel es we e a ease
wi h his pic u e, i was e iden ha an in e na ionally ecognized Pales inian
iden i y was e lec ed in his se ing. This “iden i y” is a symbol o e olu ion,
su passing he signi icance o Pales ine i sel , and i ep esen s a po ion o
he Pales inian iden i y, ha po ion co e ing he igh o independence.
Following he 1967 occupa ion, Pales inians’ in e es in conse ing hei
ma e ial cul u e was ekindled as a means o ea i ming hei “na ional
iden i y” and sense o belonging o he land. P o ec ing wha was le o he
local he i age—his o ical s uc u es, monumen s, a cheological si es, and
emnan s o e hnog aphic a i ac s, pe sonal possessions, and o he i ems—
was one mani es a ion o he “Pales inian awakening” ha eme ged in he
1970s. Indi iduals’ in e es in p ese ing, p omo ing, and amassing a ious
“he i age” i ems—mos ly emb oide ed cos umes—la e e ol ed in o a
mo e o mal amewo k. This push was s a ed by NGOs, mos ly women’s
philan h opic g oups and o he na ional es ablishmen s, in he lack o a
go e nmen al body. Symbols o Pales inian po e y, needlewo k, a chi ec u e,
landscape, and cul u al his o y ha e been in eg al o he a is s’ chosen hemes
in he plas ic a s. These emblems we e in ended o highligh hemes o p ide,
belonging, na ional iden i y, and a s ong connec ion o one’s own he i age.
Is i possible o Pales inians o exp ess hei iden i y in a di e en way
han hey now do? Yes, I belie e he answe is. The people o G ea e Sy ia
UNWRAPPING THE LAYERS OF PALESTINIAN IDENTITY: A HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATION
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we e o ced in o he a i icial spli . I doub ha he Pales inian people would
ha e selec ed an independen s a e as a con aine o hei iden i y i he
Sykes-Pico Ag eemen had no been in place. Howe e , iden i ica ion is
un ela ed o s a ehood; a s a e may ha e a numbe o di e en iden i ies
and peoples. In ac uali y, he Pales inian na ional mo emen pe sis ed
in ma ke ing he wa as a “A ab-Is aeli” one a he han a “Pales inian-
Is aeli” one, and he idea o an independen Pales inian s a e was only la ely
b ough up. Following he Oc obe Wa and ce ain na ional, egional, and
in e na ional poli ical e en s, he concep o a Pales inian independen
s a e was i s p oposed in 1973. In 1974, i se ed as he ounda ion o
he PLO’s poli ical agenda. Since hen, Pales inian li e has been en i ely
s uc u ed a ound i , and I’m no su e how long ha has been he case.
Pales inian iden i y unde wen a signi ican poli iciza ion p ocess wi h he
o ma ion o he PLO and o he esis ance g oups, p ima ily in he 1960s.
The PLO’s global each ou s ipped i s signi icance on a na ional and
egional le el. The Pales inian iden i y became “ e olu iona y,” o a leas
labeled as such, wi h he PLO. The Pales inian u ned in o a young pe son
wi h a machine pis ol and he ku iyya. The PLO had a complex challenge:
how o c ea e a common iden i y and uni e a coun y o people om a ious
socioeconomic backg ounds and poli ical egimes, including Jo danians,
Egyp ians, Is aelis, and membe s o he egional and global diaspo as. In
o de o c ea e a igh ing coun y ha seeks libe a ion, he PLO genuinely
ca ied ou a a ie y o poli ical, cul u al, and social ini ia i es and pu a lo
o e o in o de eloping, s eng hening, and eshaping he na ional iden i y
in ela ion o he A ab iden i y. This was a an asy s a egy in he middle o
he 1960s, ye i had qui e no iceable ou comes. E ec i e use was made o
he common poli ical goal, which was di icul o uphold and uni e people
a ound. The con empo a y “Pales inian iden i y” was la gely shaped by
his goal. Unde ex emely challenging condi ions, he PLO was also able
o es ablish communica ions ne wo ks ha connec ed he many Pales inian
communi ies and ac ions wo ldwide. The A abs we e he i s o ecognize
he Pales inian people as a esul o his e o , and he es o he wo ld
communi y ollowed sui g adually. Aspi a ion and poli ical igh s we e he
ue goals o his ecogni ion, no iden i y. I is impo an o b ing up he
well-known claim made by he la e Is aeli P ime Minis e Golda Mei ha
he Pales inian people do no exis in o de o comp ehend wha ha means.
