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Complexi ies o Rep esen a ion: Chinese Ou bound Tou is s as De Fac o
Ambassado s in Sou he n A ica
Obe Hodzi1
Yu-Wen Chen2
Abs ac
Explo ing he ep esen a ional e ec o ou ism, his s udy examines ac o s ha in luence
pe cep ions ha Chinese ou bound ou is s a e ep esen a i es o de ac o ambassado s o he
Chinese go e nmen ad ancing i s na ional objec i es ab oad. The pape inds ha he Chinese
go e nmen is ambi alen , and a imes inconsis en abou endowing indi idual ou is s wi h
he esponsibili y o se e as i s de ac o ambassado s. In addi ion, he pape a gues ha he ole
o ou ism in China’s bila e al ela ions wi h Sou h A ica, Namibia and Zimbabwe in luence
gene al pe cep ions among bu eauc a s and eli es in he h ee coun ies ha Chinese ou bound
ou is s a e ep esen a i es o he Chinese go e nmen .
Keywo ds: Ou bound Tou ism, Tou is s, Rep esen a ion, China, Bila e al Rela ions
In oduc ion
Fo poli ical eli es in selec Sou he n A ican coun ies, wha does Chinese ou ism ep esen ?
Do hey ega d Chinese ou is s as ep esen a i es o he Chinese go e nmen , ad ancing i s
na ional objec i es ab oad?3 Wha is he ep esen a ional powe o Chinese ou is s o he
making o Sino-A ican people- o-people engagemen and o eign policy ela ions? In gene al,
he s udy o in e link be ween ou ism (and ou is s) and a coun y’s na ional in e es s is c ucial
o unde s anding he ‘ins umen alisa ion’ o ou ism, which inc easingly, beyond he e enue
and ou ism s a is ics, has ‘ ep esen a ional meaning’ in s a e- o-s a e ela ions. This is essen ial
because as pu by Linda Rich e , ou ism is gene ally seen “la gely in economic e ms, wi h
li le awa eness o i s po en ial poli ical impac ” (1989:3). Impo an o no e is ha , he
ep esen a ional meaning is no uni e sal bu con ex ual and ela able o a coun y’s na ional
in e es s and o eign policy objec i es. I is he e o e an idea ha is gi en localized geospa ial
meanings. Fo ins ance, in basic e ms and based on indings o ou empi ical esea ch in China
and Sou he n A ica, o Beijing, bu geoning ou bound ou ism ep esen na ional eju ena ion
and ealisa ion o he ‘China D eam’, e oking na ionalism and legi ima ion o he Communis
Pa y o China (CPC). The ac ha in 2018, Chinese a ele s made a o al o 149.72 million
ou bound ips, spending o e US$120 billion, solidi ies he image o a p ospe ous and
con iden China on pa h o becoming a ‘mode a ely p ospe ous socie y’. Fo Zimbabwe, an
1
Obe Hodzi is Lec u e in Poli ics a he Uni e si y o Li e pool. Email: o.hodzi@li e pool.ac.uk
2
Yu-Wen Chen is P o esso o Chinese S udies a he Uni e si y o Helsinki. Email: julie.ch[email p o ec ed]i
3
In his pape , we use he e m [uno icial] ep esen a i es, agen s, and [uno icial o ci izen] ambassado s in e -
changeably mos ly o ou analy ical aming, al hough some imes Chinese li e a u e also e e s o hese e ms.
Obe Hodzi JCIR: Vol. 7, No, 1 (2019)
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109
App o ed Des ina ion S a us (ADS) and subsequen hos ing o Chinese ou is s ep esen i s
bu geoning bila e al ela ions wi h Beijing, and i s egional compe i i eness - p o ing o he
Wes ha i has poli ical legi imacy. On he o he hand, in Namibia, Chinese ou is s ep esen
i s independence om a his o ical dominance by Sou h A ica o e i s ou ism indus y and
economy - sugges ing i s abili y o compe e wi h P e o ia o Chinese ou is s as an equal-s a us
so e eign na ion. In sum, he h ee examples, which a e discussed in de ail in his pape , imply
ha he same g oup o Chinese ou is s can ep esen and ha e di e en meanings a ibu ed o
hem in ela ion o a coun y’s na ional in e es s and o eign policy objec i es.
