Future opportunities for products derived from black soldier fly (BSF) treatment as animal feed and fertilizer - A systematic review

Siddiqui, Shahida Anusha e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed om black
soldie ly (BSF) ea men as animal eed and e ilize - A
sys ema ic e iew
En i onmen , De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Siddiqui, Shahida Anusha e al. (2024) : Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s
de i ed om black soldie ly (BSF) ea men as animal eed and e ilize - A sys ema ic e iew,
En i onmen , De elopmen and Sus ainabili y, ISSN 1573-2975, Sp inge Ne he lands, Do d ech ,
Vol. 26, Iss. 12, pp. 30273-30354,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10668-024-04673-8
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REVIEW
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack
soldie ly (BSF) ea men asanimal eed and e ilize ‑
Asys ema ic e iew
ShahidaAnushaSiddiqui1,2 · AnkushSubhashGadge3· Muza a Hasan4·
TeguhRahayu5· Se geyNikolae ichPo e kin6· I oFe nando7 ·
Robe oCas o‑Muñoz8
Recei ed: 24 Augus 2023 / Accep ed: 18 Feb ua y 2024 / Published online: 28 Ma ch 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
The pu sui o no el ood p oduc s wi h good nu i ional alue o bo h di ec and indi ec
human consump ion is c ucial. Gi en he nu i ional bene i s o insec s and he sus ainabil-
i y o his so o a ming, using hem as ood o a med animals is a p omising al e na i e.
In his ega d, he black soldie ly (He me ia illucens) is mos capable o e icien ly con-
e ing a wide a ie y o o ganic ma e ials, om ood was e o manu e, in o insec biomass
gene a ing alue and closing nu ien loops as hey educe pollu ion and cos s. Thei la ae
ha e 29% a and 42% c ude p o ein, ye hey ha e mo e sa u a ed a s han mos insec s.
They don’ concen a e haza ds such as myco oxins o insec icides. Al hough apid de el-
opmen is expec ed, insec s emain unde u ilized in he animal eed indus y mainly due
o echnical, inancial, and egula o y ba ie s. The social s igmas and legal p ohibi ions
agains ea ing o ganisms ha ea was e a e added o ex an aboos acing insec consump-
ion. B idging he knowledge gap is c ucial o b ing oge he s akeholde s and o be e
unde s and he oppo uni ies and challenges o his no el indus y, so as o de elop guide-
lines on p oducing insec s on an indus ial scale o acili a e he wide use o BSF p oduc s
as animal eed, and e ilize .
Keywo ds Black soldie ly· Fe ilize · Animal eed· Oppo uni ies· Challenges· Fish·
Poul y
1 In oduc ion
Acco ding o esea ch, he wo ld’s popula ion will inc ease o oughly 9.6 billion people
by 2050. Hence, o eed he popula ion in 2050, he Food & Ag icul u al O ganiza ion
(FAO) p edic s ood p oduc ion will need o ise by 70%, wi h double mea p oduc ion
in bee , poul y, and hog (Higa e al., 2021). The e o e, he demand o mea and sea-
ood is specula ed o ise wi h he ising o aquacul u e business. Food manu ac u e s
ha e been compelled o de elop no el al e na i e p o ein-based p oduc s o muscle mea
in esponse o consume demand o sus ainable ood. The p oduc ion o muscle mea
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
om li es ock animals con ibu es o he de e io a ion o he ecosys em wo ldwide by
consuming land (30%) and i s wa e (8%) in addi ion o he gas emissions (14.5%) (o e
hose om anspo a ion) (Lamb e al., 2021; Siddiqui e al., 2022). Eu ophica ion and
de o es a ion, which accoun o g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (34%), a e u he
g owing p oblems b ough on by ca le p oduc ion (Siddiqui e al., 2022).
In se e al na ions h oughou he wo ld, insec s ha e ecen ly been ecognized as a
signi ican po en ial sou ce o sus ainable aw ma e ials o animal eeds. In e ms o
nu i ional make-up, amino acid p o ile, and eed accep ance—as a componen o a i-
ous animal species’ na u al die s—insec s sa is y he die a y needs o animals (Schi-
a one e al., 2018). The mass p oduc ion o insec -based p o eins could be a p omis-
ing al e na i e o animal mea . Insec -based p o ein p oduc ion equi es less land, emi s
low GHGs, has low eed- ood compa ibili y, and has he abili y o ans o m o ganic
was es in o aluable p o eins, making he insec s good o he en i onmen ( an Huis &
Oonincx, 2017). Fo ins ance, using insec s o biocon e was e ma e ials is an inno a-
i e s a egy and a s iking illus a ion o a ci cula economy ha is sus ainable (Soga i
e al., 2019).
Gi en hei nu i ional alue, minimal space demand, and high accep ance by a ious
animals, including ish, poul y, and ep iles who consume insec s in hei na u al habi a ,
insec s ha e a lo o p omise as eed (Makka , 2018). Fu he mo e, i is e hically accep -
able o p oduce insec s used as eed on o ganic was es like ish o al and dung (O e i e al.,
2022). High nu i ional quali ies, eed e iciency, and ep oduc i e capabili ies a e ad an-
ages o employing insec s as ca le eed (Van Huis & Gasco, 2023). Insec s can p o ide
by-p oduc s, a e na u ally ound in he die s o some li es ock (such as ish, poul y, and
pigs), and can ha e addi ional socioeconomic and en i onmen al ad an ages (De i & Kim,
2014). The e a e many ypes o insec s ha a e accep able, including mealwo ms, g ass-
hoppe s, c icke s, locus , house ly la ae, silkwo ms, and black soldie ly (BSF) and i s
la ae (BSFL) (Soga i e al., 2019).
BSFL, He me ia illucens L. (Dip e a: S a iomyidae), is hough o ha e he mos po en-
ial o use as eed. Insec p oduc ion depends on he en i onmen , bu gene ally speak-
ing, hey use less a ea and emi signi ican ly less wa e and GHG han con en ional eed
(Rehman e al., 2023). Assu ing a ce ain le el o sa e y is a c ucial componen in com-
me cializing any p oduc . A majo conce n wi h using insec s as ood is s anda diza ion,
because di e en insec s a e ea ed on di e en subs a es, and di e en insec -consuming
na ions consequen ly ha e di e en legal sys ems (Rie a, 2018). Laws go e ning he sa e y
o he subs a e ha insec s a e aised on, o example, may no be as s ingen in some
a eas as hey a e in he Eu opean Union (EU). Acco ding o expe s, he p ima y obs acle
p e en ing he sec o om aking o globally is he s ingen EU ules (Van Huis & Gasco,
2023). The poo es and mos ulne able people in socie y can gain om insec ea ing.
Insec s will e en ually eplace adi ional eed as a mo e a o dable and en i onmen ally
iendly sou ce o p o ein wi h signi ican echnological ad ancemen s. Insec s aised on
was e ha e he po en ial o educe and alue global was e sou ces (Heuel e al., 2021). By
making in es men s in enewable ene gy, insec a ming will become less dependen on
ossil uels (Su end a e al., 2016).
The BSF ma ke has a limi ed economic po en ial now, bu i is an icipa ed o ise ap-
idly o e he nex ew yea s. The global ma ke had a 2019 alue o $128 million bu is
expec ed o inc ease o $3.4 billion by 2030 (Foo & Li, 2021). In addi ion, Asia Paci ic
held he g ea es sha e o he global ma ke in 2019 in e ms o olume (57.1%) and alue
(almos 50%). The demand o mea and sea ood is expec ed o ise along wi h he global
popula ion, and he aquacul u e business is expanding as well (Foo & Li, 2021).
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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
In he pas en yea s, BSFL ea men has eme ged as a iable way o ea ing biode-
g adable ga bage ha may con ibu e o he h ee di icul ies lis ed. Biodeg adable was e is
ans o med in o wo p oduc s in his insec -based ea men : a la al biomass ich in p o-
eins and lipids ha may be u ilized in animal eed and a p ocessing esidue known as ass
ha can be used as e ilize in a a ie y o ways (Kuma e al., 2018). This me hod adhe es
o he concep s o a ci cula bio economy, in which he was e om one p ocess becomes
he esou ce in ano he because wo aluable goods a e p oduced ( an de Fels-Kle x e al.,
2020). One o he key ou comes o he p ocess was ass, which may ake he place o a-
di ional N e ilize s and educe he isk o global wa ming ha comes wi h using any ype
o con en ional N e ilize (Schmi & de V ies, 2020). Repo s indica e ha he p ocess
o ass p oduc ion om BSFL shows less en i onmen al damage, minimal u iliza ion o
ene gy and wa e , and less impac on global wa ming and o he impac ca ego ies han he
p ocess o o ganic e ilize (Lopes e al., 2022). I is in e es ing o no e ha he en i on-
men al ad an ages o p oducing insec ass a e s ongly ied o he subs a e sou ce used
o eed he la ae, wi h lesse impac s being documen ed when using non-u ilized was e
s eams ins ead o con en ional i ems like soybean meal (Heuel e al., 2021). F ass has
begun o d aw a en ion in ecen yea s due o i s ongoing p oduc ion in was e ea men
acili ies, plen y o plan nu ien s, and po en ial o help he ag ibusiness indus y gene -
a e cash (Luga o e al., 2020). Howe e , compa ed o he la al biomass ob ained h ough
he same me hod, ass has no ecei ed as much a en ion. Pa icula ly, he e a e se e al
in o ma ion gaps abou he applica ion o ass and i s ad an ages in a ming and o he
cul i a ion- ela ed ac i i ies (Lopes e al., 2022).
BSFL compos ing, using o ganic was es o p oduce ass, and also using BSF as animal
eed ha e all been he subjec o ex ensi e in es iga ion. This s udy will p o ide he eade
wi h an ex ensi e and succinc sou ce o knowledge by summa izing he esul s o selec ed
p io s udies on BSFL o ganic was e ea men and he po en ial use o BSF by-p oduc s
ha ocused on la ae and ass.
2 Me hodology
2.1 Eligibili y c i e ia, a icles sea ch s a egy andda ase de elopmen
We applied he ollowing inclusion in his e iew by ollowing popula ion, in e en ion,
compa a o s, ou comes, and s udy design (PICOS) as ollows: (1) Consume s; (2) BSF
p oduc s; (3) consume s udies ocused on u u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed om
he black soldie ly ea men as animal eed and e ilize ; (4) a icles consis en ly w i en
in English and published a e being pee e iewed. A e ca e ul e alua ion, a aw da ase
ha epo ed consume s udies ocused on u u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed om
he black soldie ly ea men as animal eed and e ilize was cons uc ed and ex ac ed.
The a icles we e ca e ully chosen and selec ed ollowing he P e e ed Repo ing I ems
o Sys ema ic Re iews (PRISMA) guidelines (Mohe e al., 2009). Published a icles we e
ex ac ed in o Mendeley e e ences manage (h ps:// www. mende ley. com/) wi h he ollow-
ing c i e ia: (1) name o he au ho ; (2) publica ion yea ; (3) yea o s udy; (4) ype o BSF
p oduc de i ed and e alua ed; and (5) esul s ob ained.
Ini ially, 1050 esul s we e achie ed h ough he Science Di ec da abase (h ps://
www. scien cedi ec . com/). F om hese, 200 a icles we e excluded due o no being
ela ed o ou opic, u u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed om he BSF ea men
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
as animal eed and e ilize and 185 a icles o being duplica es; 435 a icles we e
excluded as hey did no discuss he e ec s o di e en BSF p oduc s de i ed and 15
a icles o he language (non-English); 37 a icles we e excluded o non-pee e iewed
pape s/ inapp op ia e in e p e a ion o esul s/ non-a ailabili y o ull ex s; inally, 178
a icles emained o sys ema ic e iew o consume s udies ocused on u u e oppo -
uni ies o p oduc s de i ed om he black soldie ly ea men as animal eed and e -
ilize (Fig.1). The algo i hm sea ch key o he published a icle was se om 2012 o
2022, using he e ms (“Black soldie ly”) AND (“BSF p oduc s”) AND (“animal eed”
OR “ e ilize ” OR “Li e Cycle Assessmen ” OR “oppo uni ies and challenges”).
Fig. 1 Diag am low o a icle selec ion

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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
3 P oduc s de i ed omblack soldie ly ea men
3.1 Animal eed
Animal eed is a ood i em ha is consumed by he domes ic animals in he cou se o Ani-
mal Husband y. Animal eed is he mos impo an sou ce o nu i ion in ake by animals
ha ensu es imp o ed immuni y, accele a ed g ow h, and good heal h. Wi h an inc easing
ini ia i e o he p oduc ion o sus ainable p o ein animal eed ac s as a high- alue p o-
ein sou ce o bo h li es ock and ish. The comme cial li es ock a ming success hugely
depends on he cons an bes quali y nu i ious eeds supply. The li es ock and he animal
eed ma ke a e in ha mony wi h each o he in g ow h. The animal eed ma ke is expec ed
o su ge in he coming yea s wi h u iously g owing pe capi a consump ion o eggs, boile
mea , and milk (Henchion e al., 2021). By 2050, he FAO o he Uni ed Na ions p edic s
ha 70% mo e ood mus be p oduced globally ( an Dijk e al., 2021). Global mea ou pu
pe pe son is expec ed o ise by 0.3% P.A. o 35.4kg in e ail weigh equi alen by 2030,
acco ding o he OECD-FAO Ag icul u al Ou look 2021–2030 (OECD/FAO, 2021). As
pe he In e na ional Feed Indus y Fede a ion (IFIF), he manu ac u e o mea (poul y,
swine, and ca le) will e en double in he nea by u u e (Veldkamp & Bosch, 2015). The
majo i y o he inc ease in mea p oduc ion is, o e all, a ibu ed o de eloping egions,
which will p oduce 80% mo e han hey do now (h ps:// www. in es men moni o . ai). Addi-
ionally, i was no ed ha du ing he ollowing en yea s, bee consump ion is expec ed o
ise o 76 M , accoun ing o almos 16% o he o e all g ow h in mea consump ion o e
he baseline pe iod (OECD/FAO, 2021). Addi ionally, i is an icipa ed ha du ing he nex
en yea s, he global consump ion o pig mea would ise o 127 M , making up 28% o he
o e all g ow h in mea consump ion (OECD/FAO, 2021). As a e ec , i is an icipa ed ha
he ma ke o animal eed will be d i en by an inc ease in mea consump ion ollowed by
popula ion g ow h.
Cu en ly, ish meal, p ocessed animal p o eins, and soybean meal a e signi ican p o-
ein cons i uen s o animal eed (Veldkamp e al., 2012). Howe e , he usage o p ocessed
animal p o eins in animal eed is ou lawed in he Eu opean Union as a esul o TSE
laws (Fumiè e e al., 2009). The quan i y o land ha can be u ilised o soya a ming is
also cons ained globally, while o e ishing in he ocean has dec eased he popula ion o
small pelagic o age ish, which a e needed o p oduce ish meal and ish oil (Veldkamp
e al., 2012). In he p e ious i e yea s, p ices ha e isen due o he inc easing sca ci y
o esou ces needed o c ea e hese mo e in-demand ing edien s, which al eady accoun
o 60–70% o p oduc ion expenses (Veldkamp e al., 2012). Al e na i e (animal) p o ein
sou ces a e hus despe a ely needed o aquacul u e and ca le (Veldkamp e al., 2012).