Rega dless o he igh o sel -de e mina ion, Is ael now o mally ecognizes
he Pales inian people as such, and his ecogni ion will soon ollow.
DR. MUHAMMAD SAFDAR BHATTI - MISS MARIA NOOR
137
Iden i y and Cul u al He i age
Due o hei ex ensi e expe ience in eg a ing in o hei su oundings, he
Pales inian people ha e de eloped a ich cul u al his o y ha has become a
i al componen o who hey a e. His o ical and a cheological monumen s, a
weal h o e nacula a chi ec u e, sac ed sh ines and sanc ua ies, olk songs,
dances, and p o e bs, e hnog aphic equipmen and ins umen s, needlewo k,
and mo e a e all pa o his legacy. O e he pas 50 yea s, hese di e se
elemen s ha e been used, eplica ed, eo ganized, and e ined p ima ily
in esponse o he denial o a Pales inian iden i y and he de as a ion o
o e 400 Pales inian owns and illages ollowing he 1948 wa . This
wa e o des uc ion caused eno mous and la gely i epa able losses o
he Pales inian cul u al legacy. The Manda e pe iod’s buil -up a ea maps,
people’s ecollec ions, and a ew pho og aphs a e all ha a e le . Howe e ,
many s uc u es, chu ches, mosques, plazas, maqams ( he sanc ua ies o
sain s), he cul u al landscape, land usage, memo ies o places and spaces,
g a es, sac ed ees, ca e ns, and o he elemen s o iden i y based on cul u al
he i age we e pe manen ly los (Khalidi 1992). No ably, he majo i y o
hese componen s ha e a u al o igin. In eali y, i is exceedingly di icul o
dis inguish Pales inian u ban cen e s om hose o he es o G ea e Sy ia,
and hey do no play a simila ole in he pa icula is ic iden i y. On he one
hand, because he illage was p ima ily a ge ed o des uc ion, people o en
use i s cul u al symbols; on he o he hand, illage symbols a e a pe ec
way o hink abou he ela ionship be ween he Pales inian people and hei
land, which is a cen al heme in he ongoing con lic be ween Is ael and
Pales ine. In li e a u e, dancing, ine a , and o cou se, poli ical educa ion,
he ado a ion o he coun y was also a means o exp essing cul u al iden i y.
We mus emembe ha he s a e o Is ael exp op ia ed hund eds o owns
and illages in 1948 oge he wi h he Pales inians’ exodus om hei
homeland. C ude a emp s o gain poli ical, his o ical, and cul u al legi imacy
in Pales ine esul ed om Is ael’s Zionis na u e. The exis ing Pales inian
cul u al he i age was exploi ed, des oyed, and manipula ed as a esul o
his hegemony. As a esul , almos 400 owns and illages wi h dis inc i ely
Pales inian a chi ec u al ea u es we e des oyed o elimina ed in a conscious
e o o e ase any ecollec ion o he his o y and p esence o Pales inians
on hei e i o y. The majo i y o he angible ace s o Pales inian cul u e
and socie y, including homes, u nishings, pe sonal e ec s, pho os, and
eco ds, we e gone. Un o una ely, in hei has e o lea e, Pales inians only
ook he essen ials, lea ing behind homes and public spaces b imming wi h
memo ies and a i ac s ha es i ied o he his o y, as e, belie s, and social
li e o Pales inian cul u e o gene a ions.
UNWRAPPING THE LAYERS OF PALESTINIAN IDENTITY: A HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATION
138
Abo e all, he majo i y o Pales inians we e compelled o abandon
hei ances al na u al, his o ical, and a chaeological inhe i ance. Those
who s ayed in he Is aeli-occupied e i o y had o igh o main ain hei
iden i ica ion as “A ab” o “Pales inian.”
Pales ine does no ha e a single legal sys em. Because he na ion has had
se e al ule s since he end o he nine een h cen u y, dis inc laws s ill apply
o i . In addi ion o he O oman he i age, he Is aeli occupa ion, Jo dan,
Egyp , and he B i ish Manda e published a g ea deal o legisla ion, some o
which is s ill in e ec in he Wes Bank and Gaza S ip. Legisla ion pe aining
o se e al aspec s o li e in he Pales inian e i o y was also enac ed by he
Pales inian Legisla i e Council (PLC), which was es ablished in Ma ch
1996. Howe e , he Pales inian Au ho i y’s di e en le els o so e eign y
in he Wes Bank and Gaza S ip (a eas A, B, and C), he ongoing Is aeli
mili a y o de s in a ea C, he ongoing Is aeli occupa ion o Eas Je usalem
and he implemen a ion o Is aeli law he e, and he eoccupa ion o a eas A
by Is aeli oops in Ap il 2002 placed signi ican limi a ions on he PLC’s
legisla i e, judicial, and execu i e unc ions o en o ce his legisla ion.
