Co esponding au ho : Ezekiel Ojei
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
Assessmen o g oundwa e po en ial in Jos No h Local Go e nmen A ea o Pla eau
S a e, Nige ia
Ezekiel Ojei 1, *, Babalogbon Bowale Ayodeji 2, Jagila Ja inku 1, Epsa Philip Kop ee 1, Jiba swen Agbu sokwa
Hosea 1, Moses Olo un emi A eh 1, An hony Chijioke Ukae u 3, Ab aham Ben-Obaje 1, James Adah John 1 and
Sambo Abubaka Nasi u 1
1 Na ional Space Resea ch and De elopmen Agency (NASRDA), Abuja, Nige ia.
2 A ican Regional Cen e o Space Science and Technology Educa ion- English (A css e-E), Ile-I e, Osun S a e, Nige ia.
3 No. 40 G ainge s Mill, Muckamo e, An im, No he n I eland.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 22 June 2025; e ised on 12 Augus 2025; accep ed on 15 Augus 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.2.2822
Abs ac
This s udy add esses c i ical g oundwa e sca ci y in Jos No h, Nige ia (291 km², pop. 429,300), d i en by apid
u baniza ion, popula ion g ow h, and a iable hyd ogeology. Si ua ed in basemen complex e ain wi h limi ed
p ima y po osi y, he a ea aces acu e wa e s ess despi e in e en ions like bo eholes. Le e aging es ablished
me hodologies, he esea ch in eg a es Remo e Sensing (RS), Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GIS), and Analy ic
Hie a chy P ocess (AHP) o delinea e g oundwa e po en ial zones. Li e a u e unde sco es he e icacy o lineamen
densi y (p oxy o ac u e-con olled po osi y) and mul i-c i e ia analysis (e.g., ain all, geology, land use) in simila
e ains. Co e objec i es included gene a ing hema ic maps o con olling ac o s and syn hesizing a g oundwa e
po en ial map o sus ainable esou ce planning.
Se en hema ic laye s we e de eloped: geology (18.7% weigh ), lineamen densi y (18.2%), ain all (21.4%), d ainage
densi y (11.6%), slope (2.2%), ele a ion (4.4%), and land use/land co e (1.7%). da a om landsa 8, SRTM DEM,
ain all s a ions, and geological su eys we e p ocessed using A cGIS 10.4.1, ERDAS IMAGINE, and PCI Geoma ics. AHP
pai wise compa isons assigned class weigh s (e.g., lineamen densi y >1.5945/km² = "Ve y High" po en ial; slope
<3.224° = op imal echa ge). In eg a ion ia Weigh ed O e lay e ealed ou zones: Ve y High (12.8%, No he n
sec o s), High (35.1%), Sligh ly High (30.0%), and Low (22.1%, Eas e n a eas). Rain all (32.2% p io i y) and
lineamen s (27.5%) we e dominan ac o s. U ban expansion (0.53 km²/yea ) educed echa ge a eas ( ege a ion ell
o 33%, se lemen s ose o 28%), in ensi ying wa e s ess.
The s udy con i ms RS-GIS-AHP as a obus amewo k o g oundwa e zona ion in complex e ains, wi h 67.9% o
Jos No h ha ing mode a e- o-high po en ial. Key ecommenda ions include: (1) P io i izing explo a ion in No he n
"Ve y High" zones (high lineamen densi y, gen le slopes); (2) Implemen ing policies o equi able wa e access and
echa ge conse a ion; (3) Ins i u ionalizing geospa ial echniques in s a e wa e planning; and (4) Main aining a
dynamic g oundwa e da abase. These measu es a e i al o balancing esou ce use amid ongoing u ban p essu es.
Keywo ds: G oundwa e Po en ial; Lineamen s; Geospa ial; Sca ci y; Geology
1. In oduc ion
U ban egions a e dynamic ne wo ks ha a e cha ac e ized by as popula ion inc ease, a sca ci y o su ace wa e , and
a high demand o g oundwa e . A egion's g oundwa e po en ial is de e mined by a a ie y o ac o s, and i luc ua es
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om place o place as condi ions change. G oundwa e po en ial has also been epo ed o a y wi hin a sho dis ance
and wi hin he same geological o ma ion [1]; [2]. Ha d ock e ain has a limi ed quan i y compa ed o so ock
aqui e s wi h high yield capaci y, and is gene ally concen a ed in he wea he ed zone and ac u ed zone. To a oid
inancial loss and he was e o ime and e o in such a case, e ec i e iden i ica ion o po en ial zones is equi ed. This
ype o accu a e iden i ica ion is easible wi h geological and hyd ogeological knowledge. In g oundwa e hyd ology,
e alua ing po en iali y is a c i ical domain in he planning and managemen o g oundwa e esou ces, bo h in e ms o
occu ences and accumula ion [3]; [4].