Insec s a e an al e na e sou ce o animal p o ein ha can be sus ainably a med on o ganic
side s eams. Many ac o s con ibu e o hei high eed con e sion e iciency, bu hei cold
blood is mos ce ainly one o hem. On a d y ma e basis, insec s ha e a p o ein con en o
30–70% (Veldkamp e al., 2012). When a d ough o o he ex eme wea he e en b ough
on by clima e change a ec s a me s o he de s, hey equen ly ha e o swi ch o mo e
expensi e manu ac u ed animal eed, which can ha e a nega i e impac on hei capaci y o
make a li ing (Gi z e al., 2016).
Today insec p o ein is used in ish eed and pe ood. A b ie o e iew o eed esou ces
used o p epa e di e en animal eeds and majo nu i ional composi ion (Table 2) o
poul y, li es ock, ish, and pe s is depic ed in Table1. The nex s ep will be o au ho ize
he use o insec p o ein o poul y eed and o he li es ock. Many a icles deal wi h using
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Table 1 O e iew o insec -based eed esou ces o poul y, li es ock, ish, and pe
Type o animal eed Feed esou ces P ocessing echnology Uses Animal species Re e ence
BSFL Meal NA Killing, d ying, and de a -
ing me hod
la ae meal can pa ially
eplace con en ional
soya bean meal and soya
bean oil in he die o
g owing b oile quails,
hus con i ming o be a
p omising insec p o ein
sou ce o he eed
indus y
B oile quails (Co u nix
co u nix japonicaI)
Culle e e al. (2018)
De a ed BSFL meal and
a
Whea b an (ai d y) &
solubles om whea
dis ille y
La ae we e killed by
hea shock, d ied, and
mechanically de a ed
wi h an indus ial p ess
The esul s indica e ha
soybean-based eeds can
be eplaced comple ely
by black soldie ly meal
and a in die s o high-
pe o ming laye s
Lohmann B own Classic
hens (C ossb eed)
Heuel e al. (2021)
BSF p epupae meal O ganic ki chen was e,
ui s and ege ables
A e ha es , he BSF
p e-pupae we e d ied
a 65°C and g ound o
a meal
BSF p e-pupae meal (up
o 15%) can be included
in b oile die s wi hou
in luencing he ca cass,
senso y o mea quali y
cha ac e is ics
Cobb b oile chicks (Gal-
lus gallus domes icus) Pie e se e al. (2019)
BSF P epupae meal Vege able and ui was es Ha es ed p epupae p o-
cessed, sun d ied (32°C)
o h ee days and inally,
o en d ied o h ee days
a 50°C. The g ound
(a ound 500μm) p e-
pupae was used o he
b oile eeding ials
Black soldie ly p epupae
meal can be inco po a ed
a 5% in b oile die
Cobb chicks (Gallus gallus
domes icus) Elango an e al. (2021)
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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
Table 1 (con inued)
Type o animal eed Feed esou ces P ocessing echnology Uses Animal species Re e ence
Black soldie ly la ae oil
(BSO)
NA Ob ained om company Findings sugges ha BSO
can eplace Soybean Oil
(SO) in he o mula ion
o b oile die s, wi h 50%
BSO being he bes
Kebao b oile chicks (Gal-
lus gallus domes icus) Chen e al. (2022)
Li e Black soldie ly
la ae
NA La ae we e p oduced
in GMP + and Secu e-
Feed ce i ied acili y
unde HACCP (Haza d
Analysis C i ical Con ol
Poin s) condi ions
Li e BSF la ae can be
used in combina ion wi h
local plan p o eins o
success ully eplace soy
in die s o olde laying
hens. Feeding hens li e
BSF la ae also had a
posi i e e ec on he
ea he condi ion o bi ds
wi h in ac beaks
Old laying hens S a e al. (2020)
Pa ially and highly de a -
ed BSFL meal
Ce eal by- p oduc s The collec ed la ae we e
d ied o 20h in an
o en a low empe a u e
(60°C) and g ound o a
meal. High p essu e and
wi hou sol en s me hod
De a ed BSF meals can be
conside ed as an excel-
len sou ce o appa en
me abolizable ene gy
and diges ible amino
acid o b oile s wi h a
be e e icien nu ien
diges ion
B oile chickens Schia one e al. (2017)
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Table 1 (con inued)
Type o animal eed Feed esou ces P ocessing echnology Uses Animal species Re e ence
BSFL meal and BSFL a Powde ed compound
eed and ege a ian
b-p oduc s o he pas a
Ha es ed la ae, killed
(by eezing) and s o ed
a -20°C. Finally he
la ae we e washed,
d ied a 60°C o
24–34h depending on
he wa e con en , g ound
and de a ed by p essing.
A comme cial oil p ess
was used
He me ia meal can be a
aluable componen o
laye die s
Lohmann selec ed Leg-
ho n laying hens
Mau e e al. (2016)
BSFL oil and meal NA NA BSFL oil and meal can be
used as die a y ene gy,
p o ein and amino acids
o hen main enance, egg
p oduc ion and yolk col-
o a ion, al hough he e
may be uppe limi s o
die a y inclusion
Whi e leg ho n Pa e son e al. (2021)
BSF p o ein de i a i es NA Pas eu iza ion, pa ially
de a ed & d ied, enzy-
ma ic hyd olyza ion
E ec i e in p o ec ing
he animal cells om
oxida i e damage as a
consequence o immune
esponse
NA Moui hys-Mickalad e al.
(2020)
BSF a Chicken eed Fa om F eeze-d ied
p epupae ex ac ed wi h
die hyl e he
Soybean p oduc s (meal
and/o oas ed beans)
can be eplaced by BSF
wi hou ad e se e ec s
on pe o mance
Weaned pigle s Sp anghe s e al. (2017)
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Table 1 (con inued)
Type o animal eed Feed esou ces P ocessing echnology Uses Animal species Re e ence
Full- a BSFL meal S a e eed o b oile s BSFL we e dehyd a ed in
a o ced ai ci cula ion
o en a 55°C o 24h.
Dehyd a ed la ae we e
g ound in a mul ip oces-
so wi h 0.8mm mesh
BSFL meal seems o be
a p omising sou ce
o p o ein and ene gy
o omni o ous ish
aqua eed
Colossoma mac opomum
(Tambaqui)
Mon ei o dos San os e al.
(2023)

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insec s as eed o pe s, pigs, poul y, and as aqua eed. O all eed p oduced in he wo ld
(1.1 billion ons), poul y akes 44.8%, pigs 25.9%, uminan s 22.2%, aquacul u e 4.5% and
pe s 2.6% (All ech, 2016). In gene al, i seems ha he nu i ional composi ion o insec s,
such as he high p o ein, lau ic acid omega 6, and omega 3, and bioac i e compounds,
such as chi in, seems o ha e po en ial in animal eeding (Shah e al., 2022). A schema ic
summa y o how animal eed and e ilize (BSF F ass) is p oduced om BSF is gi en in
Fig.2, whe e he inpu s o o ganic was e a e con e ed by BSFL by a i icial ea ing in a
con olled en i onmen o ge ou pu s as p o ein meal, lipids, chi in and bio e ilize .
3.1.1 Comme cial animal eed e susp oduc s de i ed omBSF la ae
3.1.1.1 Aqua eed By 2030, aquacul u e, o ish a ming, is an icipa ed o con ibu e 62%
o he wo ld’s ish supply (FAO, 2014). The need o ish o human eeding and deple ed
ishe ies, amongs o he ac o s, ha e inc eased he p ice and d i en up he cos o ish meal
and oil, o cing ishe ies o look o al e na i es like ege able oils despi e he ac ha i
is well acknowledged ha hey a e essen ial o aquacul u e (Li e al., 2016). Fishmeal and
ish oil a e he main sou ce o p o ein and essen ial a s in aqua ic eed p oduc ion. Fo he
manu ac u e o hese, 18 million ons was used in 2018 which is 10% o he o al p oduc ion
Fig. 2 Schema ic summa y o how animal eed and e ilize is p oduced om Black Soldie Fly ea men
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o wo ld ishe ies and aquacul u e (FAO, 2020). A majo p o ein sou ce in aqua eeds is soy-
bean meal bu i s inc easing p ice, poo con en o me hionine and lysine, and he p esence
o an i-nu i ional ac o s, especially ypsin inhibi o , is a d awback (Chak abo y e al.,
2019; Chen e al., 2019). P ocessed animal p o eins (PAPs) which a e allowable o be used
in ish eed, a e no ye included in many o he eed p oduc s on he ma ke oday.
Insec p o ein has simila cha ac e is ics o PAPs and p o ides a good, sus ainable al e -
na i e. The demand o o mula ed ish eed p esen s an oppo uni y o he insec sec o .
I gi en a die ha is su icien ly high in lipids, BSFL can hoa d a s in hei bodies. Veg-
e able oils a e ypically less appe ising o ish han BSFL. When ish o al is added o he
la al die , p e-pupae ha a e en iched in omega-3 a y acids a e o med (S -Hilai e e al.,
2007). When ela ed o egula ish meals, hese "en iched" p e-pupae a e i ish eeds,
p oducing no app eciable changes in ish de elopmen and ision (Onco hynchus mykiss,
ainbow ou ) (Sealey e al., 2011). Nai u i e al. (2021) e iewed se e al s udies o pos-
sible eplacemen le els o ishmeal wi h BSF meal and his anged om 10% o meage
ju eniles (A gy osomus egius) o 25% o Sibe ian s u geon (Acipense bae ii) and paci ic
whi e sh imp (Li openaeus annamei), 50% o Eu opean sea bass (Dicen a chus lab ax)
o 100% o Nile ilapia (O eoch omis nilo icus).
Acco ding o senso y in es iga ion o ou ille s, ish gi en ish meal, BSFL, o
en iched BSFL die s did no di e in any manne (Sealey e al., 2011). One mo e s udy on
ainbow ou (Renna e al., 2017) sugges ed supplemen ing he die wi h up o 40% de a -
ed BSFL wi h no con a y e ec s on he physical quali y o he ille o he ish’s physi-
ology, bu hey did no ice a d op in bene icial polyunsa u a ed a s. In ano he s udy on
ainbow ou , he op limi o BSFL in he die o una ec ed ish g ow h was de e mined
a 15% (Renna e al., 2017). No di e ences in g ow h pe o mance be ween BSFL oil and
soybean oil we e de ec ed in a s udy on young Jian ca p (Cyp inus ca pio a . Jian), bu i
was ound ha as BSFL oil’s sha e o he die inc eased, ca p lipid deposi ion dec eased
(Li e al., 2016). A e ials wi h he A ican ca ish, Cla ias ga iepinus demons a ed ha
o al BSFL eplacemen o ish meal in die s (whe e i made up jus 25%) had no conse-
quence on de elopmen a e and nu ien u ilisa ion indica o s, BSFL we e p oposed as an
al e na i e due o hei lowe cos .
Finally, BSFL can conside ably con ibu e o sus ainable aquacul u e as a pa ial o ull
meal eplacemen , o aqua ic in e eb a es like p awns (Cummins e al., 2017). This is
he conclusion eached by nume ous w i e s. This is due o BSFL’s capaci y o ans o m
po en ially low-p o ein o ganic was es in o p o ein- ich edible biomass. T an e al. (2024)
e iewed 107 s udies dealing wi h 23 eshwa e and 17 ma ine ish species, and 17 insec
species as a eplacemen o ishmeal. While in gene al high le els o BSF seem o dep ess
ish g ow h (Hua, 2021). The majo ac o s limi ing inclusion o insec s in aqua eed a e:
educ ion in p o ein diges ibili y, imbalanced amino acid p o ile and inc easing le els o
sa u a ed a y acid (Liland e al., 2021). Al hough Quang T an e al. (2022) conside insec
meal as an excellen po en ial o supply p o ein o aqua eeds, hey ecommend add essing
nu i ional composi ion and en i onmen al aspec s and de eloping sui able insec -speci ic
subs a es as aqua eed.
Fu u e esea ch should ocus on nu i i e alues o di e en insec species and he
necessi y o iden i y op imal le els o di e en ypes o insec meals. In July 2017, insec
p o eins om se en insec species we e au ho ised in he EU o use in aqua eed, opening
new eed ma ke s o insec p oduce s. Like o he a med animals, hese insec species may
only be ed wi h ‘ eed g ade ma e ials’ such as ma e ials o plan o igin, p ocessed eggs,
milk and hei de i ed p oduc s. Abo e 5000 onnes o insec p o ein ha e been comme -
cialised by Eu opean insec p oduce s in o al, since he au ho isa ion o insec p o eins
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o use in aqua eed. Today, he aqua eed ma ke consumes mo e han 50% o Eu opean
animal eed made om insec s and his is expec ed o inc ease in he coming yea s (Liland
e al., 2021).
3.1.1.2 Poul y eed Today insec p o eins canno be ed o poul y in Eu opean Union as
legisla ion passed a e he BSE (bo ine spongi o m encephalopa hy) c isis in he la e 1990s
p e en s p ocessed animal p o eins om being ed o li es ock. Only ishmeal may be used
and ye , o e 90% o EU insec eed p oduce s see poul y eed as a ‘p omising oppo uni y’
(IPIFF, 2018). Dö pe e al. (2021) concluded ha pa ial eplacemen o soybean meal by
la ae o BSF o house ly in eed is bene icial o poul y. Chodo a and Tumo a (2020)
e iewed a numbe o s udies, and iden i ied ha insec meals can ha e a posi i e in luence
on g ow h o chickens wi hou ad e se impac on ca cass and mea quali y cha ac e is ics.
BSFL has been used in poul y eed as an incomple e eplacemen o maize- o soy-
based eeds. The species na u allycolonizesand decomposes poul y manu e. Whe e popu-
la ions o i a e ou inely main ained by poul y a ms o he bene i o was e managemen
and pollu ion educ ion. The e was no di e ence in p oduc i e ac , b eas mea weigh , o
yield be ween he con ol g oup and ei he o he wo BSFL meal p opo ions in expe i-
men s wi h g ill quails, Co u nix co u nix japonica (Culle e e al., 2018). The oxida i e
s a us, lipid con en , and senso y and la ou judgemen s o b eas mea we e unchanged by
BSFL supplemen a ion. Howe e , i did inc ease he mea ’s amino acid con en , imp o ing
i s nu i ional alue (by inc easing glu amic acid, alanine, aspa ic acid, se ine, y osine,
and h eonine). The amoun s o undesi able sa u a ed and monounsa u a ed a y acids did,
howe e , ise (Culle e e al., 2018).
