Assessment of groundwater potential in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State, Nigeria

 Corresponding author: Ezekiel Ojei Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Assessment of groundwater potential in Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State, Nigeria Ezekiel Ojei 1, *, Babalogbon Bowale Ayodeji 2, Jagila Jatinku 1, Epsar Philip Kopteer 1, Jibatswen Agbutsokwa Hosea 1, Moses Olorunfemi Areh 1, Anthony Chijioke Ukaefu 3, Abraham Ben-Obaje 1, James Adah John 1 and Sambo Abubakar Nasiru 1 1 National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA), Abuja, Nigeria. 2 African Regional Centre for Space Science and Technology EducationEnglish (Arcsste-E), Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. 3 No. 40 Graingers Mill, Muckamore, Antrim, Northern Ireland. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 Publication history: Received on 22 June 2025; revised on 12 August 2025; accepted on 15 August 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.27.2.2822 Abstract This study addresses critical groundwater scarcity in Jos North, Nigeria (291 km², pop. 429,300), driven by rapid urbanization, population growth, and variable hydrogeology. Situated in basement complex terrain with limited primary porosity, the area faces acute water stress despite interventions like boreholes. Leveraging established methodologies, the research integrates Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to delineate groundwater potential zones. Literature underscores the efficacy of lineament density (proxy for fracture-controlled porosity) and multi-criteria analysis (e.g., rainfall, geology, land use) in similar terrains. Core objectives included generating thematic maps of controlling factors and synthesizing a groundwater potential map for sustainable resource planning. Seven thematic layers were developed: geology (18.7% weight), lineament density (18.2%), rainfall (21.4%), drainage density (11.6%), slope (2.2%), elevation (4.4%), and land use/land cover (1.7%). data from landsat 8, SRTM DEM, rainfall stations, and geological surveys were processed using ArcGIS 10.4.1, ERDAS IMAGINE, and PCI Geomatics. AHP pairwise comparisons assigned class weights (e.g., lineament density >1.5945/km² = "Very High" potential; slope <3.224° = optimal recharge). Integration via Weighted Overlay revealed four zones: Very High (12.8%, Northern sectors), High (35.1%), Slightly High (30.0%), and Low (22.1%, Eastern areas). Rainfall (32.2% priority) and lineaments (27.5%) were dominant factors. Urban expansion (0.53 km²/year) reduced recharge areas (vegetation fell to 33%, settlements rose to 28%), intensifying water stress. The study confirms RS-GIS-AHP as a robust framework for groundwater zonation in complex terrains, with 67.9% of Jos North having moderate-to-high potential. Key recommendations include: (1) Prioritizing exploration in Northern "Very High" zones (high lineament density, gentle slopes); (2) Implementing policies for equitable water access and recharge conservation; (3) Institutionalizing geospatial techniques in state water planning; and (4) Maintaining a dynamic groundwater database. These measures are vital for balancing resource use amid ongoing urban pressures. Keywords: Groundwater Potential; Lineaments; Geospatial; Scarcity; Geology 1. Introduction Urban regions are dynamic networks that are characterized by fast population increase, a scarcity of surface water, and a high demand for groundwater. A region's groundwater potential is determined by a variety of factors, and it fluctuates World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1401 from place to place as conditions change. Groundwater potential has also been reported to vary within a short distance and within the same geological formation [1]; [2]. Hard rock terrain has a limited quantity compared to soft rock aquifers with high yield capacity, and is generally concentrated in the weathered zone and fractured zone. To avoid financial loss and the waste of time and effort in such a case, effective identification of potential zones is required. This type of accurate identification is feasible with geological and hydrogeological knowledge. In groundwater hydrology, evaluating potentiality is a critical domain in the planning and management of groundwater resources, both in terms of occurrences and accumulation [3]; [4]. There are a variety of methodologies and tools available for determining groundwater likely zones in a given location [5]; [6]; [7], with tools like remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) being the most useful and cost-effective. GIS, RS, multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), and resistivity survey were used in the current study to classify groundwater likely zones in and around Raipur. Various studies have been