The e a e a a ie y o me hodologies and ools a ailable o de e mining g oundwa e likely zones in a gi en loca ion
[5]; [6]; [7], wi h ools like emo e sensing (RS) and geog aphic in o ma ion sys em (GIS) being he mos use ul and
cos -e ec i e. GIS, RS, mul i-c i e ia decision analysis (MCDA), and esis i i y su ey we e used in he cu en s udy o
classi y g oundwa e likely zones in and a ound Raipu . Va ious s udies ha e been ca ied ou all o e he wo ld,
including in Cha isha g, o iden i y p ospec i e g oundwa e zones. Geospa ial in o ma ion sys ems (GIS) and
ma hema ical models [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]; [13]; 14]; [15]; [16]. The success ul applica ion o geology,
geomo phology, ain all, land use, and land co e a e emphasized in his esea ch he g oundwa e po en ial model is
c ea ed by combining he weigh ed index analy ical hie a chy p ocess (AHP) me hod wi h he d ainage densi y, slope,
g oundwa e le el dep h, soil ex u e, and lineamen [17]; [18]; [19]; [9]; [10]; [20].
The hyd ogeology o a egion is in luenced by a a ie y o geological and hyd ological ac o s. Topog aphy, s uc u e,
and s a ig aphy a e some geological ea u es [21]. Because unde g ound mo phology is inaccessible, indi ec me hods
ha e been de eloped o obse e he unde g ound mo phology and p ocesses ha a ec wa e mo emen and s o age
[22]. Es ima ion, modeling, and emo e sensing a e examples o such p ocedu es. Remo e sensing o da a collec ion in
di icul places and GIS o as e and less expensi e p ocessing is becoming mo e use ul and needed [23].
Nume ous e ms ha e been used o desc ibe lineamen , geologic lineamen , ec onic lineamen , pho o lineamen ,
ac u e aces and pho o lines o geophysical lineamen based on he assumed o igin o he ea u e o some imes he
da a sou ce om which i has been de i ed [24]. [25] o iginally p oposed he e m lineamen o signi ican lines o
landscape caused by join s and aul e ealing he a chi ec u e o he ock basemen . The mos widely used de ini ion
is by [26]. Lineamen a e s uc u al line such as aul s. They o en ep esen zones o ac u ing and inc eased seconda y
po osi y and pe meabili y and he e o e o enhanced g oundwa e occu ence and mo emen [27]. Va ia ions in size,
shape, and o ien a ion o hese lineamen s a e mainly a ibu ed o s yle, he na u e o de o ma ion and geological
beha iou o he ocks [28].
MCDA is a echnique wi h nume ous applica ions in a ious ields. I is mos ly used o sol e complex issues by spli ing
hem in o po ions and hen sol ing and in eg a ing each sec ion o a i e a he inal conclusion. I 's employed in
si ua ions whe e making decisions is di icul and ime-consuming. Because MCDA is seen as one o he mo e
app oachable echniques when compa ed o o he s, he AHP is highligh ed as a key componen . Thomas L. Saa y c ea ed
and popula ized he app oach in 1977 [29]. Fo quan i a i e analysis, he AHP [30] is o en used. I is a eliable decision-
making ool o a a ie y o si ua ions wi h a ying c i e ia and na u es, and i may also be used o assess he likely
zones o g oundwa e occu ence conside ed in his s udy. Because o i s abili y o cope wi h di icul si ua ions and
make app op ia e conclusions, he in e na ional scien i ic communi y has deemed AHP o be a e y impo an
ins umen .
The concep o pai wise compa ison was i s p esen ed ia his me hod. In he lack o a quan i a i e a ing, each
con olling ac o 's ank can s ill be manipula ed by p ope ly assigning he ank o each pa ame e de i ed om he
li e a u e s udy and ield obse a ion acco ding o i s alue. Wi h he help o AHP, he pai wise compa ison is u ned
in o a collec ion o in ege s in his scena io. To classi y i in o di e en anks based on i s ela i e impo ance [30]; [31].
The pai wise compa ison me hodology is a heo e ically based me hod o calcula ing weigh s ha signi y hei ela i e
impo ance. When all easible pai s om he eigen ec o o he squa e ecip ocal ma ix (no malized ma ix) a e
compa ed, he bes i yields a se o weigh s ha can be used o alloca e weigh o hema ic laye s.