Simila ou comes we e a ained by adding BSFL o he eed o domes ic b oile chick-
ens (Gallus gallus), wi h he ca ea ha u ilising de a ed BSFL diminished he de imen al
e ec s on a y acid p o iles. In bo h ins ances (pa ial o o al eplacemen o soybean oil
by BSFL a ), Schia one e al. (2017) disco e ed ha BSFL was a sui able sou ce o p o-
ein o chicken eed, wi h he au ho s depic ing ha BSFL “inclusion de ini e sa is ac o y
c ea i e pe o mances, ca cass ai s and comple e mea quali y” (Schia one e al., 2017).
The heal h o conce o he laying hens o he quali y o he eggs we e no a ec ed by he
addi ion o BSFL (50%) o he comple e subs i u ion o soybean cake in he die s o he
hens (Mau e e al., 2016). As a esul , BSFL a e a p obable pa ial eplacemen o poul y
eed since hey add ex a p o ein and ha e he added bene i o being able o be aised on
he was e o he same animals ha will e en ually consume hem.
3.1.1.3 Pe eed Pe ood is a mains eam ma ke o Eu opean insec p oduce s. Insec
p oduc s a e well-sui ed o he pa icula needs o pe ood, due o hei high diges ibili y
and pala abili y. Some Eu opean pe ood companies al eady inco po a e insec s in hei
eed o mula, no ably as a means o expand hei p oduc s’ ange e.g. in hypoalle genic
p oduc s. This end is expec ed o con inue o g ow in he nex ew yea s. While only 3%
o all eed p oduced is o pe s, 50% o he insec indus y is engaged in p oducing o his
sec o ( an Huis, 2022). In i o assays displayed ha ac ion con aining BSF la ae p o ein
signi ican ly inhibi ed he g ow h o Clos idium pe ingens, which is o 28% o he cases
esponsible o dia hoea in dogs (Dong e al., 2021). Howe e , Bosch and Swanson (2021)
cau ion ha heal h-p omo ing e ec s o insec p oduc s need o be s udied mo e as well as
he long- e m impac o insec s as ood on he nu i ional s a us o dogs and ca s. Conce n-
ing indispensable amino acids, he limi ing ones wi h BSF me hionine and h eonine o
dogs and he i s me hionine o ca s (Bosch e al., 2019).
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3.1.1.4 Pig eed I is assessed ha soybean meal accoun s o 85% o he p o ein sup-
plemen s ed o pigs (Flo ou-Pane i e al., 2014). BSF la ae can pa ly eplace soybean
meal, and in addi ion may ha e in e es ing unc ional p ope ies (Ka e al., 2021).
The bene icial e ec s o BSF la ae in ake on weaned pigs a e dia hoea educ ion,
be e immune esponse, and imp o ed small in es inal mo phology (Choi & Hassan-
zadeh, 2019). BSF p epupae a e ich in lau ic acid, known o i s an imic obial e ec s
on G am posi i e bac e ia (Sp anghe s e al., 2017). The amino acid diges ibili y and
g ow h pe o mance in pigs ed BSF la al meal is analogous o ha o soybean meal
and ishmeal (Hong & Kim, 2022). In comme cial condi ions damaging beha io such
as ail bi ing o en occu s in pos weaning pigs. P o iding small amoun s o li e BSFL
daily o pigle s a e weaning can imp o e pigle wel a e while main aining pigle pe -
o mance (Ipema e al., 2021). Howe e , he cu en p ice o insec meal is s ill highe
han ha o soybean, he eason o explo e he po en ial added alue o BSF compa ed
o con en ional p o ein sou ces.
The necessi y o conside di e en quali y ac o s is a c ucial componen o suc-
cess ully in oducing insec s in o he eed chain. In his ega d, he ex ended quali y
iangle p oposed by Luning and Ma celis (2009) de ines h ee quali y aspec s ela ed
o he p oduc i sel . This success ul in oduc ion o insec p o ein in eed is hough
o depend on hese h ee ac o s: insec quali y as such, insec a ailabili y, and cos s.
Choosing app op ia e insec species and s ains, loca ing a o dable ea ing subs a e
(i possible by u ilising o ganic was e side-s eams, bu ensu ing eeds ock sa e y when
ea ing insec s on o ganic was e and manu e), managing diseases and es ablishing
sani a ion p ocedu es, p oducing a consis en supply o high-quali y insec s (including
quali y assu ance), de eloping inno a i e and cos -e ec i e p oduc ion sys ems, and
inc easing a c op’s yield a e he main challenges o using insec s as eed. These ac o s
can all be connec ed o one o mo e eed chain p ocesses and will be u he explo ed
in his ex (Veldkamp e al., 2012).
Whe eas, insec s a e he na u al componen o he die s o animals, such as ca ni o-
ous ish, poul y and pigs. They a e high in p o ein om 50 o 82% (as a d y p od-
uc ) and can be added o animal eed wi h up o 40% insec con en o ish eed and
30% o chicken eed. The en i onmen al bene i s o insec mass p oduc ion include
low g eenhouse gas emissions ( an Huis & Oonincx, 2017), he small amoun o land
equi ed o p oduce 1kg o p o ein (Oonincx & de Boe , 2012), educed land use due
o lowe eed- ood compe i ion (Makka , 2018), and he abili y o ans o m o ganic
was e s eams in o high- alue p o ein p oduc s (Meneguz e al., 2018). One inno a-
i e s a egy and ou s anding illus a ion o a sus ainable ci cula economy is he use
o insec s in he biocon e sion o was e ma e ials (Meneguz e al., 2018). The e o e,
i is well ecognised ha BSFL can be u ilised as a subs a e o a ange o e eb a e
was es and can be used o eed a a ie y o e eb a es (Tombe lin e al., 2015). This
has no ewo hy epe cussions o low-inpu , sus ainable ag icul u e in unde de eloped
na ions (Nyake i e al., 2017), ye i has no e ec on how as y he mea om BSFL- ed
animals is o human consump ion. Al hough he po en ial assis ances a e g ea es in
hese de eloping na ions, BSFL and added insec eeds a e p ojec ed o assume la ge
oles o e ime in weal hy na ions like he Uni ed S a es due o commi men s o mini-
mise was e made by ood companies seeking app o al om consume s and egula o s
who a e becoming mo e en i onmen ally sensible, as well as he luc ua ing cos s o
ish meal and o he eed d i ing hep oduce s o pu sue al e na i es (Klonick, 2017).
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3.1.2 Types o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie ly la ae
3.1.2.1 D ied la ae BSF la ae meals a e a alid, cos -e ec i e, and highly nu i i e al e -
na i e sou ce o animal p o ein eed (Edea e al., 2022). Sou ces o p o ein in animal eed
play an impo an ole in o ming body issues and i al me abolism such as enzymes, ho -
mones, an ibodies, and so on (Beski e al., 2015). The use o insec s as a sou ce o p o ein
has been widely s udied and discussed a ound he wo ld. P o ein om insec s is known o
be mo e economical, en i onmen iendly, easy o mass p oduc ion and has high eed con-
e sion e iciency (Van Huis, 2013). They a e also pa o na u al eed o poul y (Makka
e al., 2014). One o he de e minan s o animal eed quali y is exp essed in e ms o c ude
p o ein con en and essen ial amino acids p o ile based on d y eed ing edien s. BSF la ae
is an al e na i e eed p o ein sou ce ha canno be s o ed in he esh o m o a long ime
wi hou d ying. Fi een days old la ae o BSF we e d ied ei he using he s o e o en d y-
ing o 75min o using 800 Wa s o mic owa e d ying o 25min. The s udy concludes
p o ein con en o BSF la ae, we e no signi ican ly di e en be ween d ying ea men s,
while he amino acid con en was highe in he mic owa e d ying han s o e d ying me hod.
This s udy concludes ha he abo e wo me hods can be used in p ese ing BSF la ae as a
sou ce o die a y p o ein o a m animals (Pu namasa i e al., 2021).
The p o ein con en in la ae o BSF is used as animal eed. La ae a e li ing ma e i-
als ha , i no ea ed, will con inue o g ow in o adul lies. In addi ion, i s o ed in a
dead condi ion, he la al p oduc will o because i has a high-wa e con en . D ying is an
easy and inexpensi e me hod o ex end he shel li e o he p oduc . D ying is a p ocess o
hyd a ing o emo ing wa e om ma e ial. The pu pose o d ying is o inc ease du abil-
i y, educe packaging cos s, educe anspo weigh , imp o e he as e o he ing edien s,
and main ain he nu i ional con en o he ing edien s (Achan a & Okos, 2000). The e o e,
BSF la ae need p ope p ocessing s a egies o main ain nu ien con en in ing edien s, o
be able o ex end a longe shel li e and, make i easie o be used in o mula ions o eed
a ion.
3.1.2.2 P o ein meal BSF p o ein meal has high-quali y amino acids, lipids and mic o
nu ien s o boos he animal’s heal h na u ally. I ully eplaces con en ional p o ein in
many d y and we pe ood and aquacul u e applica ions, while adding unc ional bene i s
and supe io pala abili y. A well-balanced combina ion o high-quali y amino acids, lipids
and mic o nu ien s, easily diges ible p o eins (> 85%), supe io pala abili y, high eshness
index (BAI < 1), sui able o hypoalle genic die s in pe ood, and o he unc ional cha ac e -
is ics (Rawski e al., 2021). The p o ein con en o he insec species is wi hin he soybean/
ish meal ange and a con en is highe especially compa ed o (de a ed) soybean meal.
The pe indus y hasboomed du ing he pandemic, wi h pu chase and adop ion o pe s is-
ing, spending on pe shi ing a eco din 2020, and he end so in ense e e ina ians ha e
s uggled o keep up wi h demand (Ho nyak, 2021).
BSFL can be p ocessed in di e en ways which esul s in ing edien s o he eed indus-
y wi h di e en p o ein and a con en s. The de a ed BSFL meal (D-BSFL) is p o-
duced by pa ial o o al a ex ac ion using p essing o o ganic sol en s, and he esul ing
de a ed meal is hen pos e io ly d ied and g ound. D-BSFL has a ound 60% p o ein and
10–12% lipid con en (Ba oso e al., 2014; Mon ei o dos San os e al., 2023). The ull- a
BSFL (FF-BSFL) meal is easy o p oduce by d ying and pos e io ly g inding. The FF-
BSFL is a low-cos echnology when ela ed o D-BSFL as i a oids expenses associa ed
wi h a ex ac ion p ocesses. FF-BSFL has an a e age con en o 42% c ude p o ein and

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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
30% lipids (Magalhães e al., 2017; Veldkamp e al., 2012). Insec s as eed ing edien s o
aqua eeds a e on he ise in science and indus y sec o s, since he e is an eme gen neces-
si y o al e na i e p o ein sou ces o ish meal and ish oil (Rawski e al., 2021).
3.1.2.3 Oil Insec lipid ha p o ides a quick sou ce o ene gy due o high le els o eas-
ily diges ible medium-chain a y acids. con ains 40% lau ic acid, which is ecognized o
i s an imic obial p ope ies in he diges i e ac . A heal hy gu means a s onge immune
sys em. is an especially aluable ene gy sou ce o younge animals ha su e om diges-
i e p oblems and ha e impai ed nu ien abso p ion. The animals g ow heal hy while he
indus y educes i s ecological oo p in .
Oil ex ac ion e iciency could be imp o ed by acid hyd olysis p io o down-s eam
p ocessing o BSFL. The sepa a ed oil om con en ional down-s eam p ocess has a high
con en o ilau in gi ing a mel ing poin a 26°C ha may cause echnical issues o
some eed and ood applica ions. Lowe ilau in con en and mel ing poin can be achie ed
by acid hyd olysis o BSFL and/o win e iza ion o he oils. This will allow p oduce s o
BSFL o ailo oil p ope ies o a ious ma ke s (Boge ik e al., 2022). BSFL oil is domi-
na ed by a ew a y acids (mainly 12:0, lau ic acid) (Ushako a e al., 2019) which limi
i s inclusion le els in cold-wa e aquacul u e eeds. These eeds no mally include ish oil
and apeseed oil wi h a la ge dis ibu ion o a y acids including polyunsa u a ed acids.
Replacemen o co n oil wi h BSFL oil a 0, 4, 6 and 8% showed a linea inc ease o
g ow h in nu se y pigs (Heug en e al., 2019). In addi ion, lau ic acid om BSFL demon-
s a ed an imic obial p ope ies on gas oin es inal bac e ia. While 5% inclusion o BSFL
oil o a basal b oile chicken die had no e ec on g ow h, 50 and 100% eplacemen o
soybean oil wi h BSFL oil educed g ow h in b oile chickens (Kim e al., 2020). In a die
o ainbow ou (Onco hynchus mykiss), eplacemen o ish oil wi h BSFL oil had no
e ec on g ow h (Kim e al., 2020). Inc eased inclusion o BSFL meal o oils in die s has
gene ally caused inc eased sa u a ed a y acid con en in edible mea p oduc s. The con-
en o sa u a ed a y acids in mea is closely ela ed o he ex u e (Belghi e al., 2019a,
2019b). Thus, an inc eased a io o polyunsa u a ed a y acids is mo e desi able bo h o
mea quali y and human heal h (Hong e al., 2013; Wood e al., 2004) Ne e heless, he
high sa u a ed a y acid con en o he BSFL could be bene icial in e ms o ene gy and
an imic obial ac i i y (Świą kiewicz e al., 2016).
3.2 F ass as e ilize
Acco ding o Commission Regula ion (EU) 2021/1925, ass is de ined as a mix u e o
exc emen s de i ed om a med insec s, he eeding subs a e, pa s o a med insec s,
dead eggs and wi h a con en o dead a med insec s o no mo e han 5% in olume and
no mo e han 3% in weigh (EU, 2021). A la ge a ie y o o ganic was e s eams (e.g.
manu e, ood was e, biogas slu ies) can be con e ed by BSF la ae in o new insec bio-
mass and he esidual ac ion is called ass (Elissen e al., 2023). The composi ion o he
p oduced ass is a iable depending on he composi ion o he subs a es (Elissen e al.,
2023) especially P, K and mic onu ien concen a ions (Lopes e al., 2022). F ass can con-
ain signi ican amoun s o N, P, K, o ganic ma e and o he componen s such as chi in
( om he la ae skins). Beesigamukama e al. (2022) concluded ha BSF ass has sig-
ni ican ly highe N (20–130%) and K (17–193%) concen a ions compa ed o asses o
o he insec s. Howe e , ass is a biologically uns able p oduc , due o i s apid b eakdown
and he p esence o subs ances wi h po en ial phy o oxic p ope ies. As a P domina ed
30294
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
e ilize , N supplemen a ion is necessa y o make BSF ass a mo e balanced e ilize
p oduc (Lopes e al., 2022). The ass can be used o di e en applica ions: di ec o com-
pos ed as e ilize o soil condi ione , o o biogas p oduc ion (e.g. Bulak e al., 2020; Hol
e al., 2022). BSF ass applica ion led o he highes seed ge mina ion a e/index (Beesiga-
mukama e al., 2022). Table2 highligh s he nu ien composi ion o BSF ass ob ained by
using di e en o ganic was es.