carried out all over the world, including in Chattisharg, to identify prospective groundwater zones. Geospatial information systems (GIS) and mathematical models [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]; [13]; 14]; [15]; [16]. The successful application of geology, geomorphology, rainfall, land use, and land cover are emphasized in this research the groundwater potential model is created by combining the weighted index analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method with the drainage density, slope, groundwater level depth, soil texture, and lineament [17]; [18]; [19]; [9]; [10]; [20]. The hydrogeology of a region is influenced by a variety of geological and hydrological factors. Topography, structure, and stratigraphy are some geological features [21]. Because underground morphology is inaccessible, indirect methods have been developed to observe the underground morphology and processes that affect water movement and storage [22]. Estimation, modeling, and remote sensing are examples of such procedures. Remote sensing for data collection in difficult places and GIS for faster and less expensive processing is becoming more useful and needed [23]. Numerous terms have been used to describe lineament, geologic lineament, tectonic lineament, photo lineament, fracture traces and photo lines or geophysical lineament based on the assumed origin of the feature or sometimes the data source from which it has been derived [24]. [25] originally proposed the term lineament for significant lines of landscape caused by joints and fault revealing the architecture of the rock basement. The most widely used definition is by [26]. Lineament are structural line such as faults. They often represent zones of fracturing and increased secondary porosity and permeability and therefore of enhanced groundwater occurrence and movement [27]. Variations in size, shape, and orientation of these lineaments are mainly attributed to style, the nature of deformation and geological behaviour of the rocks [28]. MCDA is a technique with numerous applications in various fields. It is mostly used to solve complex issues by splitting them into portions and then solving and integrating each section to arrive at the final conclusion. It's employed in situations where making decisions is difficult and time-consuming. Because MCDA is seen as one of the more approachable techniques when compared to others, the AHP is highlighted as a key component. Thomas L. Saaty created and popularized the approach in 1977 [29]. For quantitative analysis, the AHP [30] is often used. It is a reliable decisionmaking tool for a variety of situations with varying criteria and natures, and it may also be used to assess the likely zones of groundwater occurrence considered in this study. Because of its ability to cope with difficult situations and make appropriate conclusions, the international scientific community has deemed AHP to be a very important instrument. The concept of pairwise comparison was first presented via this method. In the lack of a quantitative rating, each controlling factor's rank can still be manipulated by properly assigning the rank of each parameter derived from the literature study and field observation according to its value. With the help of AHP, the pairwise comparison is turned into a collection of integers in this scenario. To classify it into different ranks based on its relative importance [30]; [31]. The pairwise comparison methodology is a theoretically based method for calculating weights that signify their relative importance. When all feasible pairs from the eigenvector of the square reciprocal matrix (normalized matrix) are compared, the best fit yields a set of weights that can be used to allocate weight to thematic layers. [32] used Landsat imageries for landuse/landcover mapping and lineament analysis for groundwater prospecting in Ado-Ekiti, south-western Nigeria. Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission Digital Elevation Model was used for drainage network extraction, slope and geomorphological analysis. Thematic maps were generated, analyzed in terms of hydrogeological importance and reclassified for integration using appropriate software. The groundwater potential maps generated were validated against the existing groundwater yield data. This methodology provided improvements in the understanding of the hydrogeological characteristics of the basement terrain. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1402 Geology influences groundwater movement, storage and subsequently, potential [33]. In a study on three sites, it was noted that geology is also a major theme in groundwater analysis [34]. A study by [35], assigned the second highest weight to the geology of all the themes used for groundwater potential in Puruliya district, West Bengal, India. Geology significantly influences groundwater fluxes, both on the surface and subsurface [36]. In typical basement complex areas such as the study area, the occurrence of groundwater in recoverable quantity as well as its circulation is controlled by geological factors i.e. faults, joints and fracture zones [37]. The role of Land use/ Land cover (LU/LC) on groundwater potential is obvious and wide. Types of land cover/ land use are forest plantations, crop farms, and open denuded soils surfaces, water bodies like lakes and rivers and settlements. Each LU/LC has a certain influence on groundwater potential indirectly through infiltration, runoff and evaporation [38]. Vegetation cover minimizes evaporation and runoff while it increases infiltration. Hence vegetation increases chances of groundwater recharge and can be a good indication of high groundwater potential [39]. Forest plantations require large amounts of water, which they abstract from the vadose zone and in other cases from beneath the water table hence forest plantations indicate high groundwater potential. In settlements and built-up areas, infiltration is low because of roads, pavements and buildings covering the soil surface and consequently, low groundwater potentials are expected. Jos North has been an area faced with challenges of water unavailability in most of the resident area. The area has been experiencing rapid increase in population and infrastructural development, which resulted to increased scarcity of water to meet the demand of the population in the area. Government efforts have yielded little success in increasing groundwater availability through boreholes and artisan wells, hence, the need to employ the use of Remote Sensing and Geographic information system (GIS) to analyse these areas and estimate its groundwater potential in Jos North local government of plateau state, Nigeria. The study aims to assess the groundwater potential in Jos North local government area of plateau state, Nigeria with the specific objectives is to: develop thematic maps of factors influencing groundwater potentials in the study area and produce the groundwater potential zones of the study area. 1.1. Study area 1.1.1. Location, Extent and Population Figure 1 Study area map World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1403 The study area is located in Jos North Local Government Area, plateau State, Nigeria. It has an area of 291 km2 and a population of 429,300 at the 2006 census [40]. Jos is a semi city located between latitude 7° E 9.5179" N to 7° E9.2182 N and longitude 6° E9.8965" E to 6° E8.8583" E. (See Plate 1). The LGA shares boundaries with Bauchi State. 1.1.2. Climate Nigeria as a country has a tropical climate with variable rainy and dry seasons depending on the location. Jos plateau forest savannah, montane grassland, mosaic ecoregion the climatic condition of Jos North in plateau State with an altitude of 1,217m (3,993ft) above sea level, Jos climate is closer to temperate than that of the vast majority of Nigeria. The average monthly temperature ranges from 21-25oC (70-77of) at this time the environment is very hot then from mid-November to late January the temperature drop as low as 7oC(45oF). 1.1.3. Vegetation With long grasses and a few scant trees, the vegetation of Jos North local government of plateau state, the area, and its environs falls under the Tropical Guinea Savannah Belt. The vegetation here is dominated by thinly spaced trees, plants, shrubs, and tall grasses. During the rainy season, the terrain is lush with fresh leaves and tall grasses, but during the dry season, the ground is barren, which shows charred trees and grasses that have been burned. The trees, which grow in clusters, can reach a height of six metres and are mixed with grasses that reach a height of three metres. The majority of the trees in this area are found in fracture zones within plutonic bodies and on pegmatite ridges. There is appropriate soil cover and groundwater retention as a result. The locust bean, she butters, and isoberlinia trees are among these trees. However, due to constant human usage of the forest and the resulting deciduous and savannah vegetation, the many types of vegetation are not in their native luxuriant state. The vegetation in this area therefore includes both primary and secondary. The secondary vegetation implies that the natural vegetation is being altered and as such agricultural crops such as yam, cocoa, maize, sweet potato, and some fruit crops are cultivated. The most widely grown crops are, cocoa yam. 1.1.4. Geologgy and Geomorphology The regional and local geology were ascertained from literature review obtained from the Federal Survey Department (FSD) Lagos, on the geology and landform in Nigeria as well as from the plateau state master plan. Several rock outcrops are found all over the place extrusion of the basement complex. These outcrops fall into the Jos sand stone formation which consist of siltstone and imbedded clays all of cretaceous age. Laterite is well developed in some places. The weather in the area has resulted in a gentle, rolling, almost flat topography, with mostly sandy fertile soil. The other Precambrian units of metamorphic and sedimentary rocks are the types found around this place. Along streams that cut through the rock outcrops, gradients are steeper. Where the valley bottom is approached, there is a general convex steeping of hill slopes with ironstones frequently occurring at the break in the slope of the place. 