The ep esen a ions a e, howe e , he consequences o ac o s and p ocesses o en si ua ed
ou side he con ou s o he s a e and i s o eign policy making p ocesses. They depend on lows
o ou is s, and hei indi idual and collec i e beha iou ab oad. In addi ion, pe cep ions o
na ional ou ism agencies and o he s akeholde s in he hospi ali y indus y ega ding ou is s
om ab oad ma e , and eed in o p oduc ion o he ep esen a ions. Sugges ing he c i ical ole
played by ou ism in ad ancing na ional objec i es and shaping o s a es’ o eign policies.
Exis ing schola ship in In e na ional Rela ions (IR) and o eign policy analysis eschews his
poli ical and ep esen a ional ole o ou is s and ou ism, pa icula ly ou bound ou ism. This
is because ou ism, whe he inbound o ou bound, has gene ally been conside ed oo p i a e
and ad hoc o sys ema ically in luence o eign policy o na ional objec i es; o in cases whe e
a link is made be ween ou ism and o eign policy, i is ega ded as a so powe ins umen
(Kwek, Wang & Wea e , 2013; Tse, 2013; Chen & Duggan, 2016; Xu, Wang & Song, 2018).
Howe e , he ise o China’s s a e-d i en ou bound ou ism is demanding a elook on he ole
o ou ism in o eign policy. This pape con ibu es o his c i ical and eme ging deba e on he
ins umen alisa ion o ou is s by s a es o ad ance o eign policy objec i es. Speci ically, i
explo es how and why Chinese ou bound ou is s ha e come o be seen in Zimbabwe, Sou h
A ica and Namibia as ep esen a i es o de ac o ambassado s o he People’s Republic o
China (PRC).
No ably, he e is no lack o imp essionis ic obse a ions aming Chinese ou is s as
ins umen s o China’s so powe . Fo ins ance, Kwek, Wang and Wea e , by using “analy ical
au o-e hnog aphy o explo e he package ou expe ience o o e seas Chinese,” a gue ha
China’s “in e na ional ou ism policies highligh he in e dependency be ween inbound ou ism
g ow h, economic de elopmen and so powe p ojec ions” (2013:37). Simila ly, Xu, Wang
and Song main ain ha h ough i s ADS scheme, p omo ion o ou ism cul u e ac i i ies ab oad,
use o ou ism as a o m o o eign aid and s eng hening o bila e al ou ism coope a ion, he
Chinese go e nmen is inc easing “China’s so powe h ough ou bound ou ism” (2018:6).
Obe Hodzi JCIR: Vol. 7, No, 1 (2019)
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110
Howe e , he e is a dea h o empi ically g ounded schola ship on he ole o ou ism, in
pa icula , Chinese ou bound ou ism in Beijing’s o eign policy. In a guing ha he Chinese
s a e ins umen alises ou bound ou ism o achie e i s na ional objec i es, his pape goes
beyond he ou ism-as-so -powe a gumen and con ibu es o he de elopmen o empi ically-
based esea ch by ocusing on Chinese ou ism in h ee Sou he n A ican coun ies; Sou h
A ica, Namibia and Zimbabwe. The h ee coun ies we e selec ed o wo easons. Among he
16 coun ies in he Sou he n A ican De elopmen Communi y (SADC) - a egional
o ganiza ion o coun ies in he Sou he n A ica egion, he h ee a e among Sou he n A ica’s
bigges ou is des ina ions wi h he mos signi ican ou is a ac ions; K uge Na ional Pa k
(Sou h A ica), Vic o ia Falls (Zimbabwe) and he Namib Dese (Namibia). Be ween 2009 and
2017, acco ding o he Wo ld Bank, Zimbabwe and Sou h A ica we e Sou he n A ica’s op
wo ecei e s o in e na ional ou is s (see able 1 below).
Second, al hough Mozambique and Bo swana ecei ed mo e in e na ional ou is s han
Namibia, hei na ional ou ism boa ds do no ocus on Chinese ou is s. Namibia, Zimbabwe
and Sou h A ica ha e he ADS, enabling hem o ma ke hei ou is des ina ions in China
and, among he 16 SADC coun ies, hey ha e had he mos signi ican ou is ma ke ing
campaigns and ha e ou ism ma ke ing o ices in China (Chen & Duggan, 2016). Thei
in e ac ion wi h Beijing and con ac wi h Chinese ou is s make hem use ul in in es iga ing
ac o s in luencing pe cep ions, in he h ee coun ies, ha Chinese ou is s a e ep esen a i es
o he Chinese go e nmen .