3.2.1 Comme cial e ilize e susblack soldie ly ass
The wo ld-wide ag icul u al indus y is con on ed wi h nume ous issues. Acco ding o he
UN, by 2050, he wo ld popula ion will ha e su passed nine billion people. This will pu a
lo o p essu e on ag icul u al business, which is al eady su e ing om a loss o p oduc i -
i y. Fa me s a e o ced o use e ilize s o enhance hei ag icul u al ou pu due o loss o
a able land ac oss he globe and o mee equi emen o g owing popula ion (FAO, 2017).
Being expensi e, he o ganic and syn he ic e ilize s can’ be a o dable by a me s. Many
o he o ganic e ilize s supply limi ed nu ien s and elease he nu ien s slowly (Shaji
e al., 2021). Syn he ic e ilize s a e oxic o he skin and espi a o y sys em and damage
he plan s and educe soil e ili y by easy washou o nu ien s and also cause eu ophi-
ca ion. This pa es a way o use insec ass as po en ial e ilize . In ac , he capaci y o
ass o supply nu ien s o plan s and enhance plan g ow h has been compa ed o ha o
syn he ic e ilize and i s po en ial o eplace con en ional e ilize s has been poin ed ou
(Houben e al., 2020).
I ’s a ela i ely ecen idea o use insec BSF ass as o ganic e ilize . Any a ming
sys em ha uses a no el idea o p oduc as e ilize has o know how i pe o ms in e ms
o how i a ec s c op de elopmen , yield, nu ien up ake, and usage e iciency in com-
pa ison o o he e ilize s. The sou ce, nu ien con en , mine aliza ion s age, and s o age
echnique o o ganic e ilize s all ha e a signi ican impac on hei e icacy (Ebanya ,
2009; Ndambi e al., 2019; Ru ino e al., 2007). Fo ins ance, he sou ce, mine aliza ion
le el, and C/N a io o manu e all ha e a signi ican impac on he a ailabili y o nu ien s
(G iga i e al., 2015; Musyoka e al., 2019). BSF ass being an o ganic e ilize is com-
pa able o poul y manu es bu i has low nu ien con en s compa ed o high- alue com-
me cial o ganic e ilize s (Gä ling & Schulz, 2022). O ganic ma e con en o BSF ass
is highe han all o he manu e and compos ypes. N con en and C/N a io a e closes o
he alues o cow slu y, while P con en is mos compa able o ha o pig slu y and K
con en is mos compa able o ha o poul y manu e (Gä ling & Schulz, 2022). Rela-
i ely low C/N a io (13–16 on a e age) o BSF ass pa es a way o easy nu ien up ake
(Beesigamukama e al., 2021a) and pH o 6–8 which is a good alue o ma u e compos
o ag onomic pu poses (Bas i e al., 2022). C/N a ios o BSF asses om cow, chicken
and pig manu e usually ends o be lowe han 20, which is indica i e o a ma u e compos
(i.e. lowe han 25 acco ding o he au ho s). In addi ion, ge mina ion indexes and nu ien
concen a ions o all asses a e mo e han hei espec i e manu e (Liu e al., 2019).
In compa ison o u ea and SAFI (a combina ion o chicken manu e, cha coal, and ock
phospha e), BSF ass as e ilize is mo e success ul in inc easing yield when applied o
maize a a es o 2.5  ha−1 and 30kgN ha−1, espec i ely, while SAFI needs o be applied
a double he a es o ge he same yield. Plo s ea ed wi h BSF ass display he alles
plan s, maximum chlo ophyll concen a ions, and highe ni ogen eco e y e iciency. In
compa ison o he alue ob ained wi h an equi alen a e o SAFI, he ag onomic N usage
e iciency and ni ogen ixing e iciency o maize ea ed wi h 2.5 ha-1 o BSF ass a e
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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
Table 2 O e iew o a ious o ganic was es a ibu es o black soldie ly composi ion
Type o o ganic
was e
Nu ien con en BSF ass composi ion Re e ence
P o ein (% d y
weigh )
Fa (% d y weigh ) Ca b Calcium N P K
175g/kg 140g/kg 8g/kg (de e mined
as ni ogen ee
ex ac )
9.3g//kg Finke (2013)
Poul y manu e 34–35% Zhou e al. (2013)
Cow manu e 34–35% Zhou e al. (2013)
Was e 42–49% 38% Makka e al. (2014)
Chicken, pig and
cow manu e
13.5–30.3g/kg 9.9–39.4g/kg Oonincx e al. (2015)
P ocessed ood
was es o b ewe y
spen g ains
29.5–33.2g/kg 103–149g/kg 31–19g/kg De ic (2016)
Mix o ui s, eg-
e ables, seaweeds
2.45g/kg 0.69g/kg 2.62g/kg Mason (2016)
100% B own Algae 41.3 ± 1.1% 8.1 ± 0.9% 15g//kg Liland e al. (2017)
F ui s was e 35–58% 15–38% Mohd-Noo e al.
(2017) and Nyake i
e al. (2017)
Human manu e 45% 18% Nyake i e al. (2017)
F ui / ege able
was es
39% 33% Nyake i e al. (2017)
O ganic municipal
was e
14.9g/kg 9.8g/kg 10.3g/kg Salomone e al.
(2017)
o ganic was e sub-
s a es
431.0g/kg 386.0g/kg 1.2g/kg Sp anghe s e al.
(2017)
30296
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Table 2 (con inued)
Type o o ganic
was e
Nu ien con en BSF ass composi ion Re e ence
P o ein (% d y
weigh )
Fa (% d y weigh ) Ca b Calcium N P K
Municipal o ganic
solid was e
36–46% 25–39% Sp ange s e al.
(2017) and Nyake i
e al. (2017)
Vege able was es 44% Tinde e al. (2017)
Chicken manu e 28g/kg 14.4–19.8g/kg 22.4–24.0g/kg Xiao e al., (2018a,
2018b)
Food was e, chicken
eaces and saw
dus (3:2:1)
1.7% 1.1% 2.1% A iogbe e al. (2019)
Food was e 24 E molae e al.
(2019)
Maize s aw 4.8% 1.0% 0.9% Gao e al. (2019)
Chicken, cow and
pig manu e
17.9–18.7g/kg 9.6–27.0g/kg 13.9–21.2g/kg Liu e al. (2019)
Municipal o ganic
solid was es om
domes ic, ma ke s
and es au an
3.6–4.8mg/kg 0.8–0.9mg/kg 0.54–0.62mg/kg Sa pong e al. (2019)
Whea b an, al al a
meal, co n meal
44g/kg 22.7g/kg 34g/kg Se i e al. (2019)
O ganic was e
s eams
411.0g/kg 301.0g/kg 1.9g/kg Shumo e al. (2019)
B ewa y spen g ain 2.1% 1.2% 0.2% Beesigamukama e al.
(2020b)
Food p ocessing
was e
19.8–23.7g/kg 5.3–6.4g/kg 9.3–13.9g/kg Bes ico (2019/2020)
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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
Table 2 (con inued)
Type o o ganic
was e
Nu ien con en BSF ass composi ion Re e ence
P o ein (% d y
weigh )
Fa (% d y weigh ) Ca b Calcium N P K
Was e Fish Gu s 51.2–57.9% 30.2–340.6% Kimmy Fa m (2020)
Vege able / o ganic
was e
31.2–36.4% 5.2–6.63% Kimmy Fa m (2020)
O ganic was e 50% 35% 2.8–6.2% Kimmy Fa m (2020)

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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
2.4 and 2.5 imes g ea e , espec i ely (Beesigamukama e al., 2020a). Bu , composi ion o
BSF ass is highly a iable (especially ega ding mic onu ien s) and needs o be assessed
on an indi idual basis o speci ic pu poses (Gä ling & Schulz, 2022) and ass can-
no be applied a high concen a ions, possibly due o ammonia oxici y (Gä ling e al.,
2020). High conduc i i y alues and sodium con en a e also he d awbacks o applica ion
(Cha ez & Uchanski, 2021). Thus, i is ecommended by Cha ez and Uchanski (2021) ha
insec ass in mix u e wi h ino ganic e ilize s can be used o bes esul s on c op and
pa hogen/disease esis ance wi h a ypical e ec i e dosage o 10–40% o he o al e ilize
olume adminis e ed.
Hope ul e idences on how he BSF ass a ec s he plan g ow h and de elopmen by
modi ying he ac o s such as be e use e iciency o P and K (Pu a e al., 2017), imp o ed
soil e ili y and de ence agains pa hogens (Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019), supp ession
agains Py hium ul imum (Ellison e al., 2019), in luence on soil N a ailabili y (Kaga a &
Ohgushi, 2012), s imula ion o soil mic obial ac i i y and di e si y (Houben e al., 2020),
no impai ing hygienic p ope ies o soils (Klamms eine e al., 2020), imp o emen o
bene icial mic obial ac i i y (Houben e  al., 2021), inc eased dehyd ogenase ac i i y
(Menino e al., 2021), and inc eased enzyme ac i i y (dehyd ogenase and β-glucosidase)
(Es e es, 2020) a e epo ed by many au ho s. Some po es s ha e shown he po en ial o
BSF ass, ob ained om subs a es o a ious kinds in educing mine al e iliza ion in
se e al c ops like le uce (Es e es, 2020; Kebli & Sinaj, 2017), yeg ass (Kebli & Sinaj,
2017; Klamms eine e al., 2020), maize (Beesigamukama e al., 2020b), B assica ola -
aceae (Wan ulla e al., 2023) and swiss cha d (Chi e e e al., 2021).
In e ms o N, P, K, and o ganic ma e , Choi e al. (2009) compa ed BSF la ae ass
wi h a comme cial e ilize (unspeci ied o igin) o Chinese cabbage and ound ha bo h
e ilise s we e equally e ec i e (same numbe o lea es, lea leng h and wid h, and nu i-
en accumula ion), wi h he excep ion o P abso p ion by plan s, which was low when e -
ilized wi h BSF ass. Wan ulla e al. (2023) epo ed ha soil amendmen wi h BSF ass
almos hal ed Dalia adicum ly eme gence om he soil by he ac ion o chi inase enzyme
as compa ed o he syn he ic e ilize ea men in B assica ola aceae plan s and hus
inc eased he yield by educing he damage. When exposed o iny amoun s o BSF exu-
iae, B assica nig a displayed la ge plan s, mo e blooms, mo e pollina o s, and e en ually
mo e seeds (Ba agan-Fonseca e al., 2017). S onge g ow h, as demons a ed in le uce
plan s ha h i ed when exposed o BSF ass, may be he cause o his impac (Pu a e al.,
2017; Se i e al., 2019). Ala a e al. (2016) es ed BSF la al ass as a e ilize o maize
plan s, using a 1:2 (w/w) ass o soil mix u e, wi hou men ioning he nu ien composi ion
o he ass and epo ed ha ass impac ed plan g ow h (dwa plan s and ewe lea es)
mo e nega i ely han did a mic o-ae obic e men a ion p oduc made om he same eed
subs a e ( ood was e) used o eed he la ae.
Acco ding o he au ho s, he educed g ow h could be caused by he high concen a-
ions o ammonia in he ass. BSF ass deli e ed poo g ow h esul s (yield, d y ma e
p oduc ion, lea a ea and nu ien use e iciency) in maize when compa ed wi h o he by-
p oduc s (la al skins and dead adul lies) and he con ols (o ganic and chemical comme -
cial e ilize s) (Gä ling e al., 2020). The au ho a ibu ed he poo e iliza ion p ope y
o he ass being a P-domina ed e ilize , a he han a N-domina ed. In addi ion, he poo
g ow h o he es c op was indica i e ha he ass may no ha e an op imal nu ien com-
posi ion o ce ain c ops. Kawasaki e al. (2020) assessed he e ilizing po en ial o BSF
la ae ass in B assica apa and ecommended an applica ion a e o 1/20–1/30 o ass in
ela ion o he amoun o soil, in o de o bene i g ow h, as plan g ow h was impai ed wi h
yellow lea es when applied a a highe applica ion a e (1/10). Quilliam e al. (2020) es ed
30305
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
BSF la ae ass made om poul y was e, b ewe y was e and g een ma ke was e as e i-
lize s o g owing maize, peppe and shallo s in a ield expe imen in Ghana and epo ed
ha amendmen o soil wi h ass bio- e ilize had no signi ican e ec on yield. This may
ha e been due o he mo e di use b oadcas applica ion me hod ha was used and lim-
i ed he a ailabili y o key nu ien s a c ucial s ages o c op de elopmen (Fa ondji e al.,
2009). Chiam e al. (2021) es ed oka a-de i ed BSF la ae ass as a e ilize o le uce
plan s, mixing ass wi h soil a 10, 20 and 30% concen a ions ( / ).
In e es ingly, he gene al applica ion (20–30%) o ass esul ed in poo g ow h o le -
uce, excep o when he ass le el was a 10%. The au ho s specula ed ha his unde-
si ed g ow h esponse a high ass le els may be a ibu ed o he low C/N a io o he
e ilize (7.2), which induced apid mine aliza ion o nu ien s in he soil. Plan s wi h
he highes chlo ophyll concen a ions, inc eased mine al N concen a ion, highes maize
g ain yield and 27% mo e P accumula ion han SAFI e ilize was obse ed in maize when
ea ed wi h BSF ass (Beesigamukama e al., 2020b). When BSF la al ass was used
as e ilise , Menino e al. (2021) saw consis en g ow h, inc eased biomass, and inc eased
o e all yeg ass yield. Along he plan cycle, howe e , shoo biomass also dec eased sig-
ni ican ly. Soil’s immobilisa ion o nu ien s and he s imula ion o mic obial ac i i y, as
indica ed by he ise in dehyd ogenase ac i i y may be he possible easons o he esul s.
Kale plan s g ew o much la ge heigh s and p oduced mo e lea es a e being ea ed wi h
100% BSF F ass as Fe ilize (BSFFF). The alles kale plan s we e g own using a daily
i iga ion schedule combined wi h 100% BSFFF, and he maximum chlo ophyll concen a-
ions we e a ained in he lea es o kale and Swiss cha d when 50% BSFFF + 50% NPK
o 100% BSFFF we e applied. Kale and Swiss cha d g own in soil modi ied wi h BSFFF
had he lowes insec in es a ion a es and signi ican ly highe esh shoo weigh and lea
d y ma e han kale and Swiss cha d cul i a ed in soil wi hou e ilize . In compa ison o
NPK ea men s, soil amendmen wi h BSFFF p ese ed highe le els o kale (41–50%)
and Swiss cha d (33–49%) lea d y ma e du ing imes o wa e s ess (Abiya e al., 2022).
3.2.2 Bene i s o black soldie ly ass
Nume ous cha ac e is ics make he ass o BSFL in e es ing o use in ou o e wo ked
ag icul u al sys em. I o e s simila applica ion po en ials as a soil e ilise o cu en ly
a ailable p oduc s, bu wi h a lesse impac on he en i onmen (Gä ling & Schulz, 2022;
Sme ana e al., 2019). Speci ic componen s o he insec by-p oduc s, such as exu iae ac s
as bio-s imulan s o plan s ha come in con ac wi h hem (Zande e al., 2023) In e ms o
p o i abili y, p oducing he ass can be mo e ad an ageous han making biogas o com-
pos ing because in addi ion o p oducing ass, he p ocess also c ea es p o eins, lipids, and
o he goods ha can be sold o mo e money han he soil condi ione s and gas p oduced
by he o he wo p oduc ion p ocesses. Below we ou line a ew ad an ages o adop ing BSF
ass as e ilize .