1.1.5. Socio-Economic Activities The Study examines the socio-economic impact of colonial Tin mining on Jos plateau State. Tin mining is said to be one of the oldest industries known to mankind. It has been in existence long before the coming into contact with the European. From the Nok culture that tin had been worked in Jos areas several centuries before the 19th century. The thesis examines the activities of colonial Tin mining and socio-economic effect on the Jos plateau. The imposition of the British colonial rule on the Jos Plateau State area as from 1902 onwards had serious socio-economic implication for the people of that area. The colonial rule, there were few foreigners who had established contact with the people of Jos plateau. These people were mainly the neighbouring ethnic groups like the Hausa Fulani, jukun, among other, however the imposition of clonial rule led to the massive influx of immigrant both within and outside Nigeria to the area. These include Europeans, Lebanese, Indians, chadians, Cameroonians and some part of Nigeria such as the Hausa Fulani, igbo, Yoruba, Urhobo et cetera. It makes the increase in population led to the growth of Jos which later become both the administrative and commercial capital of plateau state. 2. Materials and method This part discusses data types and sources, data analysis procedure, and analytical techniques employed in the study, all of which will aid in achieving the thesis's defined objectives. The figure below shows steps involved in mapping groundwater potential for Jos North. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1404 Figure 2 Methodology workflow 2.1. Data Types and Sources The data used for this study include geology map, rainfall data and satellite imagery. The data and their sources are given in the table below. Table 1 Data Types and sources S/n Type Scale/ Resolution Date Source 1 Land sat8 30m 2020 Earth Explorer 2 Soil 1:1,300,000 2018 Wageningen Netherlands SRTM DEM 30m 2019 Earth Explorer 3 Geology 1:500,000 2006 (NGS) Nigerian Geological Survey of Nigerian. 4 Rainfall 2018 Nigerian Metrological Agency (NIMET) 2.2. Software Framework The assessment utilized a dedicated geospatial software suite. ESRI ArcGIS 10.4.1 served as the primary platform for spatial analysis, interpolation, and integration. ERDAS IMAGINE 2014 was employed for critical remote sensing tasks, specifically Landsat 8 image processing, layer stacking (bands 5, 6, 4), sub-setting the study area, and supervised land use/land cover (LULC) classification. PCI Geomatics 2018 was applied for the extraction of lineament features from satellite imagery, a key indicator of subsurface structures influencing groundwater. 2.3. Core Data Processing Landsat 8 imagery (2018) underwent pre-processing and supervised classification in ERDAS IMAGINE to generate the essential LULC map, categorizing pixels into Built-up, Vegetation, Bare Ground, Agricultural Area, and Water Bodies. Multiple thematic layers were systematically constructed within ArcGIS. The annual rainfall map was derived using the World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1405 Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation method within the Spatial Analyst toolbox, processing point data (locations and mean annual rainfall) from NIMET meteorology stations imported via a .csv file. A slope map (% gradient) was calculated from SRTM elevation data and classified into Near Level (0-1%), Very Gentle (1-3%), and Gentle (3-5%) slopes, critical for understanding infiltration versus runoff dynamics. 2.4. Thematic Map Processing for Hydrogeomorphic Parameters Further hydro-geomorphic parameters were developed. Drainage density, a measure of stream length per unit area, was calculated, with stream ordering performed according to Strahler's method to understand network development and its inverse relationship with percolation potential. The LULC map generated in ERDAS was finalized as a key thematic input, representing surface conditions impacting recharge. Lineaments, identified as tectonic linear features (faults, fractures) crucial for secondary porosity, were extracted using PCI Geomatics. Their influence zones were defined using multi-ring buffers (50m, 100m, 150m, 200m), with intersecting buffers flagged as high-potential indicators. 