The B i ish Manda e Law o An iqui ies o 1929 (which only applies
o he Gaza S ip), he Jo danian Law o An iqui ies o 1966 (which only
applies o he Wes Bank), and he Is aeli laws o 1978 (which apply
o Eas Je usalem) comp ise he cu en legal amewo k pe aining o
cul u al and na u al he i age in he Pales inian e i o ies. The e was
a p o ision abou he i age p o ec ion in he 2003 Pales inian Basic
Law. This is he only men ion o he i age in he d a cons i u ion, and
i is limi ed. The P esiden pledges, unde his line, “ o be ai h ul o
he homeland and holy places, o he people and i s na ional he i age.”
The conse a ion o cul u al and na u al he i age3 con inues o lack a s ong
cons i u ional ounda ion because he Pales inian cons i u ion has no ye
been enac ed. The de ini ion, which eads, “An iqui ies a e any mo able o
immo able emains o any pa o hem ha we e cons uc ed, o o mula ed,
o deco a ed, o insc ibed o buil in any o m o any addi ion by a human
being be o e 1700 AD,” is he undamen al issue wi h he 1966 Law o
An iqui ies. Remains o people o animals om be o e he yea 600 AD
a e also conside ed an iqui ies. They also include any building cons uc ed
a e 1700 AD ha has been designa ed as such by he Depa men o
An iqui ies’ Di ec o . The di ec o ’s au ho i y was ne e pu o use. Any
a chaeological si es (including his o ic s uc u es) and a i ac s (mo able
objec s) ha da e a e 1700 AD a e exp essly excluded om he e m.
Religious s uc u es and na u al he i age si es a e also no included in he
c i e ia. These wo egula ions do no iden i y o include mo eable objec s
DR. MUHAMMAD SAFDAR BHATTI - MISS MARIA NOOR
139
o a chi ec u e (g oups o s uc u es, monumen s) as dis inc ca ego ies.
Bo h he a chi ec u e and he a chaeological si es demons a e he ichness
and complexi y o he Pales inian legacy. Pales ine is home o se e al
impo an his o ic owns, including he ancien ci y o Je usalem, Heb on,
Nablus, and Be hlehem, in addi ion o i s many imposing eligious s uc u es,
including he Dome o he Rock, he Na i i y Chu ch, he Holy Sepulch e,
and he Ib ahimi (Ab aham) Mosque. The di e si y and dep h o his legacy
a e u he enhanced by he na u ally lo ely peasan a chi ec u e seen in
Pales inian illages. The “ h one illage a chi ec u e,” which e e s o he
eudal mansions in u al Pales ine h oughou he eigh een h and nine een h
cen u ies, and he dese monas e ies on he eas e n slopes bo h se e as
examples o ano he a chi ec u al ypology in Pales ine. The di e si y and
dep h o his cul u al legacy a e u he demons a ed by he ca a anse ais
along ancien ade ou es, he sca e ed holy sh ines (maqama ), and he
exquisi ely buil d y s one a mhouses ound on Pales ine’s gene ally e aced
hills. Je usalem’s his o ic cen e is on bo h he UNESCO Wo ld He i age Lis
and he lis o endange ed cul u al si es. As soon as he igh ci cums ances
a ise, mo e Pales inian his o ic ci y cen e s may be included on he lis .
Un o una ely, he cons uc ion boom ha occu ed be ween 1995
and 2000 is p ima ily ( hough no exclusi ely) o blame o he ala ming
deg ada ion, des uc ion, and ca elessness o Pales ine’s a chi ec u al
he i age. U ban, ag icul u al, and na u al landscapes ha e all unde gone
emendous ans o ma ion as a esul . In he majo i y o Pales inian owns
and illages, his pe iod saw he cons uc ion o nea ly hal o he buildings.
All o he buildings om ea lie pe iods make up he emaining 50%.