3.2.2.1 Con ain chi in BSF la ae con ain 14.5% (DM) and he pupae con ain 18%
chi in (Coud on e al., 2019) which is non- oxic, biodeg adable linea polyme said o
ha e ungicidal and nema icidal e ec s (Gä ling e al., 2020) and can induce plan
de ence mechanisms agains insec s. Chi in being he main componen o BSF exoskel-
e on epo ed o induce bene icial changes in he soil mic o biome by inc easing he
numbe s o chi in-deg ading bac e ia (e.g. some Gamma p o eobac e ia) ass amended
soils (Nu ika i, 2022) and hus s imula e ecological sys ems by educing pes p es-
30306
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
su e. Many esea ches poin ed ou ha chi in is p o ec ing c ops om pes s, pa ho-
gens and physiological diso de s. Modes o ac ion include an ibiosis and induc ion o
plan de ences. A numbe o cell su ace ecep o s, including he mac ophage mannose
ecep o , oll-like ecep o 2 (TLR-2), and Dec in-1, ha e been ound o be in ol ed in
he ec ui men and ac i a ion o inna e immune cells as well as he induc ion o he
p oduc ion o cy okines and chemokines by chi in (Lee e al., 2008). Highe chi inase
ac i i y in he soil is linked o chi in in he ass. Chi in is also a majo componen o
he cell wall o ungi and is hus p one o deg ada ion by chi inase enzymes (Naga aj-
kuma e al., 2004) and he e o e he ass shows an i ungal beha iou (Zhang & Yuen,
2000). I is epo ed ha ass and diges a es om pig slu y ea men s signi ican ly
supp essed he de elopmen o Rhizoc onia solani in bean plan s (Phaseolus ulga is
c . P elude) (Geb emikael e al., 2020) and adding BSF exu iae o B ussels sp ou s
boos ed he in lux o pa asi oid wasps om he neighbou hood, which ough agains
c op pes s (Zande e al., 2019).
3.2.2.2 P omo e bene icial mic oo ganisms The mic obiological composi ions o
o ganic e ilize s could bene i mo e sus ainable p oduc ion sys ems and has been
no ed ha soil amendmen wi h insec ass could s imula e he ac i i y o bene icial
mic obes (Po eda e al., 2019) and sus ain he mic obial biomass o a mo e ex ended
pe iod (Zhang e al., 2020) e en unde limi ed nu ien condi ions (Geb emikael e al.,
2020). Due o he chi in con en o he ass and easily deg adable componen s wi h
high N con en , numbe s o chi in-deg ading bac e ia (e.g. some Gamma p o eobac-
e ia) and some as -g owing high N con aining ungi (e.g. Mo ie ellomyco a) can be
ound in ass amended soils. The bene icial mic o-bio a o ass also include Spo osa -
cina spp., Co ynebac e ium spp. and Bacillus spp. (Kawasaki e al., 2020), Lac obacil-
lus spp., Bacillus spp., Ac inobac e ia spp., and Pseudomonas spp. (Ahemad & Kib e ,
2014; Babalola, 2010; Lug enbe g & Kamilo a, 2009) and PGPR (Abbo e al., 2018;
Ahmad e al., 2020; Pa hania e al., 2020; Pé ez-Mon año e al., 2014; T eonis e al.,
2010) and he mic obial composi ion changes acco ding o he eed subs a e supplied
o he la ae (Gold e al., 2020; Wynan s e al., 2019). These mic oo ganisms ac in he
hizosphe e, which is he ine egion o soil ha is in luenced by he sec e ions o plan
oo s ( oo exuda es) and can be s imula ed by he inpu o o ganic e ilize s, bene i -
ing he soil and he plan as a whole (Be endsen e al., 2012; Lug enbe g & Kamilo a,
2009). The p esence o aluable mic oo ganisms in he soil de elops highe nu ien
use e iciency, imp o e soil quali y, esis ance o abio ic s ess condi ions and imp o e
plan s g ow h, pe o mance and c op yields (Bales ini e al., 2017; Mącik e al., 2020;
Po eda e al., 2019).
3.2.2.3 Rich innu ien con en The cha ac e is ics o ass om BSF la ae epo ed
in li e a u e indica ed ha i is a ich sou ce o plan nu ien s. The o al C, N, P and K
con en in he ass a y om 26. 8–48.8%, 1.8–5.1%, 0.5–5.2% and 0.2–4.1% espec-
i ely (Lopes e al., 2022) depending upon he eed subs a e used du ing he la al
g owing pe iod (Table2). I also con ains he seconda y nu ien s like calcium (0.2–
45g/kg), magnesium (0.2–10.5g/kg) and sodium (0.3–5g/kg), and also he mic onu-
ien s like i on (3.7–600mg/kg), coppe (0.7–46.1mg/kg), manganese (0.2–149mg/
kg) and zinc (0.1–140mg/kg) in app eciable quan i ies which p omo e e y good plan
g ow h and de elopmen and hus signi ican ly yield highe c op yield (Lopes e al.,
2022).
30307
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
3.2.3 Physiochemical p ope ies o BSF ass
3.2.3.1 Mois u e con en The mois u e con en o he BSF ass a ies om 30% om
b ewe y spen g ain subs a e (Beesigamukama e al., 2020b) o 72% om he ood was e,
chicken aeces, and sawdus mix u e (3:2:1 a io) (A iogbe e al., 2019). The mois u e con-
en o o he comme cial e ilize s a ies om 30 o 61% (Bas i e al., 2022). The bene icial
e ec o BSFL ass wi h low mois u e con en is good o soil ae a ion and solubili y; on
he o he hand, he BSFL ass wi h high mois u e con en could ha e inadequa e oxygen
supply o he plan (Klamms eine e al., 2020), ha e ad e se impac o BSFL ass lea-
cha es, could also cause ammonia poisoning in he plan and may s un plan de elopmen
(Zahn & Quilliam, 2017). High mois u e con en o ass can lead o anae obic condi ions
and should be pos -p ocessed o be u he deg aded, o example by compos ing o anae o-
bic diges ion (Klamms eine e al., 2020).
3.2.3.2 pH The pH o BSFL ass om a ious ood was e anges om he lowes o 5.6 in
ui and ege ables (Klamms eine e al., 2020) o he highes as 8.0 pH alue in mix u e o
ood was e, chicken aeces, and sawdus (3:2:1 a io) (Klamms eine e al., 2020) and maize
s aw subs a es (Gao e al., 2019). The pH o BSFL ass ypically anges be ween 7.0 and
8.0 which is compa able wi h o he comme cial e ilize s (pH 6—8.1) and is he op imum
ange o p omo ing plan g ow h (Su end a e al., 2020) and p o iding a conduci e en i on-
men o he bene icial bac e ial communi ies in BSFL ass (Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019).
3.2.3.3 Tempe a u e Tempe a u e is an essen ial ac o in de e mining whe he decompo-
si ion p oceeds a he mesophilic o he mophilic le el, o e en eaches he ma u i y le el
o gene a e na u al plan e ilise (Kama uzzaman e al., 2018). BSFL ass empe a u e
anges om 24 o 27°C ((A iogbe e al., 2019; Bas i e al., 2022; Sa pong e al., 2019),
when compa ed o he empe a u e o o he compos s iz., compos om wind ow compos -
ing (26–28°C), compos ing bin (30°C), and ae a ed compos ing (32°C); all each an ambi-
en empe a u e and is conside ed o ha e en e ed ma u a ion phase (Hamid e al., 2019; Ho
e al., 2022). The empe a u e o he BSF compos ing is mesophilic and he ae a ion can be
imp o ed on he compos sys em by he mo emen and na u al u ning o he was e by he
la ae (Sa pong e al., 2019). As sugges ed by Coope band (2002), he op imum empe a-
u es o bac e ial decomposi ion a e a 21–49°C. While, o he esea che s ha e epo ed
ha high empe a u e (i.e. 45°C o mo e) could cu down he pa hogenic loads o he inal
compos (Banks, 2014; Do mans, 2015; Ti ado, 2008). As empe a u e is one o he impo -
an ac o s which a ec he nu ien a ailabili y (Pang e al., 2020) and op imum was e
consump ion by BSFL, main aining ela i ely cons an was e empe a u e (abou 30°C)
is ine i able (Pang e al., 2020). Rea ing BSFL a he op imum empe a u e imp o es hei
abili y o educe Esche ichia coli (Liu e al., 2008). Chen e al. (2019) s a ed ha he con-
inuous mo emen o BSFL could educe he BSFL ass empe a u e, which helps e ain
ni ogen in he BSFL ass and ensu e a high ni ogen con en in he BSFL ass.
3.2.3.4 C/N a io The C/N a io o BSFL ass de i ed om di e en ypes o ood may
ange om 8:1 o 27:1; ki chen was e ange om 8:1 o 17:1, municipal ood was e ange
om 8:1 o 9:1, household ood was e a 17:1, ui s and ege ables a 27:1, oka a and whea
b an a 8:1 ( esh ass), oka a and whea b an (compos ed ass) a 10:1, and b ewe y spen
g ain a 17:1 (Lopes e al., 2022). In a well-conduc ed compos ing p ocess, he C/N will
dec ease cons an ly due o he biological mine aliza ion o ca bon compounds and loss as
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CO2 (Insam e al., 2007). Compos wi h a C/N a io highe han 30 is mo e likely o immo-
bilize ni ogen o plan up ake (Sa pong e al., 2019). BSF ass has a ela i ely low C/N
a io (13–16 on a e age) and hus makes he nu ien s easily a ailable o plan up ake (Bas i
e al., 2022). C/N a io can be inc eased by p o iding subs a es like b ewe y spen g ains
wi h sawdus o BSF la ae (Beesigamukama e al., 2021b). Liu e al. (2019) ound ha he
C/N a ios o asses om cow, chicken and pig manu e a e 9days we e all mino han 20,
which is indica i e o a ma u e compos (i.e. lowe han 25 acco ding o he au ho s). The
C/N a io o a ious comme cial o he e ilize s a ies om 6:1 o 36:1.
3.2.3.5 Con aminan s (hea y me als, esidual pes icides) BSF ass epo ed o ha e low
concen a ion o hea y me als and pes icide esidues due o he abili y o BSFL o biologi-
cally accumula e hea y me als in hei issues and o deg ade he pes icides wi h he help o
enzymes (e.g. dehyd ogenase) (Menino e al., 2021). Salomone e al. (2017) conduc ed an
expe imen whe e he measu ed he concen a ions o oxic me als in he BSFL ass ed wi h
ood was e subs a es and ound ha he concen a ion o oxic was below he limi s s a ed
in he I alian egula ion o e ilize and hus p o ed he abili y o BSFL o educe and
accumula e a ious o ms o hea y me als in he BSFL ea men p ocess. One mo e s udy
was ca ied ou whe e la ge quan i ies o me cu y ha e been added o he BSFL eeds ock o
be obse ed in a 13-day expe imen and esul ing in low me cu y le els in he BSFL ass
and we e no ed o be below he Eu opean Union’s (EU’s) h eshold alues o 0.7–10mg Hg/
kg (A iogbe e al., 2019). Assessmen o he hea y me al con en s in BSFL ass showed
92–98% (0.0002–0.0008mg/kg) emo al o A senic, 99–100% (0.00029–0.00170mg/kg)
o Cadmium, and 80–90% (0.001–0.002mg/kg) o Lead (Sa pong e al., 2019).
3.2.3.6 Ma u i y ands abili y Compos ma u i y e e s o he deg ee o comple eness
o compos ing and absence o phy o oxic compounds and plan o animal pa hogens ha
could nega i ely a ec seed ge mina ion, plan g ow h and soil heal h (Be nal e al.,
2017). The s abili y o compos can be iden i ied when one ha is no longe unde going
apid decomposi ion and whose nu ien s a e igh ly bonded; uns able compos , on he
o he hand, may ei he elease nu ien s in o he soil owing o addi ional decomposi-
ion o ie up ni ogen om he soil (Insam e al., 2007). Wi hin a sho pe iod o BSFL
apid compos ing ( wo weeks o a mon h), o ganic was es ed by he BSFL may no be
p ope ly compos ed (Kawasaki e al., 2020; Song e al., 2021). The BSFL compos ing
p ocess mus also s op when he la ae each he p epupae s age, as a esul , p oducing
impa ial compos , biologically uns able and imma u e compos (Insam e al., 2007; Se i
e al., 2019). The e o e, i is p e e ed ha his p oduc should be gi en some so o pos -
ea men (e.g. he mophilic compos ing), in o de o s abilize i and making i sui able as
a bio- e ilize o cul i a ion (Ala a e al., 2016; Chi e e e al., 2021; Song e al., 2021)
and o p omo e he deg ada ion o i s o ganic ma e and he mine aliza ion o nu ien s
(Be nal e al., 2009; Chen e al., 2014). Bu , he s abili y o BSF ass is be e han ha o
S. g ega ia, B. mo i, S. icipe and T. moli o and G. k ucki (Beesigamukama e al., 2022).
The o ma ion o humic subs ances du ing compos ing o o ganic ma e ials is one o he
main indica o s o compos s abili y ( esis ance o decomposi ion) and ma u i y (use o
a de e mined pu pose) (Zhou e al., 2014). These subs ances con ibu e o se e al soil
e ili y pa ame e s by egula ing soil acidi y, imp o ing he ca ion exchange capaci y,
inc easing he wa e holding capaci y, imp o ing he up ake o nu ien s and s imula ing
plan g ow h (Abbo e al., 2018; Canellas & Oli a es, 2014; Consel an e al., 2018;
Olae xea e al., 2018; Su on & Sposi o, 2005). Acco ding o s udies (Ba al & Pa adelo,

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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
2011; Emino & Wa man, 2004; Luo e al., 2018; Musyoka e al., 2019), he applica ion
o imma u e and uns able compos esul s in nu ien immobilisa ion and phy o oxic-
i y, which inhibi seed ge mina ion and p oduce poo c op g ow h and yield. Acco ding
o Liu e al. (2019), he eed subs a e’s high elec ical conduc i i y and concen a ion
o N-NH4+ may ha e con ibu ed o he ass’s lack o ma u i y. In con as , Se i e al.
(2019) ound ha he ge mina ion indexes we e abo e 70%, indica ing no sign o phy o-
oxici y. BSFL ass empe a u e ange om 24 o 27°C, i compa ed o he empe a u e
o o he compos (El-Hagga , 2007; Ho e al., 2022), which is sui able o mic obial
ac i i y. The ass always has a lowe C/N a io han he eed subs a e p o ided (Sa -
pong e al., 2019). The mois u e con en o BSFL ass a ies om 10 o 65% depending
upon subs a e on which he BSF la ae eeds and he BSFL ass de i ed om ui and
ege ables is a 10% which is no sui able o ag onomic pu poses and may lead o hyd o-
phobici y and be di icul o ewe (Bas i e al., 2022).