Table 1: In e na ional Tou ism - Numbe o A i als (in housands)
Rank
(2009-
17)
Coun y
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
TOTAL
1
Sou h A ica
7 012
8 074
8 339
9 188
9 537
9 549
8 904
10
044
10
285
80 932
2
Zimbabwe
2 017
2 239
2 423
1 794
1 833
1 880
2 057
2 168
2 423
18 834
3
Mozambique
1 461
1 718
1 902
2 113
1 886
1 661
1 552
1 639
1 447
15 379
4
Bo swana
1 721
1 973
..
1 614
1 544
1 966
1 528
1 574
..
11 920
Obe Hodzi JCIR: Vol. 7, No, 1 (2019)
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111
Table 1: In e na ional Tou ism - Numbe o A i als (in housands)
Rank
(2009-
17)
Coun y
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
TOTAL
5
Namibia
980
984
1 027
1,079
1 176
1 320
1 388
1 469
1 499
10 922
6
Mau i ius
871
935
965
965
993
1 038
1 151
1 275
1 342
9 535
7
Tanzania
695
754
843
1,043
1 063
1 113
1 104
1 233
1 275
9 123
8
Eswa ini
908
868
879
888
968
939
873
947
921
8 191
9
Zambia
710
815
920
859
915
947
932
956
1 083
8 137
10
Malawi
755
746
767
770
795
819
805
849
837
7 143
11
Leso ho
344
426
398
423
433
1 079
1 082
1 196
1 137
6 518
12
Angola
366
425
481
528
650
595
592
397
261
4 295
13
Seychelles
158
175
194
208
230
233
276
303
350
2 127
14
Madagasca
163
196
225
256
196
222
244
293
255
2 050
15
Congo, Dem.
Rep.
53
81
186
167
191
334
354
351
..
1 717
16
Como os
11.3
15.3
18.8
22.8
21.9
22.8
23.6
26.8
28
191.3
Sou ce: Wo ld Bank
Conside ing ha he h ee coun ies ha e he mos elabo a e campaigns o a ac
Chinese ou is s (K ombe g, 2014; Chen & Duggan, 2016), we selec ed hem o examine
whe he hey ega ded Chinese ou is s o be ep esen a i es o he Chinese go e nmen , able
o ad ance i s o eign policy objec i es in he coun ies. Fu he mo e, we explo e whe he he
Chinese go e nmen ega d Chinese ou is s as i s ep esen a i es ab oad. In in es iga ing hese
issues, we a gue ha he ep esen a ion o ou ism in China’s bila e al ela ions wi h he h ee
Sou he n A ican coun ies in luence pe cep ions ha Chinese ou bound ou is s a e agen s o
Obe Hodzi JCIR: Vol. 7, No, 1 (2019)
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112
he Chinese go e nmen . This a gumen is based on indings deduced om expe in e iews
we conduc ed in China and he h ee coun ies. De ails o he in e iews and he sensi i i y o
conduc ing esea ch on China in he h ee coun ies is discussed in he nex sec ion. The sec ions
ha ollow analyse he inco po a ion o Chinese ou is s in o Beijing’s o eign policy p ocesses;
he ins umen alisa ion o Chinese ou bound ou is s and ac o s in luencing pe cep ions ha
Chinese ou is s a e ep esen a i es o Beijing. The conclusion sums up he main implica ions.