A leas in Pales ine, his ex ao dina y de elopmen magni ude
occu ed inside he bo de s o Pales inian ci ies and illages ha ha e been
p ohibi ed om g owing since 1967. This is because he g ea majo i y
o land is s ill unde Is aeli con ol (A ea C), and Pales inians a e only
pe mi ed o cons uc in a eas ha a e unde he adminis a ion o he
Pales inian Na ional Au ho i y (A eas A and B). A eas A and B con ain all
o he his o ic Pales inian owns and illages. The old owns and illages
ha e los a g ea deal o hei ab ic and many o hei buildings as a esul
o his u e ly unplanned, un egula ed, and chao ic building expansion.
The ac ha he as majo i y o Pales inians a e e ugees se ed as he
inspi a ion o he majo i y o he well-known symbols o Pales inian
iden i y. Ku iyyah, emb oide y, adi ional music, dabka, home keys,
po ai s, land egis a ion documen s, Pales inian passpo s (B i ish
Manda e), maps o Pales ine, images o he Dome o he Rock, and o he
nos algic ales abou a ious loca ions we e all pa o he mobile iden i y o

UNWRAPPING THE LAYERS OF PALESTINIAN IDENTITY: A HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATION
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he e ugees. The cons uc ion o iden i y had been la gely in luenced by he
immo able cul u al he i age. Pales inian exiles and diaspo a membe s may
ca y hese aspec s o hei iden i y wi h hem whe e e hey go, and hey
may be eadily disco e ed. P io o 1991, he e was an inc ease in in e es
in ma e ial cul u e, pa icula ly e hnog aphic collec ions in museums, in
he occupied Pales inian lands. These we e mos ly ounded by women’s
philan h opic g oups such Bai una al-Talhami in Be hlehem, Da al-Ti l al-
‘a abi in Je usalem, and In’ash al-Us a in al-Bi eh. The di icul ies o Is ael’s
1967 occupa ion o wha was le o Pales ine se ed o o i y hem. A he
same ime, a numbe o publica ions seemed o emphasize he Pales inian
iden i y and cul u al legacy. Majalla al-Tu a h wa-l-Muj ama’ (He i age and
Socie y), published by Jam’iyya In’ash al-Us a, was he mos well-known.
This phenomena was p e alen among Pales inians li ing ab oad as well as
in Pales ine in 1948 and 1967. Howe e , be o e 1991, mo eable a i ac s and
pe inen esea ch we e he mos signi ican componen s o cul u al he i age.
He e, he PLO’s impac as a diaspo a libe a ion g oup is e iden . In i s hands,
he i age e ol ed as a means o s eng hening he sha ed iden i y o many
Pales inian communi ies dispe sed h oughou he Middle Eas and beyond.
I was ecognized ha he owne s o such a he i age a e he ones who own
hese igh s since he ool was e ec i ely employed h oughou he con lic ,
p ima ily o emphasize he igh o e u n and he igh o sel -de e mina ion.
As p e iously s a ed, he PLO was p ima ily a ep esen a i e o he
diaspo a; a ha ime, i s e o s we e no cen e ed a ound immo able cul u al
asse s. Only Pales inians li ing unde Is aeli occupa ion we e able o conduc
esea ch. This was no ac ually accomplished in he i s wen y yea s since
he PLO’s belie s and me hods we e dominan inside Pales ine. E en while
a chaeology, one aspec o Pales ine’s immo able cul u al he i age, has
been he ocus o ex ensi e s udy since he la e pa o he 1800s, i has
ne e heless been subjec ed o ideological compe i ion o con ol. E en so,
he ex ensi e esea ch pe iod yielded a as amoun o da a on impo an
loca ions h oughou Pales ine, ec ea ed he majo his o ical e as, p oduced
housands o publica ions (books, a icles, maps, illus a ions, epo s, e c.),
and unea hed innume able a chaeological a i ac s ha a e now on display
o in s o age in museums, academic ins i u ions, and p i a e collec o s
wo ldwide.
Wes e n-bo n a chaeologis s used local Pales inian labo e s o loca e
a cheological si es, ye hey kep in ouch wi h he local communi ies. In
addi ion o publishing he indings o hei esea ch in hei home ongue,
hey we e objec hun e s. An essen ial componen o an h opological
e e ence o comp ehending he indings was he local populace. Howe e ,
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he local communi y had only a mino amoun o commi men o hei
his o ical landma ks. E en wi h he c ea ion o he Pales inian Depa men
o An iqui ies, he local si ua ion has emained mos ly unchanged o his
day. The ongoing economic c isis is he mos wo isome de elopmen since
he e is a di ec co ela ion be ween po e y and unemploymen and he
des uc ion o his o ical and a cheological si es.