4 Challenges andoppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie
ly ea men
4.1 Oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie ly
Global popula ion g ow h, inc easing weal h, and u baniza ion, pa icula ly in Asia and
A ica, c ea e changes in global consump ion pa e ns, li es yles and ood p e e ences,
leading o an inc ease in animal p o ein demands (Smi h & Ba nes, 2015; Van Huis,
2013). This will a ec he demand o li es ock eed and ine i ably place hea y p es-
su e on al eady limi ed esou ces (Van Huis, 2013). Addi ionally, his will ha e an e ec
on he demand o animal eed and ine i ably pu a signi ican s ain on al eady sca ce
esou ces (Van Huis, 2013). P o ein sho ages a e caused by he ising demand, hence
al e na e sou ces o sus ainable p o ein a e equi ed (Hallo an e al., 2016; Van Huis
e al., 2015). The cos o eed, including eplacemen s like ishmeal and soybean meal,
which accoun s o 60–70% o p oduc ion expenses, is one o he main es ic ions (Van-
omme e al., 2012). P o ein sou ces, among o he con en ional eed s eams, a e subjec
o supply and impo p ice luc ua ions. Acco ding o ecen es ima es, he global eed
ma ke demand o poul y, pigs, cul u ed ish, and pe s, espec i ely, is 464, 254, 35,
and 23 million megag ams (Mg) (All ech, 2016). Insec -based eeds a e he e o e an ici-
pa ed o p o ide a signi ican con ibu ion o he wo ld’s eed supply while minimising
nega i e en i onmen al e ec s (Dobe mann e al., 2017; Makka e al., 2014).
BSF a e being used mo e and mo e sus ainably o ecycle o ganic was e in o high-qual-
i y p o ein eed and o ganic e ilise wi h no impac on he en i onmen . Recen s udies
(Ab o e al., 2020; Chia e al., 2019) demons a e he echnological and possible economic
iabili y o BSF. Acco ding o Makka e al. (2014), he d y BSF la ae con ain abou
42–49% c ude p o eins, 38% lipids, 20% c ude ib e, 20% ash, and i amins, all o which
ha e been shown o enhance he p oduc ion o pig, ish, and poul y (Kie ończyk e al.,
2020; Schia one e al., 2017; Sypniewski e al., 2020). Due o i s high nu ien con en and
po en ial o use as o ganic e ilise , he BSF ass e ilise is a by-p oduc ha is g owing
in popula i y (Anyega e al., 2021; Bo olini e al., 2020; Gä ling e al., 2020; Lalande
e al., 2015; Oonincx e al., 2015; Se i e al., 2019). Fa me s who al eady aise BSF la ae
o use as animal eed would bene i om he c ea ion o ass e ilise om BSF a ming.
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Globally, BSFL business de elopmen yields an oppo uni y o ini ia e a ze o-was e
campus acco ding o academics, helping o educe ood was e in ca e e ias and colleges
and o he ins i u ional se ings (p isons, hospi als, and e c.). Seg ega ed ood was e om
he communi y and oil palm was es could be used as eed o BSFL. P oduc ion and
insec milling p ocesses in emo e a eas, suppo li elihood op ions in u al loca ions
(Raman e al., 2022). BSFL p oduced a a la ge-scale can be ma ke ed locally and com-
me cial BSFL indus ies could expand and look o expo BSFL p oduc s. Smallholde
BSFL a me s could subs i u e cos ly animal o ish eed wi h low-cos BSFL as an
al e na i e p o ein sou ce o local poul y and aquacul u e which educe dependence on
impo ed and high-cos animal eed (Raman e al., 2022).
4.1.1 Economical pe spec i es
Insec s appea o be a componen o a sus ainable solu ion gi en he demand on na u al
esou ces and ising cos s o con en ional eed. The e o e, combining ass e ilize  om
insec s wi h animal eed o e s g ea e economic ad an ages. This may enhance he li es
and ood secu i y o smallholde a me s (Beesigamukama e al., 2022). Using BSFL ass
as a alue-added p oduc has been added p o i able o BSFL a ming han using jus he
ne income om BSFL animal eed. Compos -like quali ies can be seen in BSFL ass
(Bo olini e al., 2020). Acco ding o se e al s udies (A iogbe e al., 2019; Bo olini e al.,
2020; Gao e al., 2019; Sa pong e al., 2019), he quick compos ing o o ganic was e by
BSFL p oduced compac ed BSFL ass wi h high mac onu ien s (NPK), mic onu ien s,
and o ganic ma e ial con en s ha a e immedia ely usable o ag icul u al applica ion. In
con as o BSF a ming alone, using BSFL ass e ilise inc eased a me s’ ne income
by 5–15 imes, acco ding o a s udy by Beesigamukama e al. (2020a). Rea ing insec s
can p o ide li elihood di e si ica ion me hods o many small-scale p oduce s, he eby
educing ulne abili y and suppo ing women’s empowe men (FAO, 2014; Hallo an
e al., 2016; C ysan us, 2016). One megag am (Mg) o d ied BSF la ae (USD 900) yields
10–34Mg o BSFL ass e ilise (USD 3000–$10,200) pe megag am (Mg) o d ied BSF
la ae. Field ials we e also used o assess he ag onomic e icacy o BSFL ass e ilize
on maize c ops.
Maize plan ed on BSFL ass e ilize - ea ed plo s had ne e enue ha was 29–44%
mo e han maize g own on comme cial o ganic e ilize - ea ed plo s. Fu he mo e, small-
holde insec a me s who use BSFL ass e ilize di ec ly o maize g owing will gene -
a e 30–232% mo e ne e enue han a me s who buy iden ical BSFL ass e ilize . The
p esence o chi in in BSFL ass also helps p omo e plan de elopmen and igge plan
de ences (Su end a e al., 2020). Applying e en a minimum amoun o BSFL ass chi in
o plan s esul s in be e g ow h, mo e lowe s and seeds, and a ac s mo e pollina o s
(Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019). BSFL ass has a ich bene icial mic obe (Gold e al., 2020),
such as ni i ying and ni ogen- ixing bac e ia ha make ni ogen a ailable o plan up ake
(Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019; Po eda e al., 2019). Ni ogen- ixing and ni i ying bac e-
ia a e c ucial because ixed ni ogen is a limi ed nu ien in mos ecosys ems, and ni a e
assimila ion in o plan oo s makes soils mo e esilien o lood, d ough , and land deg ada-
ion. In addi ion, by enhancing ni ogen up ake, he high phospho us concen a ion in he
BSFL ass has aided in p omo ing ni ogen accumula ion in plan s since phospho us is
essen ial o ene gy ans e (Klamms eine e al., 2020). BSFL ass can ecap u e ni o-
gen and phospho us om he ood chain o euse as e ilize , hus educing he need o
chemical e ilize s. F ass e ilise can be used o ob ain a lowe op imum N a e (79kg N/
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Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
ha), which sugges s ha employing i would esul in cheape e ilise cos s and highe ne
p o i s, e u ns on in es men , and g oss p o i ma gins (Beesigamukama e al., 2022).
4.1.2 En i onmen al pe spec i es
Un o una ely, he e hasn’ been much esea ch done on how insec a ming and using he
ass as e ilise a ec he en i onmen . Insec a ming will gain mo e bene i s because
o BSF a ming’s social and en i onmen al se ices. The e o e, addi ional esea ch is
needed o assess he economic iabili y and social-en i onmen al bene i s o BSF a ming
ac oss a ious p oduc ion sys ems in o de o scale up insec -based eed and ass e i-
lise sus ainable and inno a i e echnologies (Beesigamukama e al., 2022). Almos hal
o he global was e gene a ion is ood was e, which 37% o hem go in land ills and 33%
o hem a e disposed in open dumps a ea (Kaza e al., 2018). Howe e , his ood s eam,
which con ains high concen a ions o o ganic ma e , mac o- and mic onu ien s, i no
p ope ly disposed o , migh cons i u e ha m o he en i onmen . The e o e, in ecological
pe spec i es, BSFL ass p oduc ion has con ibu ed o he ecycling o nu ien s om ood
was e and has p e en ed he en i onmen om becoming a conce n owing o he emission
o g eenhouse gases and soil/wa e con amina ion wi h poisonous chemicals and nu ien s
om leacha es (Lopes e al., 2022; Pang e al., 2020). Al hough he manu ac u e o insec s
depends on he en i onmen , hey gene ally ha e low land and wa e equi emen s and sig-
ni ican ly educed g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Hallo an & Van omme, 2013; Oon-
incx e al., 2010) as compa ed o o he li es ock p oduc ion (Van Huis, 2013; Smi h and
Be nes, 2015; Oonincx e al., 2010) whe e, li es ock was ound o be esponsible o 9%
o CO2, 35–40% o CH4, 65% o N2O, and 64% o NH3 p oduc ions o all an h opogenic
g eenhouse gas emissions (S ein eld, 2006). The p oduc ion o insec s has a much lowe
global wa e oo p in han ha o mea because hey a e cold-blooded, can ob ain hei
mois ness needs om ood a he han necessa ily needing d inking wa e , and can g ow
on o ganic was e (Mekonnen & Hoeks a, 2010; Miglie a e al., 2015). This helps con-
se e wa e .
4.2 Challenges o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie ly
4.2.1 Animal eed
Being a no el sec o , p oduc ion and sale o insec s as eed aces se e al challenges,
om legal o consume accep ance and o indus ializa ion and g ow h. Al hough he
legal amewo k is changing and adap ing o his new eali y, consume s s ill ha e o
p epa e o i , and insec p oduce s ha e a lo o lea n om o he li es ock and indus-
ial sec o s (Alhujaili e al., 2023). Acco ding o Regula ion EC N 1069/2009, insec s
used as ood a e ega ded as P ocessed Animal P o eins (PAPs) in he EU (Smi h &
Ba nes, 2015). Insec s we e no longe allowed o be used as animal eed as a esul
o Regula ion EC N 999/2001’s es ic ion on PAPs ollowing he BSE c isis (EFSA
Scien i ic Commi ee, 2015). Aquacul u e species can now be ed non- uminan PAPs
acco ding o an amendmen o Regula ion EC N 56/2013. P ocessed insec p o ein,
howe e , is exemp om his equi emen (EFSA Scien i ic Commi ee, 2015; Smi h
& Ba nes, 2015). Addi ionally, on- a m killing o li es ock, including insec s, is p o-
hibi ed by Eu opean legisla ion go e ning aba oi egula ions. Since his law was no
in ended o insec killing, i hinde s e ec i e insec a ming (Cha l on e al., 2015;
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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Smi h & Ba nes, 2015). In Aus alia, he e a e signi ican challenges o impo ing any
kind o li e insec , and companies mus ge app o al o b ing in insec -de i ed eed
p oduc s. This will be a challenge o s a ups like Ag iP o ein as hey look o en e
he Aussie ma ke wi h hei b anded MagMeal™ p oduc (Nole , 2017). A po en ial
alle genic issue o he p oduc s de i ed om he BSF la ae is one mo e challenge
o he a me s who a e engaged in he ea ing and p ocessing (Hallo an e al., 2016;
Fi ches, 2016). The e o e, o he la ge-scale insec a ming sec o o lou ish glob-
ally, easible p oduc ion echniques mus be de ised (Fi ches, 2016). The c ea ion o a
legal amewo k ha mus be upheld globally and ac oss he boa d in o de o achie e
indus y-wide s anda disa ion is equi ed. Since each go e nmen has di e en p io i-
ies (e.g., add essing he issue o ood was e), i can be di icul o es ablish s anda di-
sa ion in e ms o in e na ional ade (Van omme e al., 2012). Bu dealing wi h his
issue is essen ial (Van omme e al., 2012). Le e aging BSFL as a sus ainable ood and
eed sou ce holds he p omise o e ec i ely managing was e, mi iga ing en i onmen-
al pollu ion, and ackling he u gen challenge o ood secu i y in an en i onmen ally
conscious manne . None heless, i is impe a i e o conduc addi ional esea ch and os-
e inno a ion o gua an ee he sa e y, quali y, and economic easibili y o p oduc s
de i ed om BSF o consump ion by bo h animals and humans (Siddiqui e al., 2024).
High capi al and ope a ional cos s o build and un he BSFL p oduc ion, secu ing
su icien b eeding s ock, iden i ying a cos -e ec i e BSFL p oduc ion sys em, ensu -
ing a cons an and su icien supply o o ganic was e o BSFL, high p ice o BSFL,
challenges in ob aining cons an BSFL supplies as an animal eed ing edien , lack o
inancial esou ces o conduc esea ch, lack o knowledge on insec s udies and skilled
expe ise o wo k in BSFL indus ies, lack o educa ion o wo ke s in ood and be e -
age depa men s o seg ega e ood was e in an indus y wi h high s a u no e , high
cos s o a la ge supply o eed sou ce o BSFL, challenges in ensu ing cons an BSFL
nu ien quali y as an animal eed ing edien (Raman e al., 2022). D ied BSF la ae
nu i ional aluecon ains up o50% p o ein, 35% a , 6% calcium, 1.2% phospho us,
1% magnesium, and 0.3% sodium bu is g ea ly a ies acco ding o he sou ce o sub-
s a e ed (Raman e al., 2022). Minis y o Ag icul u e and Food Indus ies o Malay-
sia men ioned ha he cu en p ice o BSFL is simila o ha o ishmeal, so despi e
i s po en ial, BSFL’s compe i i eness (bo h in e ms o p ice and nu i ional alue)
needs imp o emen be o e i could eplace ishmeal (Raman e al., 2022). Public pe -
cep ion o BSF as yucky insec and he e o e public conce ns abou smell and hygiene
o BSFL ea ing a ea is o g ea impo ance. Con incing he go e nmen o po en ial
use o BSFL as an animal eed ing edien is a di icul ask. In o de o p e en con am-
ina ion and spoiling and o gua an ee he sa e y o ood and eed, sa e y conside a ions
like adequa e p ocessing, handling, and s o age a e necessa y. Acco ding o Schabel
(2010), en omophagy has been linked o cases o bo ulism, pa asi oses, and ood poi-
soning, such as a la oxins, and he zoono ic dange o insec s as a whole need o be
aken in o conside a ion. While he BSF indus y has success ully es ablished a supply
chain ha e ol es a ound u ilizing was e and by-p oduc s o p oduce eeds u h ough
he la ae, he e is an ongoing explo a ion o al e na i e and mo e challenging sub-
s a es o ea ing he la ae. Simul aneously, he e is a g owing in e es in unco e ing
no el applica ions o bioac i e molecules de i ed om BSF beyond he adi ional use
in animal eed. This indica es a dynamic shi owa ds di e si ica ion and inno a ion
wi hin he BSF indus y (Te aman i & B uno, 2024).