[32] used Landsa image ies o landuse/landco e mapping and lineamen analysis o g oundwa e p ospec ing in
Ado-Eki i, sou h-wes e n Nige ia. Shu le Rada Topog aphic Mission Digi al Ele a ion Model was used o d ainage
ne wo k ex ac ion, slope and geomo phological analysis. Thema ic maps we e gene a ed, analyzed in e ms o
hyd ogeological impo ance and eclassi ied o in eg a ion using app op ia e so wa e. The g oundwa e po en ial
maps gene a ed we e alida ed agains he exis ing g oundwa e yield da a. This me hodology p o ided imp o emen s
in he unde s anding o he hyd ogeological cha ac e is ics o he basemen e ain.
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Geology in luences g oundwa e mo emen , s o age and subsequen ly, po en ial [33]. In a s udy on h ee si es, i was
no ed ha geology is also a majo heme in g oundwa e analysis [34]. A s udy by [35], assigned he second highes
weigh o he geology o all he hemes used o g oundwa e po en ial in Pu uliya dis ic , Wes Bengal, India. Geology
signi ican ly in luences g oundwa e luxes, bo h on he su ace and subsu ace [36]. In ypical basemen complex a eas
such as he s udy a ea, he occu ence o g oundwa e in eco e able quan i y as well as i s ci cula ion is con olled by
geological ac o s i.e. aul s, join s and ac u e zones [37]. The ole o Land use/ Land co e (LU/LC) on g oundwa e
po en ial is ob ious and wide. Types o land co e / land use a e o es plan a ions, c op a ms, and open denuded soils
su aces, wa e bodies like lakes and i e s and se lemen s. Each LU/LC has a ce ain in luence on g oundwa e
po en ial indi ec ly h ough in il a ion, uno and e apo a ion [38]. Vege a ion co e minimizes e apo a ion and
uno while i inc eases in il a ion. Hence ege a ion inc eases chances o g oundwa e echa ge and can be a good
indica ion o high g oundwa e po en ial [39]. Fo es plan a ions equi e la ge amoun s o wa e , which hey abs ac
om he adose zone and in o he cases om benea h he wa e able hence o es plan a ions indica e high
g oundwa e po en ial. In se lemen s and buil -up a eas, in il a ion is low because o oads, pa emen s and buildings
co e ing he soil su ace and consequen ly, low g oundwa e po en ials a e expec ed.
Jos No h has been an a ea aced wi h challenges o wa e una ailabili y in mos o he esiden a ea. The a ea has been
expe iencing apid inc ease in popula ion and in as uc u al de elopmen , which esul ed o inc eased sca ci y o
wa e o mee he demand o he popula ion in he a ea. Go e nmen e o s ha e yielded li le success in inc easing
g oundwa e a ailabili y h ough bo eholes and a isan wells, hence, he need o employ he use o Remo e Sensing and
Geog aphic in o ma ion sys em (GIS) o analyse hese a eas and es ima e i s g oundwa e po en ial in Jos No h local
go e nmen o pla eau s a e, Nige ia.
The s udy aims o assess he g oundwa e po en ial in Jos No h local go e nmen a ea o pla eau s a e, Nige ia wi h
he speci ic objec i es is o: de elop hema ic maps o ac o s in luencing g oundwa e po en ials in he s udy a ea and
p oduce he g oundwa e po en ial zones o he s udy a ea.
1.1. S udy a ea
1.1.1. Loca ion, Ex en and Popula ion
Figu e 1 S udy a ea map
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
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The s udy a ea is loca ed in Jos No h Local Go e nmen A ea, pla eau S a e, Nige ia. I has an a ea o 291 km2 and a
popula ion o 429,300 a he 2006 census [40]. Jos is a semi ci y loca ed be ween la i ude 7° E 9.5179" N o 7° E9.2182
N and longi ude 6° E9.8965" E o 6° E8.8583" E. (See Pla e 1). The LGA sha es bounda ies wi h Bauchi S a e.
1.1.2. Clima e
Nige ia as a coun y has a opical clima e wi h a iable ainy and d y seasons depending on he loca ion. Jos pla eau
o es sa annah, mon ane g assland, mosaic eco egion he clima ic condi ion o Jos No h in pla eau S a e wi h an
al i ude o 1,217m (3,993 ) abo e sea le el, Jos clima e is close o empe a e han ha o he as majo i y o Nige ia.
The a e age mon hly empe a u e anges om 21-25oC (70-77o ) a his ime he en i onmen is e y ho hen om
mid-No embe o la e Janua y he empe a u e d op as low as 7oC(45oF).