Resea ching Chinese ou ism in Sou he n A ica: he ou is s, eli es and he sensi i i ies
Resea ch on China ela ed ma e s in A ica is o en p oblema ic due o he sec e i e na u e o
some A ican go e nmen s’ engagemen wi h China (Asongu & Aminkeng, 2013:12). F om
ou expe ience, e en he seemingly ‘poli ically unencumbe ed’ subjec o Chinese ou bound
ou ism is conside ed sensi i e by some go e nmen o icials in Zimbabwe, Sou h A ica and
Namibia making access o in o ma ion on he subjec a challenge o esea che s. A he same
ime, Chinese ou is s in g oup ou s, such as he ones we encoun e ed in Namibia, Sou h A ica
and Zimbabwe simply ha e oo s ic and hea y-laden i ine a ies o spa e a momen o an
in e iew. Fo ins ance, he wo g oups ha we managed o in o mally engage wi h we e
seemingly uncom o able discussing in public whe he hey ep esen ed he Chinese
go e nmen ’s na ional in e es s in hei ou is ic ac i i ies. The sensi i i y and discom o o
bo h he go e nmen o icials and Chinese ou is s sugges , in some espec s, he poli ical and
diploma ic signi ica ion o Chinese ou bound ou ism o A ica.
Rega dless, in examining why he h ee Sou he n A ican coun ies ega d Chinese
ou is s as ep esen a i es o China, i seemed p uden o ocus on expe s and policy-
implemen e s. This is because ou ocus was o examine pe cep ions o na ional ou ism
agencies, who ha e a manda e o ma ke hei coun ies as ou is des ina ions in China; and
ac o s in he hospi ali y indus y, who hos Chinese ou is s. Ye , accessing hese expe s in
Zimbabwe, China, Sou h A ica and Namibia p o ed o be challenging, bu su moun able
because o ga ekeepe s who equi ed con incing abou he academic objec i es o he esea ch.
Ine i ably, he e we e se e al las -minu e cancella ions because some high-le el go e nmen
o icials wi hd ew hei consen o being in e iewed. Fo example, an o icial in a local
go e nmen al ou is agency in Cape Town, Sou h A ica cancelled a con i med in e iew
appoin men wi hou explana ion and s opped esponding o emails. Acco dingly, nego ia ing
o an audience wi h he expe s and/o hei ga ekeepe s cons i u ed an in eg al pa o ou
esea ch p epa a ion.
Rega dless, ou esea ch was guided by quali a i e app oaches, and da a collec ed
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be ween June and Oc obe 2017 in Windhoek, Cape Town, Johannesbu g, P e o ia, Vic o ia
Falls, Ha a e and Beijing. The main sou ces o da a we e key in o man in e iewees selec ed
o hei expe ise in Chinese ou ism as well as hei s a egic and p o essional posi ions in
go e nmen , na ional ou ism agencies, he hospi ali y indus y and ou agencies. In sum,
esponden s o ou ace- o- ace, semi-s uc u ed quali a i e in e iews can be ca ego ised in o
ou dis inc bu in e dependen ou ism s akeholde s. (1) Policymake s and implemen e s;
di ec o s in minis ies esponsible o ou ism and di ec o s a na ional ou ism boa ds. (2)
Tou ism se ice p o ide s; ou ism agencies b inging Chinese ou is s o he h ee A ican
coun ies, ho elie s and hospi ali y associa ions. Tha is, umb ella bodies ep esen ing he
in e es s o p i a e ho els and ac o s in he hospi ali y indus y. (3) Chinese ou is s in ou
g oups in Sou h A ica, Zimbabwe and Namibia. (4) Academic expe s on ou ism and China’s
o eign policy.
To ge an unde s anding o he PRC’s o eign policy objec i es ega ding Chinese ou -
bound ou is s, we in e iewed academics specialising in ou ism and he o eign policy o
China a he Renmin Uni e si y o China, Peking Uni e si y, Tsinghua Uni e si y and he Chi-
nese Academy o Social Sciences (CASS). In Namibia, Zimbabwe and Sou h A ica, in e iew-
ing di ec o s a he Namibia Tou ism Boa d (NTB), he Zimbabwe Tou ism Au ho i y (ZTA)
and he Depa men o Tou ism in Sou h A ica enabled us o expand ou access in he ield.
The o icials we in e iewed poin ed us o po en ial in e iewees. As no ed by Alexande
Bogne , Bea e Li ig and Wol gang Menz, when a ge ed expe s who hold key posi ions in
hei o ganisa ions a e willing o pa icipa e, hey p esen : “oppo uni ies o expanding he e-
sea che ’s access o he ield […] and indica e addi ional po en ial in e iewees wi h expe ise
in a pa icula ield du ing he in e iew i sel ” (2009: 2). Fo ins ance, in Zimbabwe, a high-
le el o icial a he ZTA ins uc ed a junio manage o gi e us access o s a is ical da a ha he
junio manage had p e iously e used o gi e us access o. In Namibia, an o icial a he Hos-
pi ali y Associa ion o Namibia d o e us o places whe e we could mee ou g oups o Chinese
ou is s and e e ed us o o he po en ial in e iewees. Howe e , o educe he homogenei y o
in o man s’ iews and oices in snowball sampling, mul iple ini ial con ac poin s ep esen ing
a maximum a ia ion we e accessed.