2.5. Thematic Map Processing for Geological Control The underlying geological framework, a fundamental control on groundwater occurrence, flow, and storage capacity (porosity/permeability), was established through a detailed geology map. This integrated field verification, literature review [41]; [42], and visual interpretation of satellite data. The lithology of the study area, dominated by calcareous and argillaceous sedimentary rocks of the Raipur group, was classified into five distinct units: Alluvium, Stromatolite Dolomitic Limestone, Laterite, Stromatolitic Dolomitic Limestone with Sandstone, and Shale. 2.6. Integrated Analysis and Zoning The final groundwater potential zoning employed the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) following [43] for multi-criteria decision analysis. Prior to integration, individual classes within each thematic map (Lineament buffer zones, LULC classes, Drainage density classes, Geology units, Rainfall zones) were comparatively evaluated. Eight pairwise comparison matrices were constructed to objectively assign relative weights to each class based on its contribution to groundwater potential. These weighted thematic layers were then integrated within the GIS environment to synthesize and classify the study area into five distinct groundwater potential zones: Very Good, Good, Moderate, Low, and Very Low. Table 2 Procedure of Assigning Weightages in Analytical Hierarchy Process Process Scale Degree of preference Explanation 1 Equal importance Two elements contribute equally to the objective 3 Moderate importance Experience and judge slightly favour one element over another 5 Strong or essential importance Experience and judgment strongly favour one element another 7 Very strong importance One element is favoured very strongly over. Its dominance is demonstrated in practice 9 Extreme importance The evidence favouring one element over another is of the highest possible order of affirmation 2, 4, 6, 8 Values for inverse comparison Can be used to express intermediate values Source: [43] The final groundwater potential zone map was generated in ArcGIS 10.4.1 using the Weighted Overlay tool (Spatial Analyst module). This integrated the processed thematic layers through a GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation framework. Saaty’s Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was applied to derive the critical input parameters: class ranks within each thematic layer and the relative weights assigned to the layers themselves based on their contribution to groundwater potential. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1406 3. Results and analysis 3.1. Introduction Groundwater prospective zones were analysed on the basis of lineament density, drainage density, geology, land use/land cover, rainfall, slope and elevation. The parameters in each factor were given weight and were related to groundwater potential as adopted from [44]. The groundwater potentiality of Jos north was carried out by analysing the surface features as mentioned above. The weights of the surface features contributing to groundwater prospects in the study area were synthesized by pair-wise comparison using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The thematic maps of the surface features contributing to groundwater were produced in ArcGIS 10.1 environment and the results are presented in Figures 3 to 10 while the weights of the factors are represented in Tables 3 to 9 3.2. Elevation The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was generated from the Shuttle Radar Topographic mission (SRTM-90) data. Figure 3 shows the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) used to build the topographic elevation factor values and Table 4 represents the weight of elevation and potentiality for groundwater prospects in the area of study. The result shows that areas with low elevation (123m - 274m) values have very good groundwater potential and places on high elevation have low water potential. This is because places on low elevation will give more chance for groundwater accumulation [45]. Topographic data is a vital element in determining the water table elevations [46]. The combination of fractures with topographically low ground can also serve as the best aquifer horizon [47]. Table 3 Weight assigned to Elevation RASTER LAYER %INFLUENCE FIELD VALUE RANK SCALE VALUE ELEVATION 4.4% 0-23 VERY LOW 1 23.0001-68 LOW 2 68.0001-111 MEDIUM 3 111.0001-151 HIGH 4 151.0001-180 VERY HIGH 5 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1407 Figure 3 Digital Elevation Model of Jos North L.G.A. 3.3. Geology Geology is the main control on the primary porosity and permeability of rock. Higher porosity contributes to higher groundwater