1.1.3. Vege a ion
Wi h long g asses and a ew scan ees, he ege a ion o Jos No h local go e nmen o pla eau s a e, he a ea, and i s
en i ons alls unde he T opical Guinea Sa annah Bel . The ege a ion he e is domina ed by hinly spaced ees, plan s,
sh ubs, and all g asses. Du ing he ainy season, he e ain is lush wi h esh lea es and all g asses, bu du ing he d y
season, he g ound is ba en, which shows cha ed ees and g asses ha ha e been bu ned. The ees, which g ow in
clus e s, can each a heigh o six me es and a e mixed wi h g asses ha each a heigh o h ee me es. The majo i y
o he ees in his a ea a e ound in ac u e zones wi hin plu onic bodies and on pegma i e idges. The e is app op ia e
soil co e and g oundwa e e en ion as a esul . The locus bean, she bu e s, and isobe linia ees a e among hese
ees. Howe e , due o cons an human usage o he o es and he esul ing deciduous and sa annah ege a ion, he
many ypes o ege a ion a e no in hei na i e luxu ian s a e. The ege a ion in his a ea he e o e includes bo h
p ima y and seconda y. The seconda y ege a ion implies ha he na u al ege a ion is being al e ed and as such
ag icul u al c ops such as yam, cocoa, maize, swee po a o, and some ui c ops a e cul i a ed. The mos widely g own
c ops a e, cocoa yam.
1.1.4. Geologgy and Geomo phology
The egional and local geology we e asce ained om li e a u e e iew ob ained om he Fede al Su ey Depa men
(FSD) Lagos, on he geology and land o m in Nige ia as well as om he pla eau s a e mas e plan. Se e al ock ou c ops
a e ound all o e he place ex usion o he basemen complex. These ou c ops all in o he Jos sand s one o ma ion
which consis o sil s one and imbedded clays all o c e aceous age. La e i e is well de eloped in some places. The
wea he in he a ea has esul ed in a gen le, olling, almos la opog aphy, wi h mos ly sandy e ile soil. The o he
P ecamb ian uni s o me amo phic and sedimen a y ocks a e he ypes ound a ound his place. Along s eams ha cu
h ough he ock ou c ops, g adien s a e s eepe . Whe e he alley bo om is app oached, he e is a gene al con ex
s eeping o hill slopes wi h i ons ones equen ly occu ing a he b eak in he slope o he place.
1.1.5. Socio-Economic Ac i i ies
The S udy examines he socio-economic impac o colonial Tin mining on Jos pla eau S a e. Tin mining is said o be one
o he oldes indus ies known o mankind. I has been in exis ence long be o e he coming in o con ac wi h he
Eu opean. F om he Nok cul u e ha in had been wo ked in Jos a eas se e al cen u ies be o e he 19 h cen u y. The
hesis examines he ac i i ies o colonial Tin mining and socio-economic e ec on he Jos pla eau. The imposi ion o he
B i ish colonial ule on he Jos Pla eau S a e a ea as om 1902 onwa ds had se ious socio-economic implica ion o he
people o ha a ea. The colonial ule, he e we e ew o eigne s who had es ablished con ac wi h he people o Jos
pla eau. These people we e mainly he neighbou ing e hnic g oups like he Hausa Fulani, jukun, among o he , howe e
he imposi ion o clonial ule led o he massi e in lux o immig an bo h wi hin and ou side Nige ia o he a ea. These
include Eu opeans, Lebanese, Indians, chadians, Came oonians and some pa o Nige ia such as he Hausa Fulani, igbo,
Yo uba, U hobo e ce e a. I makes he inc ease in popula ion led o he g ow h o Jos which la e become bo h he
adminis a i e and comme cial capi al o pla eau s a e.
2. Ma e ials and me hod
This pa discusses da a ypes and sou ces, da a analysis p ocedu e, and analy ical echniques employed in he s udy,
all o which will aid in achie ing he hesis's de ined objec i es. The igu e below shows s eps in ol ed in mapping
g oundwa e po en ial o Jos No h.
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Figu e 2 Me hodology wo k low
2.1. Da a Types and Sou ces
The da a used o his s udy include geology map, ain all da a and sa elli e image y. The da a and hei sou ces a e
gi en in he able below.
Table 1 Da a Types and sou ces
S/n
Type
Scale/ Resolu ion
Da e
Sou ce
1
Land sa 8
30m
2020
Ea h Explo e
2
Soil
1:1,300,000
2018
Wageningen Ne he lands
SRTM DEM
30m
2019
Ea h Explo e
3
Geology
1:500,000
2006
(NGS) Nige ian Geological Su ey o Nige ian.