None heless, conside ing he sensi i i y o China- ela ed issues in he h ee coun ies,
expe in e iews p o ed o be a di icul bu e ec i e means o ob aining c i ical da a ha
would ha e been impossible o ge wi hou he suppo o he expe s we in e iewed. In ou
case, he expe in e iews sho ened ‘ ime-consuming da a ga he ing p ocesses [because we
ega ded] he expe s as ‘c ys alliza ion poin s o p ac ical inside knowledge” and we
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in e iewed hem “as su oga es o a wide ci cle o playe s” (Bogne , Li ig and Menz, 2009:
2). Acco dingly, we gained ex ensi e access o epo s and s a emen s on ou bound Chinese
ou ism issued by he go e nmen s o Namibia, Sou h A ica and Zimbabwe ha we e no easily
accessible o he public. Fo example, we we e gi en access o a Memo andum o
Unde s anding signed by China and one o he h ee coun ies on he p omo ion o ou ism
be ween he wo coun ies.
In sum, we in e iewed mo e han en expe in o man s in Sou h A ica, Namibia,
Zimbabwe and China. Th ee esponden s we e heads o na ional ou ism agencies in
Zimbabwe, Sou h A ica and Namibia. One was a di ec o o ou ism in Sou h A ica’s
Depa men o Tou ism. Two Chinese ou companies in Windhoek and Cape Town we e
in e iewed. Th ee o he in o man s wo k in he ou ism indus y as ho el on -o -house s a
and in hospi ali y associa ions in he h ee coun ies. In Johannesbu g, we in e iewed a ho el
s a membe who pa icipa ed in a public-p i a e pa ne ship ini ia i e o ins uc ho el s a in
Manda in and Chinese cul u e. In Windhoek, we in e iewed, he head o he Hospi ali y
Associa ion o Namibia and in Vic o ia Falls we in e iewed a ho el po e a he Kingdom
Ho el. One o he in o man s is a adi ional chie in Vic o ia Falls. In Beijing, we in e iewed
academics wo king on Chinese o eign policy and so powe s a egies a he Renmin
Uni e si y o China, Tsinghua Uni e si y, he Chinese Academy o Social Sciences and Peking
Uni e si y. To ensu e a holis ic iew o how China and he Chinese in gene al a e pe cei ed in
A ican coun ies, b ie in e iews wi h locals and Con ucius Ins i u e s a a he Uni e si y o
Zimbabwe we e also conduc ed, las ing be ween 10 and 30 minu es. They o e ed
supplemen a y in o ma ion o ou analysis. The ollowing sec ions discuss main ac o s
con ibu ing o gene al pe cep ions ha he Chinese s a e ega ds i s ou bound ou is s as i s
ep esen a i es.
His o ical analysis o he de elopmen o ou ism in China
China’s his o ical and poli ical de elopmen since 1949 has led o he s a e playing a dominan
ole in ou ism, con olling bo h domes ic and in e na ional a el by Chinese na ionals. Thus,
ou ism was ega ded as bo h a poli ical and s a egic o eign policy ma e such ha , un il 1978
he Bu eau o T a el and Tou ism (BTT), which managed a el agencies in he coun y was
di ec ly unde he Minis y o Fo eign A ai s a he han he S a e Council. Ye , e en wi h he
China Na ional Tou ism Adminis a ion (CNTA), he agency in cha ge o ou ism now squa ely
unde he S a e Council, he go e nmen con inues o play a leading ole in di ec ing China’s
ou ism policy, de eloping he ou ism indus y and ins i u ing domes ic and o eign policies
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ha sub ly in luence a el pa e ns o Chinese ou is s. Wooyeal Paik (2019) concu s ha he
Chinese go e nmen main ained, and s ill main ains a s ingen con ol o e hese ou is s and
he ou ism indus y.