storage, and higher permeability contributes to higher groundwater yields. Figure 4 is characterized with migmatite rock type, thickness of weathering, fracture density etc. The rock has a sympathetic character for groundwater accumulation owing to their primary porosities and permeability. The cretaceous rocks formation was assumed to have better groundwater accumulation than other rock type due to secondary structures, joint, and secondary porosity. Table 4 Weight assigned to geology Raster Layer %Influence Field Value Rank Scale Value Geology 18.7% Basement Complex Low 1 Younger Granites Midium 2 Tertiary To Recent Volcanics High 3 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1408 Figure 4 Geology of Jos North L.G.A. 3.4. Drainage Network and Drainage Density The drainage density was calculated directly in ArcMap using the line density in the spatial analyst extension. In the study area, mainly three (3) drainage density classes were identified and mapped. The drainage network is presented in Figure 5, Figure 6 represents the drainage density of the study area, and also the weightage is shown in Table 5. Very high drainage density is found in the North Eastern part of the study area whereas high drainage density is found scattered in all parts of the area. Table 5 shows that higher drainage density relates to low groundwater potential and vice versa. [48], drainage density with respect to groundwater potential is determined by analyzing the drainage density calculated using the stream length within the study area. The higher the drainage density, the lesser the infiltration capacity of the terrain, which in turn means the lesser the groundwater potentiality. This is because much of water coming as rainfall goes as run off. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1415 The result shows that Jos North occupies an area of 29,100 Hectares, of which vegetation occupies the highest with 9344 Hectares (33%). This is followed by settlement with 8217 Hectares (28%), cultivation covers 699 Hectares (24%), and bare surface occupies 421 (14%) while the water body coverage is about 330 (1%) Hectares (14%). The LU/LC of an area provides important indications of the extent of groundwater requirement and utilization. The effect of land use/cover is demonstrated either by reducing runoff and facilitating, or by trapping water on their leaf. Vegetation is an excellent site for groundwater exploration [49]. The area with built-up land is poor for it. Table 9 Weight assigned to land use/ land cover Raster layer % influence Field value Rank Scale value LULC 1.7% Vegetation Very High 5 Settlement High 4 Cultivation Medium 3 Bare Land Low 2 Water Body Very low 1 Figure 11 Landuse/Landover of Jos North World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1416 3.9. Identification of the ground water prospect zones from the thematic maps In an attempt to show the groundwater prospects zones in Jos North L.G.A., all the thematic maps of the factors influencing the groundwater recharge in the area were weighed and integrated in the order suggested by [44]. Preparing the groundwater (potential) map the following procedure was followed. This was prepared by integrating the information from the geology, drainage density, lineament density, land use land cover, rainfall, elevation and slope map in ArcGIS. Groundwater potential zones were delineated by reclassifying into different potential zones; low potential, slight high potential, high potential, more potential and most potential (See Figure 12). The map produced showed that the groundwater potential of the study area is related mainly to rainfall, lineaments, geology, slope, elevation, drainage and landuse/landcover. It can also be seen from the map that the areas with very good groundwater potential are within the Northern part of the map while the areas by low potential are towards the Eastern area. It can be observed from the thematic maps generated that the areas with very good groundwater potential in the Northern area were characterized by high lineament density and are of flats areas or gentle slope. Figure 12 Map showing groundwater potential zones in Jos North L.G.A 3.10. Estimation of the area coverage of the ground water potential zones The area coverage occupied by the groundwater potential zones was estimated in ArcGIS by converting the potential sites to vector format and using the calculate geometry tool in the attributes table to calculate the area of each of the potential zones. Table 10 represents the estimated area coverage of the groundwater potential zones in square World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1417 kilometre and in percentage. Table 11 shows the resulting weight for criteria based on the overall pairwise comparison while Table 12 shows Principal Eigen Value of the Analysis. Table 10 