4
Rain all
2018
Nige ian Me ological Agency (NIMET)
2.2. So wa e F amewo k
The assessmen u ilized a dedica ed geospa ial so wa e sui e. ESRI A cGIS 10.4.1 se ed as he p ima y pla o m o
spa ial analysis, in e pola ion, and in eg a ion. ERDAS IMAGINE 2014 was employed o c i ical emo e sensing asks,
speci ically Landsa 8 image p ocessing, laye s acking (bands 5, 6, 4), sub-se ing he s udy a ea, and supe ised land
use/land co e (LULC) classi ica ion. PCI Geoma ics 2018 was applied o he ex ac ion o lineamen ea u es om
sa elli e image y, a key indica o o subsu ace s uc u es in luencing g oundwa e .
2.3. Co e Da a P ocessing
Landsa 8 image y (2018) unde wen p e-p ocessing and supe ised classi ica ion in ERDAS IMAGINE o gene a e he
essen ial LULC map, ca ego izing pixels in o Buil -up, Vege a ion, Ba e G ound, Ag icul u al A ea, and Wa e Bodies.
Mul iple hema ic laye s we e sys ema ically cons uc ed wi hin A cGIS. The annual ain all map was de i ed using he
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In e se Dis ance Weigh ing (IDW) in e pola ion me hod wi hin he Spa ial Analys oolbox, p ocessing poin da a
(loca ions and mean annual ain all) om NIMET me eo ology s a ions impo ed ia a .cs ile. A slope map (% g adien )
was calcula ed om SRTM ele a ion da a and classi ied in o Nea Le el (0-1%), Ve y Gen le (1-3%), and Gen le (3-5%)
slopes, c i ical o unde s anding in il a ion e sus uno dynamics.
2.4. Thema ic Map P ocessing o Hyd ogeomo phic Pa ame e s
Fu he hyd o-geomo phic pa ame e s we e de eloped. D ainage densi y, a measu e o s eam leng h pe uni a ea,
was calcula ed, wi h s eam o de ing pe o med acco ding o S ahle 's me hod o unde s and ne wo k de elopmen
and i s in e se ela ionship wi h pe cola ion po en ial. The LULC map gene a ed in ERDAS was inalized as a key
hema ic inpu , ep esen ing su ace condi ions impac ing echa ge. Lineamen s, iden i ied as ec onic linea ea u es
( aul s, ac u es) c ucial o seconda y po osi y, we e ex ac ed using PCI Geoma ics. Thei in luence zones we e
de ined using mul i- ing bu e s (50m, 100m, 150m, 200m), wi h in e sec ing bu e s lagged as high-po en ial
indica o s.
2.5. Thema ic Map P ocessing o Geological Con ol
The unde lying geological amewo k, a undamen al con ol on g oundwa e occu ence, low, and s o age capaci y
(po osi y/pe meabili y), was es ablished h ough a de ailed geology map. This in eg a ed ield e i ica ion, li e a u e
e iew [41]; [42], and isual in e p e a ion o sa elli e da a. The li hology o he s udy a ea, domina ed by calca eous
and a gillaceous sedimen a y ocks o he Raipu g oup, was classi ied in o i e dis inc uni s: Allu ium, S oma oli e
Dolomi ic Limes one, La e i e, S oma oli ic Dolomi ic Limes one wi h Sands one, and Shale.
2.6. In eg a ed Analysis and Zoning
The inal g oundwa e po en ial zoning employed he Analy ic Hie a chy P ocess (AHP) ollowing [43] o mul i-c i e ia
decision analysis. P io o in eg a ion, indi idual classes wi hin each hema ic map (Lineamen bu e zones, LULC
classes, D ainage densi y classes, Geology uni s, Rain all zones) we e compa a i ely e alua ed. Eigh pai wise
compa ison ma ices we e cons uc ed o objec i ely assign ela i e weigh s o each class based on i s con ibu ion o
g oundwa e po en ial. These weigh ed hema ic laye s we e hen in eg a ed wi hin he GIS en i onmen o syn hesize
and classi y he s udy a ea in o i e dis inc g oundwa e po en ial zones: Ve y Good, Good, Mode a e, Low, and Ve y
Low.