P io o China’s opening up, people- o-people exchange h ough ou ism had a s ong
emphasis on os e ing ela ionships wi h hen allied coun ies, such as he So ie Union and
egions like Eas e n Eu ope. The policy was a ou ed because o “bo h i s long- un economic
p ospec s and he immedia e poli ical goodwill and publici y he new hospi ali y may ga ne ”
(Rich e , 1989:5). The end was howe e , b oken by d ama ic domes ic up u es like he
Cul u al Re olu ion and he 1989 Tiananmen Squa e inciden leading o a decline in inbound
and ou bound ou ism (Uysal, Wei & Reid, 1986). A ha ime, ou bound ou ism was only
limi ed o s a e-sanc ioned ou s, s a e isi s and business a els. The e was no sel -paying
o dina y Chinese. Deng Xiaoping’s economic e o m e a was also a u ning poin because
ou ism began o be p esen ed as a ool o economic de elopmen and sou ce o o eign
cu ency. F om hen on, ou ism assumed a dual economic and poli ico-diploma ic ole leading
some schola s o desc ibe i as “ ou ism wi h Chinese cha ac e is ics” (Zhang, King and Ap,
1999).
Despi e he domes ic and in e na ional implica ions o he Cul u al Re olu ion and
Tiananmen, China did no s op de eloping i s inbound ou ism indus y h ough he use o
a ious inancial incen i es and g adually opening up o ou bound ou ism. Linking inbound
ou ism o i s diploma ic objec i es, Beijing in i ed o eign digni a ies, s uden s, and eli es o
isi China. The unde lying logic was ha hese isi s would inc ease o eign gues s’
accep ance o China, bo h cul u ally and poli ically, os e ing mu ual unde s anding and
iendship. Despi e wa nings o he Chinese go e nmen by bo h Wes e n and Chinese schola s
ha “ o know us” does no mean “ o lo e us” (Rawnsley, 2015), he go e nmen con inues o
in i e and sponso o eigne s o isi China in an a emp o use ou ism as a so powe ool o
ad ance i s na ional in e es . Thus, as ou ism’s ole in economic de elopmen g ows, i s
poli ical and o eign policy unc ions a e being consolida ed, making Chinese ou bound ou ism
a diploma ic ool o Beijing (Tse, 2013; Chen & Duggan, 2016).
One o he elabo a e ways ha Beijing in luences he a eling pa e ns o Chinese
ou bound ou is s is by imposing ou is bans as a sanc ioning ool agains coun ies ha happen
o o end he PRC. Fo example, in 2018, China ba ed i s ci izens om isi ing he Paci ic
island na ion o Palau as a sanc ion o i s diploma ic links wi h Taiwan. The ban signi ican ly
a ec ed Palau’s ou ism-dependen economy because China is he coun y’s la ges ou ism
ma ke . “Chinese ou is s accoun ed o 47 pe cen o in e na ional isi o s o Palau in 2016,
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Yu-Wen Chen
116
wi h Taiwan making up 10 pe cen ” (Sou h China Mo ning Pos , 2018). In 2017, Sou h Ko ean
go e nmen said ha “i had lea ned ha Chinese au ho i ies summoned ep esen a i es o
a el agencies in Beijing […] and ins uc ed hem o s op selling Sou h Ko ean ou s” (Mullen,
2017). The ‘ ou ism sanc ion’ was in e alia ion o Sou h Ko ea’s decision o hos he THAAD
missile de ense sys em.
In he mon h a e he THAAD launch, Sou h Ko ea saw a sudden 40 pe cen plunge in
Chinese ou is s – who, p e iously, accoun ed o nea ly 50 pe cen o all a i als in o he
coun y (Coca, 2018).
This imposi ion o a ‘ ou ism sanc ion’ and he his o ical de elopmen o Chinese
ou bound ou ism aid pe cep ions o in e link be ween ou ism and China’s na ional objec i es
as espoused by he Communis Pa y o China.