30319
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
ela ed o he ising demand o p o ein meals om p oduce s o animal eed, he ising
cos s o soy and ish meals, and go e nmen backing and app o al o he use o insec
meal in animal eed. Addi ionally, he bio e ilize s ( ass) indus y is an icipa ed o hold
he g ea es p opo ion o he o e all black soldie ly ma ke in e ms o olume in 2022.
The animal eed ma ke is an icipa ed o expe ience apid expansion o e he cou se o he
o ecas pe iod, depending on applica ion. The apid expansion o his indus y is p ima -
ily ela ed o inc eased demand o animal-de i ed goods and he ensuing ise in demand
o animal eed high in p o ein, ising soy meal p ices, and o icial app o al o he use o
BSF as an ing edien in animal eed. Addi ionally, he e a e nume ous po en ials o ma ke
expansion due o he inc easing use o insec s as a subs i u e sou ce o p o ein in animal
eed.
In e ms o geog aphy, Eu ope is p ojec ed o ha e he la ges ma ke sha e o BSF in
2022. This subs an ial ma ke sha e can be a ibu ed o he expanding aquacul u e sec-
o , inc eased in e es in al e na i e p o ein sou ces o animal eed, and he upwa d end
in ish meal p ices. Fu he mo e, h oughou he p ojec ed pe iod, Eu ope is expec ed o
expe ience he highes (CAGR) in his ield. Addi ionally, his egion is an icipa ed o con-
ol he highes p opo ion o he wo ldwide black soldie ly ma ke in e ms o olume in
2022.
The global black soldie ly ma ke is cha ac e ized by he p esence o se e al key play-
e s, including P o ix B.V. (Ne he lands), En e a Feed Co po a ion (Canada), Inno aFeed
(F ance), En i oFligh LLC (U.S.), Bio ly ech (Spain), En obel Holding PTE. L d. (Singa-
po e), En o ood (Malaysia), S ly (F ance), Hexa ly (I eland), F4F (Chile), Nu i ion Tech-
nologies G oup (Malaysia), nex P o ein (F ance), and P o enga P e L d (Singapo e), among
o he s, which a e men ioned by Me iculous Resea ch Ma ke (2022). Some o he key lead-
ing companies in BSF ma ke as animal eed and ass p oduc ion a e lis ed in Table3.
6 Policy and egula ions o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie ly
ea men
In o de o c ea e mo e and la ge ba ches o insec s, i is necessa y o be awa e o po en ial
echniques o s abilizing insec s as in e media e o inal goods, ideally wi h a cos –bene i
analysis. Dehyd a ion has so a d awn he mos in e es as a me hod o insec p ese a-
ion in bo h indus y and esea ch. Chemical and mic obiological b eakdown p ocesses a e
known o be slowed down o e en s opped when wa e is emo ed om a p oduc (Van
Campenhou e al., 2021). The chemical and/o mic obiological s abili y o d ied edible
insec s du ing s o age has been he subjec o se e al in es iga ions as o BSFL (Kamau
e al., 2020; La ouche e al., 2019), o long ho ned g asshoppe (Fombong e al., 2017),
o yellow mealwo m (K öncke e al., 2018, 2019; Lenae s e al., 2018), and o di e en
c icke species (Bawa e al., 2020; Lee e al., 2020; Lucas-González e al., 2019; Vandew-
eye e al., 2018).
Indus ial-scale insec p oduc ion p ima ily se es as a eplacemen o less en i on-
men ally iendly p o ein sou ces in eed. Cu en ly, he mos signi ican species aised o
his pu pose a e he BSFL. The la ae mus be anspo ed and s o ed in a s able man-
ne ollowing p oduc ion o p e en deg ada ion. Bo h e men a ion and acuum packag-
ing echnology a e iable s abiliza ion op ions (Van Campenhou e al., 2021). The logis-
ic chain includes s abiliza ion, s o age, and anspo a ion in addi ion o he c ea ion o

30320
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Table 3 Leading companies in ol ed p o iding BSFL as animal eed and i s ass as e ilize
Company Name Con inen Coun y P oduc s P oduc Packaging Re e ence
BioFLY Sou h Ame ica Colombia BSF based la a lou , bio e ilize , dehy-
d a ed la ae, li e BSFL
h ps:// www. bio ly. co/ shop
Beyond Ag Aus alia Aus alia La ae, p o ein, chi in, F ass h ps:// www. ba dee. com/ p o e in
Be a Bugs Limi ed Eu ope UK La ae and F ass, h ps:// www. be ab ugs. uk/ black- soldi e - ly-
p odu c s/
Chapul No h Ame ica USA Whole, D ied BSFL,
Da k Popped BSFL, Ligh Popped BSFL,
BSFL Meal, Diges a e, BSFL oil, F ass
h ps:// www. chapu l a ms. com/ p odu c s
Eco ly GmbH Eu ope Aus ia BSF-p o ein, e ilize , oil, whole d ied
BSFL, neona es
h ps:// www. eco ly. a / en/ p odu c s
Fa mInsec GmbH Eu ope Ge many La ae h ps:// a mi nsec . eu/ p odu k e/# jungl a en
30321
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
Table 3 (con inued)
Company Name Con inen Coun y P oduc s P oduc Packaging Re e ence
Insec a Asia Singapo e La ae, Chi osan h ps:// www. insec a. com/ ou - insec s
Inseco (P y) L d A ica Sou h A ica Black Soldie Fly h ps:// inseco. co. za/ ou - p odu c s/# sec i
on-2- 111
Li le Fa Wo m Bio echnology
Company L d
Asia China Fish meal, www. li l e a w o m. com
Obe land Ag iscience Inc No h Ame ica Canada P o ein, F ass and La ae h ps:// www. obe l andag isci ence. ca/ p odu
c s
PROCENS Sou h Ame ica A gen ina BSF based p o ein, oil, e ilize and
la ae
h ps:// www. p oce ns. o g/ p odu c os/
30322
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Table 3 (con inued)
Company Name Con inen Coun y P oduc s P oduc Packaging Re e ence
P oNu o No h Ame ica Cos a Rica Whole d ied BSFL, De a ed BSFL p o-
ein powde , Na u al BSFL insec oil,
O ganic BSFL ass
h ps:// p onu o. com/ eng/ ou - p odu c s/
PT Magala a Sayana Indonesia Asia Indonesia D ied la ae, p o ein, oil, e ilize , esh
la ae
h ps:// magal a a. com/ p odu c s
P o ix Eu ope Ne he lands Pe eed, Oil, e ilize h ps:// p o ix. eu/ p odu c s_ by_ p o i x/# oe ei
Sane gy A ica Kenya BSF h ps:// www. egen o gan ics. co/ p odu c s/
Vi o ein No h Ame ica USA Whole d ied BSFL, Li e BSFL, Exo ic
eed, F ass
h ps:// www. i o ein. com/ p odu c s
30323
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
la ae. A good p ese a ion echnique o pu sue o he s o age and anspo a ion o BSFL
is no hough o be acuum packaging (Van Campenhou e al., 2021).
Van Campenhou e  al. (2021), in es iga ed he po en ial pe se e a ion echnology
be ween acuum packaging and e men a ion o he BSFL. The acuum packaging was
applied o li ing, blanched and ozen la ae while e men a ion pul e ised blanched BSFL
we e used o he in es iga ion. The acuum packaged BSFL we e s o ed o 6–10days a
a ious empe a u es and gas composi ion, o he killed la ae-mic obial coun s while o
he li ing la ae- su i al a e eco ded. In e men a ion, he pul e ised BSFL we e e -
men ed o one week a 35°C and s o ed a 4°C o wo weeks, pH and mic obial coun s
was obse ed and eco ded. Au ho epo ed ha e men a ion allowed o he s o age o
pul e ized la ae. Howe e , ce ain ac o s o conside we e he apid dec ease in pH and
he p esence o bac e ial endospo es. On he o he hand, acuum packaging did no o e
any addi ional bene i s compa ed o cooling alone. This conclusion applied o all ypes
o la ae in es iga ed. Thus, acuum packaging is no conside ed a aluable p ese a ion
echnique o pu sue o he s o age and anspo a ion o BSFL (Van Campenhou e al.,
2021).
Salomone e al. (2017), conduc ed measu emen s o oxic and essen ial me al concen a-
ions in he BSFL ass ha was ed wi h ood was e subs a es. The esul s e ealed ha
he concen a ions o bo h oxic and essen ial me als we e below he limi s speci ied in he
I alian egula ion o e ilize s. This indica es ha BSFL ass has minimal amoun s o
hea y me als due o he capabili y o BSFL o e ec i ely dec ease and accumula e di e -
en o ms o hea y me als du ing he ea men p ocess (Bas i e al., 2022).
In ac uali y, s o age and anspo a ion me hods should be able o maximize he su i al
o li ing insec s and (mic obiological) quali y o insec s ha ha e al eady been killed. The
BSFL placed in pouches wi hou a acuum had he highes a e o su i al (Rumpold &
Schlü e , 2013). A lowe s o age empe a u e led o be e su i al, which indica ed ha he
s o age empe a u e was a signi ican in luencing ac o . Vacuum packaging has no bene i-
cial e ec s on he mic obiological quali y o dead BSFL. The mic obiological quali y and
dynamics o he gas composi ion in he package we e signi ican ly in luenced by he ini-
ial mic obiological quali y ollowing killing (which was be e a e blanching han me ely
eezing). Addi ionally, he insec s’ quali y du ing s o age was ma ginally imp o ed by he
lowe empe a u e (Vandeweye e al., 2021).
The " adi ional" usage o insec s as ood is no usually connec ed o he egula o y
amewo k go e ning he use o insec s as eed, which a ies g ea ly be ween na ions glob-
ally. Table4 gi es a succinc o e iew o he laws ha a e now in e ec in he di e en
coun ies o union a ound he globe ega ding he use o insec s as eed.
Insec s a e a ising sou ce o p o ein ha is ele an o a me s, eed manu ac u e s,
ood p oduce s, and ood ma ke e s wo ldwide. Due o an iqua ed ood and eed es ic-
ions ega ding he use o insec s, his indus y’s expansion is somewha cons ained. Since
2018, measu es b inging insec s unde he pu iew o Regula ion (EU) 2015/2283 on
new oods ha e been in e ec wi h ega d o insec s as ood o human consump ion. In
acco dance wi h his new Regula ion, EFSA-app o ed ma ke ing o insec eeding i ems
is he only condi ion o hei sale (Läh eenmäki-Uu ela e al., 2018). Regula ion (EU) No
2017/893 b ough abou one o he mos signi ican modi ica ions in 2017 wi h ega d o
insec s used as animal eed. This legisla ion b ough abou amendmen s o Regula ions
(EC) No 999/2001 and (EU) No 142/2011, pe mi ing he u iliza ion o se en insec spe-
cies as eed o aquacul u e animals (Läh eenmäki-Uu ela e  al., 2021). These species
include he house c icke (Ache a domes icus), black soldie ly (He me ia illucens), com-
mon house ly (Musca domes ica), yellow mealwo m (Teneb io moli o ), lesse mealwo m
30324
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Table 4 Laws o legisla ion o go e ning he insec (BSF) as ood
Au ho i y Coun y Rema ks on Insec s as eed Re e ence
EFSA (Eu opean Food Sa e y Au ho i y) Eu opean union Au ho ized insec a in eed
Au ho iza ion o p ocessed animal p o eins in aquacul u e
Eu opean Commission (2017)
CFIA (Canadian Food Inspec ion Agency) Canada BSF p oduc s app o ed poul y use
Raw ma e ials o eeding equi e pe mission
Läh eenmäki-Uu ela e al. (2018)
FDA (Fede al Food and D ug Adminis a ion) USA Fo insec s, an addi ional pe mission lis o GRAS a e equi ed
BSFL a e a componen o animal die
Läh eenmäki-Uu ela e al., (2021)
None China No equi e Läh eenmäki-Uu ela e al., (2018)
Minis y o Ag icul u e, Food and Ru al A ai s No h Ko ea S ic ly p ohibi ed Jo and Lee (2016)
Minis y o Ag icul u e, Food and Ru al A ai s Sou h Ko ea No equi e Han e al., (2017)

30325
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
(Alphi obius diape inus), banded c icke (G yllodes sigilla us), and ield c icke (G yllus
assimilis) (Lah eenmaki-Uu ela e al., 2017).
Only one species o bug has been de ined by he Associa ion o Ame ican Feed Con ol
O icials (AAFCO) as an animal ood i em o ca le eed. Aquacul u e salmonids includ-
ing salmon, ou , and cha can be ed BSFL, including d ied en i e la ae (since 2016) and
p ocessed BSF meal (since 2018). The AAFCO’s choice has been examined and au ho -
ized by he FDA (Belluco e al., 2017). I is wo h no ing ha a ious eed-g ade ma e ials,
such as p e-consume ood was e used as a subs a e, by-p oduc s om ood p oduc ion
like b ewe y g ains, and o he app o ed eed-g ade ma e ials, can all be u ilized o he
cul i a ion o black soldie ly la ae. P oduc s made om black soldie lies ha e been
app o ed o use in he eeding o b oile chickens, ilapia, salmonids, and o he poul y
such as chickens, u key, ducks, and geese.
Ano he egula ion ca ego y is pe oods. Mealwo ms, silkwo m pupae, and black a my
ly la ae a e all o e ed o sale as pe ood in Canada (A bou & Hoeung, 2016; Pisanello
& Ca uso, 2018). B azilian scien is s, a me s, and businesses a e becoming mo e and
mo e in e es ed in using insec s as ood and eed, especially when i comes o eeding poul-
y black soldie ly meal ins ead o soybean meal. The use o insec s as ood and eed
migh one day be egula ed in e na ionally. The scien i ic communi y may app o e he use
o insec s wo ldwide as ood and eed (Alleg e i e al., 2018). In he absence o a global
ood and eed adminis a ion o ganiza ion, he global ha moniza ion o subs an i e and
p ocedu al no ms would p o e ad an ageous o bo h business owne s and au ho i ies. The
FAO/Who is Codex Alimen a ius Commission is he se ing o c ea ing in e na ional eed
and ood s anda ds (Läh eenmäki-Uu ela e al., 2021).
Due o cu en ambiguous s a u o y limi a ions su ounding i s usage as eed, he com-
me cializa ion o BSFL is es ic ed. Unde ce ain es ic ions, he manu ac u e and ade
o BSFL as eed is pa icula ly pe mi ed in he Eu opean Union, Aus alia, Canada, and
he Uni ed S a es. I is in e es ing o no e ha while egula o y amewo ks a e now being
de eloped, he majo i y o na ions whe e en omophagy is a adi ion lack pa icula es ic-
ions ega ding hei usage as eed. Ha monizing he indus ial upscaling o BSFL as ani-
mal eed equi es an unde s anding o he legisla i e s uc u e (Alagappan e al., 2022).