Table 2 P ocedu e o Assigning Weigh ages in Analy ical Hie a chy P ocess
P ocess Scale
Deg ee o p e e ence
Explana ion
1
Equal impo ance
Two elemen s con ibu e equally o he objec i e
3
Mode a e impo ance
Expe ience and judge sligh ly a ou one elemen o e ano he
5
S ong o essen ial impo ance
Expe ience and judgmen s ongly a ou one elemen ano he
7
Ve y s ong impo ance
One elemen is a ou ed e y s ongly o e . I s dominance is
demons a ed in p ac ice
9
Ex eme impo ance
The e idence a ou ing one elemen o e ano he is o he highes
possible o de o a i ma ion
2, 4, 6, 8
Values o in e se compa ison
Can be used o exp ess in e media e alues
Sou ce: [43]
The inal g oundwa e po en ial zone map was gene a ed in A cGIS 10.4.1 using he Weigh ed O e lay ool (Spa ial
Analys module). This in eg a ed he p ocessed hema ic laye s h ough a GIS-based mul i-c i e ia e alua ion
amewo k. Saa y’s Analy ical Hie a chy P ocess (AHP) was applied o de i e he c i ical inpu pa ame e s: class anks
wi hin each hema ic laye and he ela i e weigh s assigned o he laye s hemsel es based on hei con ibu ion o
g oundwa e po en ial.
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3. Resul s and analysis
3.1. In oduc ion
G oundwa e p ospec i e zones we e analysed on he basis o lineamen densi y, d ainage densi y, geology, land
use/land co e , ain all, slope and ele a ion. The pa ame e s in each ac o we e gi en weigh and we e ela ed o
g oundwa e po en ial as adop ed om [44].
The g oundwa e po en iali y o Jos no h was ca ied ou by analysing he su ace ea u es as men ioned abo e. The
weigh s o he su ace ea u es con ibu ing o g oundwa e p ospec s in he s udy a ea we e syn hesized by pai -wise
compa ison using Analy ical Hie a chy P ocess (AHP). The hema ic maps o he su ace ea u es con ibu ing o
g oundwa e we e p oduced in A cGIS 10.1 en i onmen and he esul s a e p esen ed in Figu es 3 o 10 while he
weigh s o he ac o s a e ep esen ed in Tables 3 o 9
3.2. Ele a ion
The Digi al Ele a ion Model (DEM) was gene a ed om he Shu le Rada Topog aphic mission (SRTM-90) da a. Figu e
3 shows he Digi al Ele a ion Model (DEM) used o build he opog aphic ele a ion ac o alues and Table 4 ep esen s
he weigh o ele a ion and po en iali y o g oundwa e p ospec s in he a ea o s udy.
The esul shows ha a eas wi h low ele a ion (123m - 274m) alues ha e e y good g oundwa e po en ial and places
on high ele a ion ha e low wa e po en ial. This is because places on low ele a ion will gi e mo e chance o
g oundwa e accumula ion [45]. Topog aphic da a is a i al elemen in de e mining he wa e able ele a ions [46]. The
combina ion o ac u es wi h opog aphically low g ound can also se e as he bes aqui e ho izon [47].
Table 3 Weigh assigned o Ele a ion
RASTER LAYER
%INFLUENCE
FIELD VALUE
RANK
SCALE VALUE
ELEVATION
4.4%
0-23
VERY LOW
1
23.0001-68
LOW
2
68.0001-111
MEDIUM
3
111.0001-151
HIGH
4
151.0001-180
VERY HIGH
5
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
1407
Figu e 3 Digi al Ele a ion Model o Jos No h L.G.A.
3.3. Geology
Geology is he main con ol on he p ima y po osi y and pe meabili y o ock. Highe po osi y con ibu es o highe
g oundwa e s o age, and highe pe meabili y con ibu es o highe g oundwa e yields. Figu e 4 is cha ac e ized wi h
migma i e ock ype, hickness o wea he ing, ac u e densi y e c. The ock has a sympa he ic cha ac e o
g oundwa e accumula ion owing o hei p ima y po osi ies and pe meabili y. The c e aceous ocks o ma ion was
assumed o ha e be e g oundwa e accumula ion han o he ock ype due o seconda y s uc u es, join , and
seconda y po osi y.
Table 4 Weigh assigned o geology
Ras e Laye
%In luence
Field Value
Rank
Scale Value
Geology
18.7%
Basemen Complex
Low
1
Younge G ani es
Midium
2
Te ia y To Recen Volcanics
High
3
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
1408
Figu e 4 Geology o Jos No h L.G.A.
3.4. D ainage Ne wo k and D ainage Densi y
The d ainage densi y was calcula ed di ec ly in A cMap using he line densi y in he spa ial analys ex ension. In he
s udy a ea, mainly h ee (3) d ainage densi y classes we e iden i ied and mapped. The d ainage ne wo k is p esen ed
in Figu e 5, Figu e 6 ep esen s he d ainage densi y o he s udy a ea, and also he weigh age is shown in Table 5.