A chaeology ga ne ed mo e a en ion han a chi ec u e, which is he
o he aspec o Pales ine’s immo able cul u al he i age. To shed ligh on
he ma e , h ee dis inc ypes o Pales ine’s a chi ec u al legacy mus be
in es iga ed. The i s one conce ns imposing his o ical s uc u es. These
a e co e ed by he exis ing an iqui ies egula ions and a e conside ed
a cheology i hey we e cons uc ed p io o 1700. They ha e gene ally
caugh he a en ion o bo h esea che s and au ho i ies. G eco-Roman,
Byzan ine, Ea ly Muslim, C usade , Ayyubid, and Mamluk monumen s a e
all included in his discussion (Bu goyne 1987). Mo e ecen ly, schola ship
has also ocused on he O oman buildings (P ingle 1981). Then came
eligious s uc u es: au ho i ies (mos ly eligious ones) and esea che s
we e in e es ed in Muslim, Jewish, and Ch is ian holy places, ega dless o
hei legal le el o p o ec ion. Las ly, al hough being a signi ican pa o
Pales ine’s cul u al his o y, e nacula a chi ec u e ecei ed ela i ely li le
a en ion. Schola s like C. conduc ed ea ly esea ch and documen a ion.
G. Wilson and T. Wilson (Wilson 1906). Ra he han in es iga ing he link
be ween he Pales inian people and hei su oundings, Dalman (Dalman
1928–1942) sough o ebuild biblical adi ions. These s udies a e he e o e
o e lowing wi h e e ences o he Bible and he Talmud, despi e he ac
ha hey a e c ucial o he es o a ion o adi ional li e in Pales ine. Taw iq
Canaan, a Pales inian physician, was a mo e success ul han ea lie
schola s in de ining he ela ionship be ween man and his su oundings
(Canaan 1933). Addi ionally, as he local Pales inian in ellec ual eli e
eme ged ollowing he 1967 occupa ion, he signi icance o he ela ionship
be ween humans and hei su oundings g adually inc eased. The need o
edisco e and p ese e he i age was made mo e u gen by Is aeli se lemen
p ac ices, and mo e people became in e es ed in he cul u al en i onmen
(Fuchs 1998, p. 54-67; Kanáan 1993; Khasawneh 2001; Ami y 2003).
The idea o a cul u al landscape was nonexis en in Pales ine 150 yea s ago
when Wes e n academics i s a i ed. Places we e only associa ed wi h
his o ical o eligious e en s because hey ope a ed wi hin he con ex o
his o ical geog aphy. The Pales inian Exca a ion Fund and he Su ey o
Wes e n Pales ine we e he i s s eps owa d new disco e ies in Pales ine’s
cul u al en i onmen . Maps o Pales ine we e di ided in o 27 egions a a scale
UNWRAPPING THE LAYERS OF PALESTINIAN IDENTITY: A HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL EXPLORATION
142
o 1:100,000. Local and biblical names we e used o iden i y geog aphical
and cul u al landma ks. This poll was conduc ed concu en ly wi h se e al
o he s. The mos signi ican su ey ac ually goes all he way back o he F ench
in asion o Pales ine in 1799. Howe e , he issue wi h hese su eys is ha hey
we e unable o c ea e maps ha we e ealis ic. Ra he , hey iden i y cul u al
and geog aphic ea u es wi hou ela ing hem o scale maps, geog aphy,
o sea le el. Along wi h he su eys, se e al o he o eign missions also
au ho ed a elogues ha combined his o ical, e hnic, o geog aphic ideas
wi h documen a ion o Pales ine. (Edwa d and Smi h 1841; Smi h 1894).
These ex s a e aluable because hey depic Pales ine’s cul u al landscape.
They did no , howe e , p o i om he echnologies o he 20 h cen u y.
E en ually, his o ical and cul u al landma ks eplaced he cul u al landscape
as he main ocus o he s udy. This is due o bo h he in luence o u ban
a chaeology, which examines he e olu ion o po e y o unde s and
he his o y o nea by ci iliza ions om an iqui y o he p esen , and he
con inuous concen a ion on his o ical places associa ed wi h Old Tes amen
e en s. Thus, he ela ionship be ween a loca ion and i s su oundings, o
cul u al landscape, was o e looked. The Bible had ba ely a mino impac
on he cul u al landscape, which emained mos ly unal e ed. Because o
he ad ancemen s in mode n scien i ic echnology and heo ies ela ed o
cul u al landscape sciences, pa icula ly geology, i is c ucial o he u u e
g ow h o a chaeology and o he his o ical sciences.