Area coverage of groundwater potential zone Ground Water Potential Zones Area in Hectares Percentage (%) LOW POTENTIAL 86.700171 22.092 SLIGHTLY HIGH 117.686743 29.987 HIGH 137.890192 35.135 VERY HIGH 50.179697 12.786 Table 11 Overall pairwise comparison for all criteria Category Priority Rank (+) (-) 1. Rainfall 32.2% 1 9.1% 9.1% 2 Lineament density 27.5% 2 8.7% 8.7% 3 Geology 17.7% 3 6.0% 6.0% 4 Drainage density 11.6% 4 4.4% 4.4% 5 Elevation 6.1% 5 2.4% 2.4% 6 Slope 2.8% 6 1.1% 1.1% 7 Land use/ Land cover 2.1% 7 0.9% 0.9% Number of Comparison = 21, Consistency Ratio CR =8.9 Table 12 Principal Eigen Value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 1 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 2 0.50 1 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 9.00 3 0.30 0.33 1 2.00 6.00 7.00 9.00 4 0.25 0.25 0.50 1 2.00 8.00 9.00 5 0.20 0.20 0.17 0.50 1 5.00 3.00 6 0.17 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.2O 1 2.00 7 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.33 0.50 1 Principal Eigen Value = 7.714 4. Conclusion This study employed an integrated GIS and remote sensing approach to delineate groundwater potential zones in Jos North metropolis. A key finding highlights the significant negative impact of urbanization on cultivated land and natural vegetation, with an observed urban growth rate of 0.53 km²/year driving increased water demand. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that a larger percentage of the study area falls within the moderate groundwater potential classification. Rapid urban expansion in Jos North, driven by rural-urban migration, educational and residential development, economic growth, and transportation network evolution, has resulted in the encroachment of urban areas onto rural lands. This growth underscores the need for balanced distribution of infrastructural facilities to achieve sustainable World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 27(02), 1400-1421 1418 urban development. To assess groundwater potential objectively, a weighted overlay model within the GIS framework was implemented, utilizing seven key thematic parameters derived from spatial analysis: average annual rainfall, geology, lineament density, elevation, slope, land use/land cover, and drainage density. The relative weights for these parameters were systematically assigned based on their influence on groundwater occurrence using established multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) principles. The final groundwater potential zonation map demonstrates a distinct spatial pattern. Areas classified as having high groundwater potential are predominantly clustered within the northern sectors of the study area. Conversely, zones designated as moderate and low groundwater potential are distributed across the wider Jos North metropolis. Recommendation • Investigate Urbanization Impacts: Conduct targeted studies on population growth and urban expansion to quantify their impacts on water demand, land cover, and groundwater recharge, enabling evidence-based mitigation strategies. • Target Exploration in High-Potential Zones: Prioritize groundwater exploration and development efforts in the identified "Very Good" potential zones located in the Northern part of the study area. • Ensure Equitable Water Access: Implement policies and infrastructure to guarantee sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible, and affordable potable water for all residents. • Integrate Geospatial Technologies: Mandate the systematic integration of remote sensing and GIS techniques into groundwater exploration and monitoring protocols for enhanced terrain analysis and feature mapping. • Maintain a Dynamic Spatial Database: Establish a dedicated platform for regularly updating the groundwater potential map and thematic layers with new hydrogeological data to support informed decision-making. Compliance with ethical standards Acknowledgments The authors express profound gratitude to the personnel of the Strategic Space Applications (SSA) department at the National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) in Abuja, as well as the staff of the African Regional Centre for Space Science and Technology Education-English (ARCSSTE-E) in Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria, for their invaluable support and significant contributions essential to the successful completion of this research. Disclosure of conflict of interest No conflict of interest is to be disclosed References [1] Dar. A.SankarK.DarM. A. (2010). Remote sensing technology and geographic information system modeling: an integrated approach towards the mapping of groundwater potential zones in Hardrock terrain, Mamundiyar basin. Journal of Hydrology394 (3–4), 285–295 [2] Nasir M. J. Khan S. Zahid H. 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