Ve y high d ainage densi y is ound in he No h Eas e n pa o he s udy a ea whe eas high d ainage densi y is ound
sca e ed in all pa s o he a ea. Table 5 shows ha highe d ainage densi y ela es o low g oundwa e po en ial and
ice e sa.
[48], d ainage densi y wi h espec o g oundwa e po en ial is de e mined by analyzing he d ainage densi y calcula ed
using he s eam leng h wi hin he s udy a ea. The highe he d ainage densi y, he lesse he in il a ion capaci y o he
e ain, which in u n means he lesse he g oundwa e po en iali y. This is because much o wa e coming as ain all
goes as un o .
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
1415
The esul shows ha Jos No h occupies an a ea o 29,100 Hec a es, o which ege a ion occupies he highes wi h 9344
Hec a es (33%). This is ollowed by se lemen wi h 8217 Hec a es (28%), cul i a ion co e s 699 Hec a es (24%), and
ba e su ace occupies 421 (14%) while he wa e body co e age is abou 330 (1%) Hec a es (14%).
The LU/LC o an a ea p o ides impo an indica ions o he ex en o g oundwa e equi emen and u iliza ion. The
e ec o land use/co e is demons a ed ei he by educing uno and acili a ing, o by apping wa e on hei lea .
Vege a ion is an excellen si e o g oundwa e explo a ion [49]. The a ea wi h buil -up land is poo o i .
Table 9 Weigh assigned o land use/ land co e
Ras e laye
% in luence
Field alue
Rank
Scale alue
LULC
1.7%
Vege a ion
Ve y High
5
Se lemen
High
4
Cul i a ion
Medium
3
Ba e Land
Low
2
Wa e Body
Ve y low
1
Figu e 11 Landuse/Lando e o Jos No h
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
1416
3.9. Iden i ica ion o he g ound wa e p ospec zones om he hema ic maps
In an a emp o show he g oundwa e p ospec s zones in Jos No h L.G.A., all he hema ic maps o he ac o s
in luencing he g oundwa e echa ge in he a ea we e weighed and in eg a ed in he o de sugges ed by [44].
P epa ing he g oundwa e (po en ial) map he ollowing p ocedu e was ollowed. This was p epa ed by in eg a ing
he in o ma ion om he geology, d ainage densi y, lineamen densi y, land use land co e , ain all, ele a ion and slope
map in A cGIS.
G oundwa e po en ial zones we e delinea ed by eclassi ying in o di e en po en ial zones; low po en ial, sligh high
po en ial, high po en ial, mo e po en ial and mos po en ial (See Figu e 12). The map p oduced showed ha he
g oundwa e po en ial o he s udy a ea is ela ed mainly o ain all, lineamen s, geology, slope, ele a ion, d ainage and
landuse/landco e . I can also be seen om he map ha he a eas wi h e y good g oundwa e po en ial a e wi hin
he No he n pa o he map while he a eas by low po en ial a e owa ds he Eas e n a ea. I can be obse ed om he
hema ic maps gene a ed ha he a eas wi h e y good g oundwa e po en ial in he No he n a ea we e cha ac e ized
by high lineamen densi y and a e o la s a eas o gen le slope.
Figu e 12 Map showing g oundwa e po en ial zones in Jos No h L.G.A
3.10. Es ima ion o he a ea co e age o he g ound wa e po en ial zones
The a ea co e age occupied by he g oundwa e po en ial zones was es ima ed in A cGIS by con e ing he po en ial
si es o ec o o ma and using he calcula e geome y ool in he a ibu es able o calcula e he a ea o each o he
po en ial zones. Table 10 ep esen s he es ima ed a ea co e age o he g oundwa e po en ial zones in squa e
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
1417
kilome e and in pe cen age. Table 11 shows he esul ing weigh o c i e ia based on he o e all pai wise compa ison
while Table 12 shows P incipal Eigen Value o he Analysis.
Table 10 A ea co e age o g oundwa e po en ial zone
G ound Wa e Po en ial Zones
A ea in Hec a es
Pe cen age (%)
LOW POTENTIAL
86.700171
22.092
SLIGHTLY HIGH
117.686743
29.987
HIGH
137.890192
35.135
VERY HIGH
50.179697
12.786
Table 11 O e all pai wise compa ison o all c i e ia
Ca ego y
P io i y
Rank
(+)
(-)
1.