In Pales ine, a chaeology has always been a delica e, poli ically and
ideologically pollu ed opic. This is due o he ac ha , since he 1850s,
a chaeological s udies in Pales ine ha e been closely linked o he his o ical
e olu ion o he a ea. In o de o e alua e he cu en si ua ion and i s
p ospec s o he u u e, i is impe a i e ha his con ex be e iewed. This
e alua ion’s goals a e no limi ed o highligh ing he sho comings, se backs,
and achie emen s o ea lie ini ia i es; i also aces he his o ical ends
ha ga e ise o he mo e mode n, objec i e, and scien i ic a chaeology o
oday, which is s ill igh ing o b eak ee om he ideological p essu es and
in luences o poli ical con lic s.
The O oman Empi e made a numbe o adjus men s known as he
O oman Re o ms ( anzima ) a he end o he Egyp ian conques o Pales ine
in 1840. These we e a esponse o moun ing Eu opean p essu e on he
Empi e as well as an e o o imp o e O oman socie ies h ough new laws.
In addi ion o he es ablishmen o o eign wo king g oups in he a eas o
geog aphical, a cheological, and his o ical esea ch, his also ma ked he
s a o Eu opean eligious and consula missions o Je usalem in pa icula
and he “Holy Land” in gene al. A conse a i e school o hinking based
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143
on co e Ch is ian p inciples ound in Old Tes amen passages domina ed
hei almos uni e sal O ien alis app oach. The p ima y pu pose o hese
ex s was o in e p e Pales ine’s cul u al pas (see A ieh 1984, p. 1–12).
Since he e was no communica ion wi h he local in ellec uals, basic ac ual
da a was ga he ed in his way, al hough no wi hou bias. A any a e, he e
was no in ellec ual eli e wi h he expe ise needed o c ea e an in o ma ion
amewo k o he his o y o i s u ban socie y in pa icula and i s people in
gene al. The adi ional Islamic educa ional sys em, which was e y di e en
om he one adop ed in he Wes a he end o he 19 h cen u y, was he
p ima y sou ce o he scien i ic in o ma ion ha was a ailable (see Khalidi
1992, Manna’ 2000).
The opog aphy o Pales ine, including i s p ima y cul u al and
a chaeological si es, was in es iga ed by o eign o ganiza ions like
he Pales ine Explo a ion Fund, he École Biblique e A chéologique
F ançaise, he Ge man P o es an Ins i u e o A chaeology, he B i ish
School o A chaeology, and he Ame ican School o A chaeology (The
Alb igh Ins i u e). They consequen ly c ea ed in ica e maps, equen ly
in acco dance wi h in e p e a ions ound in he Old Tes amen . The
majo i y o he disco e ies om he e a’s a chaeological digs ha e been
dis ibu ed among museums, Eu opean academic ins i u ions, “O ien al”
esea ch o ganiza ions, and wo ldwide museums. On a deepe le el,
wes e n ou is s and e hnog aphe s u ned o he Nea Eas a a ime when
Eu ope was indus ializing and much o he local, un eco ded cus om and
legacy was disappea ing. The locals he e we e s ill deeply oo ed in hei
adi ions, bo h p ac ically and igu a i ely. Wi h he help o he Pales ine
Explo a ion Fund’s Su ey o Wes e n Pales ine, which included maps
showing he dis ibu ion o a eas domina ed by ag icul u al communi ies,
a deepe unde s anding o he social and economic s uc u es o Pales ine
could be es ablished. Ne e heless, his endea o was no solely a means
o delinea ing he socio-economic milieu o he egion; a he , i was a
componen o an endea o o connec his s a e o a ai s wi h he cus oms
o biblical ibes ha called he a ea home h oughou he I on Age.
The B i ish Manda e began a e O oman con ol in Pales ine ended as
a esul o Wo ld Wa I. In o de o es ablish a depa men o an iqui ies
( o me ly he B i ish School o A chaeology in Je usalem), B i ish expe s
we e sen o Pales ine. The e, hey conduc ed a a ie y o exca a ions and
a chaeological su eys. A Depa men o An iqui ies was es ablished in he
1920s, and he An iqui ies/A chaeological Law was enac ed in 1929. The
Is aeli au ho i ies subsequen ly used his same law, adding mino Jo danian
e isions om 1966. O he cul u al asse s a e ba ely men ioned in he s a u e,