Ano he app oach ha Beijing has used is o suppo ou ism o ce ain s a egically
impo an coun ies o a eas. Tse’s s udy (2013) gi es ample examples such as encou agemen
o Mainland Chinese o isi he Special Adminis a i e Regions (SAR) o Hong Kong and
Macau o help boos hei economies as a sign o he mo he land’s good will owa ds he wo
egions. I is also no a coincidence ha China hea ily encou aged Chinese ou is s o Sou heas
Asian coun ies a e hey we e de as a ed by he sunami in 2004 as a way o adding c edibili y
o China’s diploma ic discou se ha i is bene olen o i s neighbo ing coun ies (Tse, 2013).
The adi ion o seeing ou ism as a key componen o people- o-people exchange ha
has been in exis ence e en be o e he Cul u al Re olu ion emains, sugges ing ha ou ism
con inues o be “an impo an pa o he coun y’s diploma ic s a egy [and] plays an ac i e
pa in in e na ional ela ions and coope a ion wi h o he coun ies” (Zhang, 2016: 33-34). As
u he pu by Wooyeal Paik, “ he poli ical dimension o Chinese ou bound ou ism expands
and esul s in mo e poli ical ela ions in a hos coun y’s local, na ional, and in e na ional
con ex s” (2019:2). Wha is missing, howe e in he discussion o Chinese ou ism as a ool o
achie ing economic, poli ical and o eign policy objec i es, is he ole o Chinese ou bound
ou is s. To da e, he e has been no signi ican inqui y on whe he Chinese ou bound ou is s
a e indeed ac ing as uno icial ep esen a i es o he PRC in he coun ies ha hey a el o.
Unless he e is a nuanced unde s anding o he ole ha Chinese ou is s play in ad ancing
‘pe cei ed’ Beijing’s o eign policy objec i es, asse ions ha China is using ou ism as a
diploma ic ool and so powe s a egy emain abs ac and unsubs an ia ed.
Demand o ou is s o ad ance China’s na ional objec i es
Socio-economic ans o ma ions in China inc eased he inancial capaci y o p e iously
disad an aged Chinese o a el ab oad. McKinsey epo ed in 2018 ha om 2010 o 2015,
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leade s o ou ism in he egion. Acco dingly, Chinese ou is s ep esen ed no jus e enue, bu
s a e- o-s a e ela ions, compelling go e nmen s in he h ee A ican coun ies o ega d hem
as ‘uno icial’ ep esen a i es o he Chinese go e nmen .
Pe cei ed p e e en ial ea men o Chinese ou is s
In Zimbabwe and Sou h A ica pe cep ions ha Chinese ou is s a e ep esen a i es o he
Chinese go e nmen a e no jus based on hei indi idual o collec i e beha iou bu on he
p e e en ial ea men hey allegedly ge om he Zimbabwean and Sou h A ican go e nmen .
Al hough none o ou in e iewees in bo h coun ies could speci y he o ms ha he
p e e en ial ea men ook, hey we e adaman ha he police and immig a ion o ice s ea ed
he Chinese be e al hough China is no e en hei bigges ma ke a all.11 Pa o he eason as
pu by an o icial a he Zimbabwe Tou ism Au ho i y is ha he e was an imp ession ha
Chinese ou is s had o be ea ed be e because he Zimbabwean go e nmen did no wan
any hing o happen o hem ha could jeopa dise i s bila e al ela ions wi h China.12 In Sou h
A ica and Namibia, go e nmen o icials made he same asse ions, a guing ha hei ocus on
he Chinese ou ism ma ke was s a e-d i en a he han ma ke -d i en. The e ec is ha
Chinese ou is s we e ega ded as ep esen ing he b oade in e es s o bo h China and each o
he h ee Sou he n A ican coun ies hence hey we e ‘ ep esen a i es’ o he PRC.
In addi ion, he in e en ion by go e nmen o icials in c iminal ma e s in ol ing
Chinese ou is s con ibu ed o pe cep ions ha he ou is s ep esen ed China. In all h ee
coun ies, Zimbabwe, Namibia and Sou h A ica, some Chinese on ou is isas we e a es ed
o a emp ing o smuggle i o y o hino ho ns. The cases we e epo ed in local media in a
manne ha sugges ed he accused Chinese pe sons we e ep esen a i e o all he Chinese
na ionals. While in Namibia he Chinese ambassado issued a s a emen a guing ha he
a es ed Chinese we e no ep esen a i e o he Chinese go e nmen o he Chinese people. In
Zimbabwe, some go e nmen o icials a emp ed o assis he a es ed Chinese o e ade jus ice.