7 Li e cycle assessmen o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie ly
ea men
I is necessa y o enume a e he en i onmen al e ec s connec ed wi h he en i e li e cycle
o hese p ocesses in o de o es ima e he en i onmen al p o ile o p oduc s de i ed om
insec s. An impo an me hod o analysing and assessing he en i onmen al in luence o
indus ial p ocesses and insec -based p oduc s is li e cycle assessmen (LCA) (Spinelli
e al., 2019). Technical ad ancemen s can aid a shi owa ds enewable ene gy, lessening
he possibili y o global wa ming. LCA demons a e inc eased ene gy use in he gene a-
ion o some insec s, such as BSF and house ly la ae ( an Zan en e al., 2015). Acco ding
o Smi h and Ba nes (2015), " egions wi h yea - ound high empe a u es, high densi y o
concen a ed animal ope a ions, and p esence o ood p ocessing indus y acili ies" a e
whe e he bes insec - ea ing acili ies can be ound. Acco ding o IPIFF, adding insec s o
con en ional eed (such soybean o ishmeal) will ease he s ain on he en i onmen , p o-
ec ed a eas, and he wo ld’s ish popula ions. The a ious pa ame e s conside ed o LCA
s udies on BSF by di e en au ho s a e discussed in Table5. A comp ehensi e LCA o e s
30326
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Table 5 Pa ame e s Conside ed o Li e Cycle Assessmen S udies on Black Soldie Fly, H. illucens
Li e cycle assessmen s udy Pa ame e s conside ed Re e ence
BSFL as an al e na i e eed sou ce and ag o-was e disposal ou e g ow h pe o mance, eed con e sion a ios and nu i ional composi-
ion o die s, and ha es ed la ae and he emaining o ganic ma e
( ass), insec die s, ha es , anspo a ion, insec p oduc ion, BSF
compos ing e sus con en ional ag o- esidue ea men , BSF e sus
soybean meal o ishmeal p o ein
Beye s e al. (2023)
En i onmen al impac scena ios o o ganic ac ion municipal solid
was e ea men wi hBSFL
ma e ial deple ion, ene gy consump ion, wa e use, and eeds ock con-
e sion, Equipmen li espan, Sub-p oduc gene a ion, Use o enew-
able ene gies, Ene gy consump ion, T anspo o he inal p oduc s
Fe ona o e al. (2023)
G eenhouse Gas Emissions subs a e quali y, expe imen al design pa ame e s, ambien condi-
ions, sampling p ocedu e, gas de ec ion and measu emen me hods,
accoun o GHG emission a ia ions be ween s udies, la ae age
be o e he expe imen , he la ae densi y, eed a e, eeding s a e-
gies such as con inuous, in e mi en , and bulk; and he housing
chambe , olume, mois u e con en , senso y cha ac e is ics, chemi-
cal p ope ies, heology, po osi y, and p e- ea men
Boakye-Yiadom e al. (2022)
En i onmen al pe o mance o insec p o ein insec die (a] Vege ables wi h high economic alue (mixes o g ains,
ou , b an, ege ables and bee yeas ) b]Vege ables wi h low
economic alue (dis ille ’s d ied g ains wi h solubles, spen g ains,
cookie emains)
Modahl and B ekke (2022)
Food was e bio-con e sion by black soldie ly la ae (He me ia
illucens L.)
Ni ogen emission du ing biocon e sion, Subs i u ion capabili y o
mine al e ilize , Ene gy consump ion o d ying, Subs i u ion
capabili y o p o ein eed, Ene gy consump ion o sepa a ion, Ni o-
gen emi ed du ing pos -compos ing, acidi ica ion and e es ial
eu ophica ion
Guo e al. (2021)
Insec p oduc ion and p ocessing as a pa h o e icien and sus ainable
ood was e ea men
insec meal, eed con e sion a io, la ae biomass, size, he weigh
and he composi ion o he la ae, empe a u e, ela i e humidi y,
pho ope iod, ea ing densi y,
I es e al. (2020)
Chemical /s Enzyma ic-Assis ed Ex ac ion o P o eins om BSF
P e-pupae o he P epa a ion o Bioma e ials o Po en ial Ag icul-
u al Use
Di e en phases o BSF ea ing iz., adul ma ing, o iposi ion, egg
ha ching and la a, BSF biomolecule ex ac ion and ac iona ion,
ex ac ion yield and bio-plas ic p epa a ion
Rosa e al. (2020)
30327
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
Table 5 (con inued)
Li e cycle assessmen s udy Pa ame e s conside ed Re e ence
Con e sion o o ganic esou ces by BSFL: legisla ion, e iciency and
en i onmen al impac
Ene gy use, land Use, global wa ming po en ial, CO2 emission Bosch e al. (2019)
BSF bio-was e ea men —Assessmen o global wa ming po en ial Di ec and indi ec emission o CH4, N2O, sys em design, ae a ion
a e, u ning equency, and/o eeds ock used
Me ena e al. (2019)
Sus ainable use o He me ia illucens insec biomass o eed and ood Wa e use, eed inpu s, elec ici y and hea consump ion, p oduc ion
yields om an indus ial p oduce
Sme ana e al. (2019)
Using black soldie lies (He me ia illucens) o bio-con e was e om
he li es ock p oduc ion chain
BSF b eeding, BSF biomolecule ac iona ion, bio-plas ic p oduc ion Spinelli e al. (2019)
Al e na i e Scena ios o Was e T ea men —Food Was e P oduc ion
by he Mass-Re ail Sec o
Insec meal, elec ici y and diesel consump ion, e di ec emissions due
o was e ea men , wa e consump ion, leacha e disposal, anspo
Salomone e al. (2017)
En i onmen al impac o ood was e biocon e sion by He me ia
illucens ood-was e, ou pu composed o d ied la ae, p o ein con en , lipid
con en
Salomone e al. (2017)
Biodeg adable was e ea men sys ems h ough BSF loss o ni a es h ough leaching and uno , elec ici y p oduc ion
om biogas, phase o he diges a e/compos p oduced, Ammonia
ola ilisa ion losses, A oided emissions
Sme ana e al. (2016)
Biodeg adable was e ea men sys ems o sub-Saha an A ican ci ies Anae obic diges ion, compos ing, downs eam emission, sys em
capaci y and li espan, CO2 emission, anspo a ion, ene gy u ilized,
elec ici y
Komakech e al. (2015)
30328
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
a holis ic pe spec i e on he en i onmen al impac o p oduc s de i ed om black soldie
ly ea men . Analyzing each s age o he li e cycle allows o he iden i ica ion o po en ial
en i onmen al ho spo s and in o ms sus ainable p ac ices in he p oduc ion and u iliza ion
o hese aluable insec -de i ed ma e ials (Boakye-Yiadom e al., 2021).
7.1 The en i onmen al bene i s o p oduc s de i ed omBSF la ae: asanimal
eed and e ilize
Because ood sys ems a e he main cause o en i onmen al de e io a ion, ecen publica-
ions ha e highligh ed he need o die change (FAO, 2021; Kim e al., 2020). In compa i-
son o he base pe iod a e age o 2018–2020, he ou pu o mea wo ldwide is p edic ed
o ise by 13% (44 M ) o e he nex en yea s, eaching 374 M by 2030 (OECD/FAO,
2021; p. 48). Acco ding o FAOSTAT 2021, he pe cen age o all ag icul u al emissions
a ibu ed o animals h ough in es inal e men a ion and manu e is 44% and 20%, espec-
i ely, in 2019. Acco ding o OECD/FAO (2021; p. 165), g eenhouse gas p oduc ions om
ag icul u e o e he 2018–2020 pe iod accoun ed o a ound 54% o all emissions (on CO2
equi alence basis). Edible insec s could be c ea ed o eplace mea p oduc s and also be
used as eed elemen s because hey ha e a high p o ein con en on he edge and a s ong
nu ien p o ile, making hem a signi ican subs i u e o con en ional ca le (Rumpold &
Schlü e , 2013). Insec s equi e e y li le land o ene gy o p oduce, and hey can be p o-
duced quickly and all yea ound, unlike o he eeds ock such as soybeans. FAO endo sed
insec s o hei sus ainabili y bene i s, saying, “Insec s ha e a high ood con e sion a e,
e.g. c icke s equi e six imes less eed han ca le, ou imes a lesse amoun o han sheep,
and wice less han pigs and b oile chickens o p oduce he same amoun o p o ein.” And
inally, insec s can se e as a p o ein- ich subs i u e o he wild-caugh ish ha a e o en
used as aquacul u e inpu s, ende ing aquacul u e a sus ainable solu ion o o e ishing (Sli-
men e al., 2023).
Acco ding o Celi on, 2021, ca le need 7.7kg o eed o p oduce 1kg o mea , sheep
needs 6.3kg, po k needs 3.6kg, chicken needs 2.2kg, and BSFL mea needs 1.5kg. This
leads o he in e ence ha plan -based die s a e p e e able o animal p oduc s ob ained
om con en ional ca le in e ms o global wa e consump ion as well as he inc eased
demand o ood b ough on by an expanding wo ldwide popula ion (Celi on, 2021). I
would be exci ing o compa e insec s’ wa e oo p in wi h ha o animal p oduc s as well
as eed c ops in e ms o nu i ional quali y because hey ha e a much highe eed con e -
sion e iciency since hey a e cold-blooded, can de i e hei mois u e demand om ood
and do no necessa ily need d inking wa e , and can g ow on o ganic was e (Van Huis,
2015). Ne e heless, i has o be conside ed, ha he eed con e sion e iciency o BSF is
empe a u e-dependen (Chia e al., 2018). I may be in e ed ha empe a u e-con olled
aising con aine s a e equi ed o insec s o gain maximum mass in he sho es amoun o
ime, use he leas amoun o ood, and emi he ewes amoun o emissions, which indi-
ca es g ea e ene gy consump ion han o con en ional li es ock (Rumpold & Schlü e ,
2013). In addi ion o he wa e used in he manu ac u e o ood and eed, i s e ec s on
g eenhouse gas emissions mus be aken in o accoun . Rega ding li es ock’s o e all wo ld-
wide con ibu ion o g eenhouse gas emissions, i was disco e ed ha ca le p oduced 9%
o CO2, 35–40% o CH4, 65% o N2O, and 64% o NH3 o all an h opogene ic g eenhouse
gas emissions (Rumpold & Schlü e , 2013). When compa ing he en i onmen al impac o
lab-g own mea and mycop o ein-based analogues sco ed highes and insec -based and soy
meal-based subs i u es lowes (Sme ana e al., 2015). Bu Onwezen e al. (2021) ound ha
30335
Fu u e oppo uni ies o p oduc s de i ed omblack soldie …
hese bene i s, cu en egula ions hinde he in oduc ion o hese p oduc s in o he wes -
e n li es ock eed ma ke . Addi ionally, by-p oduc s o BSF, such as an imic obial pep-
ides, show po en ial o se ing as no el an imic obial medicines o animals and humans.
Chi in, ano he BSF by-p oduc , exhibi s immunological e ec s on human lung diseases
and holds p omise o medical applica ions.
In he domain o o ganic e ilize s, BSF la ae ass eme ges as a aluable op ion
o sus ainable cul i a ion globally. Howe e , u he in es iga ion is needed ega ding
he po en ial o ass ob ained om compos ing biodeg adable was es using BSF la ae.
The composi ion o ass a ies conside ably, wi h nu ien concen a ions like P, K, and
mic onu ien s being hea ily dependen on he eed subs a e. As ass may no possess
he op imal nu ien composi ion, pa icula ly being P-domina ed, supplemen ing i wi h
ano he nu ien inpu , speci ically N-domina ed, could c ea e a mo e balanced e ilize .
Fu u e s udies should explo e nu ien supplemen a ion o ass-based e ilize s o mee
he speci ic needs o di e en c ops. Addi ionally, he ole o bio-s imulan s, plan g ow h-
p omo ing hizobac e ia, and ungi in BSFL ass equi es u he explo a ion, o e ing sig-
ni ican po en ial o ad ancing sus ainable cul i a ion p ac ices globally. A comp ehen-
si e app oach connec ing di e en p ocess s eps wi h a ious aspec s o in e es is c ucial
o ully unde s anding he po en ial o BSF-de i ed p oduc s in animal eeds and was e-
de i ed e ilize s.
Au ho con ibu ions SAS—Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Valida ion, Da a Cu a ion, W i ing—O igi-
nal D a , W i ing—Re iew and Edi ing, Visualiza ion, Supe ision, P ojec Adminis a ion, In es iga ion,
Funding Acquisi ion, Resou ces. ASG— W i ing-O iginal D a . MH—W i ing—O iginal D a . TR—
Concep ualiza ion, Re iew and Edi ing. SNP—Valida ion. IF—W i ing—Re iew and Edi ing. RC-M- Fo -
mal Analysis.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL. The open access publishing ee
is co e ed unde he ag eemen be ween he DEAL Conso ium and Sp inge and Sp inge Na u e upon
accep ance due o Shahida Anusha Siddiqui being a ilia ed o he Technical Uni e si y o Munich.
Da a a ailabili y No da a we e used o analysed in his s udy.
Decla a ions
Compe ing in e es The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal
ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License,
which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long
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om he copy igh holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/.

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S.A.Siddiqui e al.
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Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and
ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Au ho s and A ilia ions
ShahidaAnushaSiddiqui1,2 · AnkushSubhashGadge3· Muza a Hasan4·
TeguhRahayu5· Se geyNikolae ichPo e kin6· I oFe nando7 ·
Robe oCas o‑Muñoz8
* Shahida Anusha Siddiqui
S.Siddiqui@dil-e .de
* Robe o Cas o-Muñoz
ood.bio ec[email p o ec ed]
30354
S.A.Siddiqui e al.
Ankush Subhash Gadge
[email p o ec ed]
Muza a Hasan
[email p o ec ed]
Teguh Rahayu
eguh. aha[email p o ec ed]
Se gey Nikolae ich Po e kin
[email p o ec ed]u
I o Fe nando
i_ e [email p o ec ed]
1 Campus S aubing o Bio echnology andSus ainabili y, Technical Uni e si y o Munich,
Essigbe g 3, 94315S aubing, Ge many
2 Ge man Ins i u e o Food Technologies (DIL E.V.), P o .-Von-Kli zing S . 7, 49610Quakenb ück,
Ge many
3 Fo es College andResea ch Ins i u e, Tamil Nadu Ag icul u al Uni e si y,
Me upalayam,Coimba o e, TamilNadu641301, India
4 Cen e o Excellence onSoybean P ocessing andU iliza ion, ICAR-Cen al Ins i u e
o Ag icul u al Enginee ing, Bhopal, MadhyaP adesh462038, India
5 CV He me iaTech, Voza P emium O ice 20 h Floo , Jl. HR. Muhammad No. 31A, Pu a Gede,
Su abaya, JawaTimu 60189, Indonesia
6 Labo a o y o Food andIndus ial Bio echnology, No h Caucasus Fede al Uni e si y, Pushkina
S ee 1, S a opol, Russia355000
7 Depa men o Plan Pes s andDiseases, Facul y o Ag icul u e, Uni e si as B awijaya, Malang,
Eas Ja a65145, Indonesia
8 Depa men o Sani a y Enginee ing, Facul y o Ci il andEn i onmen al Enginee ing, Gdansk
Uni e si y o Technology, G. Na u owicza S . 11/12, 80–233Gdańsk, Poland