Rain all
32.2%
1
9.1%
9.1%
2
Lineamen densi y
27.5%
2
8.7%
8.7%
3
Geology
17.7%
3
6.0%
6.0%
4
D ainage densi y
11.6%
4
4.4%
4.4%
5
Ele a ion
6.1%
5
2.4%
2.4%
6
Slope
2.8%
6
1.1%
1.1%
7
Land use/ Land co e
2.1%
7
0.9%
0.9%
Numbe o Compa ison = 21, Consis ency Ra io CR =8.9
Table 12 P incipal Eigen Value
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
1
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
2
0.50
1
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
9.00
3
0.30
0.33
1
2.00
6.00
7.00
9.00
4
0.25
0.25
0.50
1
2.00
8.00
9.00
5
0.20
0.20
0.17
0.50
1
5.00
3.00
6
0.17
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.2O
1
2.00
7
0.14
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.33
0.50
1
P incipal Eigen Value = 7.714
4. Conclusion
This s udy employed an in eg a ed GIS and emo e sensing app oach o delinea e g oundwa e po en ial zones in Jos
No h me opolis. A key inding highligh s he signi ican nega i e impac o u baniza ion on cul i a ed land and na u al
ege a ion, wi h an obse ed u ban g ow h a e o 0.53 km²/yea d i ing inc eased wa e demand. Fu he mo e, he
analysis e ealed ha a la ge pe cen age o he s udy a ea alls wi hin he mode a e g oundwa e po en ial
classi ica ion.
Rapid u ban expansion in Jos No h, d i en by u al-u ban mig a ion, educa ional and esiden ial de elopmen ,
economic g ow h, and anspo a ion ne wo k e olu ion, has esul ed in he enc oachmen o u ban a eas on o u al
lands. This g ow h unde sco es he need o balanced dis ibu ion o in as uc u al acili ies o achie e sus ainable
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421
1418
u ban de elopmen . To assess g oundwa e po en ial objec i ely, a weigh ed o e lay model wi hin he GIS amewo k
was implemen ed, u ilizing se en key hema ic pa ame e s de i ed om spa ial analysis: a e age annual ain all,
geology, lineamen densi y, ele a ion, slope, land use/land co e , and d ainage densi y. The ela i e weigh s o hese
pa ame e s we e sys ema ically assigned based on hei in luence on g oundwa e occu ence using es ablished mul i-
c i e ia decision analysis (MCDA) p inciples.
The inal g oundwa e po en ial zona ion map demons a es a dis inc spa ial pa e n. A eas classi ied as ha ing high
g oundwa e po en ial a e p edominan ly clus e ed wi hin he no he n sec o s o he s udy a ea. Con e sely, zones
designa ed as mode a e and low g oundwa e po en ial a e dis ibu ed ac oss he wide Jos No h me opolis.
Recommenda ion
• In es iga e U baniza ion Impac s: Conduc a ge ed s udies on popula ion g ow h and u ban expansion o
quan i y hei impac s on wa e demand, land co e , and g oundwa e echa ge, enabling e idence-based
mi iga ion s a egies.
• Ta ge Explo a ion in High-Po en ial Zones: P io i ize g oundwa e explo a ion and de elopmen e o s in he
iden i ied "Ve y Good" po en ial zones loca ed in he No he n pa o he s udy a ea.
• Ensu e Equi able Wa e Access: Implemen policies and in as uc u e o gua an ee su icien , sa e, accep able,
physically accessible, and a o dable po able wa e o all esiden s.
• In eg a e Geospa ial Technologies: Manda e he sys ema ic in eg a ion o emo e sensing and GIS echniques
in o g oundwa e explo a ion and moni o ing p o ocols o enhanced e ain analysis and ea u e mapping.
• Main ain a Dynamic Spa ial Da abase: Es ablish a dedica ed pla o m o egula ly upda ing he g oundwa e
po en ial map and hema ic laye s wi h new hyd ogeological da a o suppo in o med decision-making.
Compliance wi h e hical s anda ds
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s exp ess p o ound g a i ude o he pe sonnel o he S a egic Space Applica ions (SSA) depa men a he
Na ional Space Resea ch and De elopmen Agency (NASRDA) in Abuja, as well as he s a o he A ican Regional Cen e
o Space Science and Technology Educa ion-English (ARCSSTE-E) in Ile-I e, Osun S a e, Nige ia, o hei in aluable
suppo and signi ican con ibu ions essen ial o he success ul comple ion o his esea ch.
Disclosu e o con lic o in e es
No con lic o in e es is o be disclosed
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