This ueled no ions ha he a es ed Chinese we e o icials o ep esen a i es o he Chinese
go e nmen . Acco dingly, based on hei associa ion wi h go e nmen o icials in Zimbabwe,
11In 2016, 117 144 Chinese ou is s isi ed Sou h A ica making he 6 h la ges sou ce o ou is s. The
highes numbe o ou is s o Sou h A ica came om he Uni ed Kingdom (447 840), he Uni ed S a es
(345 013), Ge many (311 832), F ance (154 226) and he Ne he lands (147 973). In compa ison, only 9
164 Chinese ou is s isi ed Zimbabwe, making hem Zimbabwe’s en h la ges sou ce o ou is s, way
behind o he coun ies om Asia, such as Japan (22 566) and Sou h Ko ea (12 956). In Namibia, Chinese
ou is s (9 722) we e no e en in he coun y’s op en ou is s ma ke .
12In e iew in Ha a e, Zimbabwe, 30 June 2017.
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some Chinese on ou is isas a e ega ded by locals as ep esen a i es o China. In sum, he e
is a s ong pe cep ion e en among o icials in go e nmen ha he Chinese ou is s we e
ep esen a i e o he Chinese go e nmen in ha any ha m on hem would esul in a b eak-up
o diploma ic ela ions wi h China hence, in hei iew, hey ough o be ea ed well o a oid
complica ing hei coun ies’ diploma ic ela ions wi h China.
Conclusion
As s a es sc amble o a sha e o China’s ou bound ou ism, Zimbabwe, Sou h A ica and
Namibia a e le e aging on hei diploma ic, economic and poli ical ela ions wi h Beijing. In
he p ocess, hey a e impu ing ep esen a i e esponsibili ies on Chinese ou is s. Wha is also
eme ging om ou esea ch is ha Zimbabwe, Namibia and Sou h A ica a e also using Chinese
ou bound ou ism o achie e hei o eign policy objec i es, pa icula ly enhancing hei
bila e al ela ions wi h China. The dis inc i e impo ance o Chinese ou bound ou ism o
bila e al ela ions be ween China and A ica was con i med by in e iewees a he NTB, ZTA
and he Sou h A ican Depa men o Tou ism. The o icials a he h ee ins i u ions sugges ed
ha he push o a ac mo e Chinese ou is s was an execu i e decision aken by he espec i e
coun ies’ poli ical leade ship. Bo h he Chinese go e nmen and go e nmen s o Sou h A ica,
Namibia and Zimbabwe a e pushing o Chinese ou is s as a ool o enhancing bila e al
ela ions, making Chinese ou is s a unc ion o in e na ional ela ions and poli ics. As pa o
he people- o-people exchange, Chinese ou ism o he h ee coun ies complemen s adi ional
and o mal diplomacy. I has signi ican impac on ela ions be ween na ions.
Acco dingly, he Chinese go e nmen and Chinese ou bound ou is s in Zimbabwe,
Sou h A ica and Namibia ha e an implied p incipal-agen ela ionship. The Chinese
go e nmen ecognise he implica ions o badly beha ed ou bound ou is s on i s in e na ional
image, hence i expec s Chinese ou bound ou is s o ep esen China well. On he o he hand,
h ough a combina ion o pa io ism, go e nmen sanc ion on bad beha iou , naming and
shaming by ellow Chinese ci izens, and pe cep ions o hei ep esen a i eness in hos
coun ies, Chinese ou is s in Sou h A ica, Zimbabwe and Namibia assume he ole o de ac o
ep esen a i es o China. Beyond he conduc o Chinese ou bound ou is s, he use o ou ism
by he Chinese go e nmen o expand bila e al and diploma ic ies wi h A ican coun ies and
he exclusion o o he coun ies om he ADS scheme c ea e imp essions ha Chinese
ou bound ou is s a e China’s so powe agen s. Fu he mo e, he na a i e o ou ism as an
ins umen o achie ing economic de elopmen and enhancing s a e- o-s a e ela ions add o
he imp ession ha Chinese ou ism o A ica is mo e s a e-d i en and aimed a achie ing
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o eign policy objec i es han would ou ism by, o ins ance, B i ish ou is s o A ican
coun ies.
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