Future opportunities for products derived from black soldier fly (BSF) treatment as animal feed and fertilizer - A systematic review

Siddiqui, Shahida Anusha et al. Article — Published Version Future opportunities for products derived from black soldier fly (BSF) treatment as animal feed and fertilizer - A systematic review Environment, Development and Sustainability Provided in Cooperation with: Springer Nature Suggested Citation: Siddiqui, Shahida Anusha et al. (2024) : Future opportunities for products derived from black soldier fly (BSF) treatment as animal feed and fertilizer - A systematic review, Environment, Development and Sustainability, ISSN 1573-2975, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, Vol. 26, Iss. 12, pp. 30273-30354, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04673-8 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/315231 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Vol.:(0123456789) Environment, Development and Sustainability (2024) 26:30273–30354 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04673-8 REVIEW Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier fly (BSF) treatment asanimal feed andfertilizer ‑ Asystematic review ShahidaAnushaSiddiqui1,2 · AnkushSubhashGadge3· MuzaffarHasan4· TeguhRahayu5· SergeyNikolaevichPovetkin6· ItoFernando7 · RobertoCastro‑Muñoz8 Received: 24 August 2023 / Accepted: 18 February 2024 / Published online: 28 March 2024 © The Author(s) 2024 Abstract The pursuit of novel food products with good nutritional value for both direct and indirect human consumption is crucial. Given the nutritional benefits of insects and the sustainability of this sort of farming, using them as food for farmed animals is a promising alternative. In this regard, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) is most capable of efficiently converting a wide variety of organic materials, from food waste to manure, into insect biomass generating value and closing nutrient loops as they reduce pollution and costs. Their larvae have 29% fat and 42% crude protein, yet they have more saturated fats than most insects. They don’t concentrate hazards such as mycotoxins or insecticides. Although rapid development is expected, insects remain underutilized in the animal feed industry mainly due to technical, financial, and regulatory barriers. The social stigmas and legal prohibitions against eating organisms that eat waste are added to extant taboos facing insect consumption. Bridging the knowledge gap is crucial to bring together stakeholders and to better understand the opportunities and challenges of this novel industry, so as to develop guidelines on producing insects on an industrial scale to facilitate the wider use of BSF products as animal feed, and fertilizer. Keywords Black soldier fly· Fertilizer· Animal feed· Opportunities· Challenges· Fish· Poultry 1 Introduction According to research, the world’s population will increase to roughly 9.6 billion people by 2050. Hence, to feed the population in 2050, the Food & Agricultural Organization (FAO) predicts food production will need to rise by 70%, with double meat production in beef, poultry, and hog (Higa etal., 2021). Therefore, the demand for meat and seafood is speculated to rise with the rising of aquaculture business. Food manufacturers have been compelled to develop novel alternative protein-based products to muscle meat in response to consumer demand for sustainable food. The production of muscle meat Extended author information available on the last page of the article 30274 S.A.Siddiqui et al. from livestock animals contributes to the deterioration of the ecosystem worldwide by consuming land (30%) and its water (8%) in addition to the gas emissions (14.5%) (over those from transportation) (Lamb etal., 2021; Siddiqui etal., 2022). Eutrophication and deforestation, which account for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (34%), are further growing problems brought on by cattle production (Siddiqui etal., 2022). In several nations throughout the world, insects have recently been recognized as a significant potential source of sustainable raw materials for animal feeds. In terms of nutritional make-up, amino acid profile, and feed acceptance—as a component of various animal species’ natural diets—insects satisfy the dietary needs of animals (Schiavone etal., 2018). The mass production of insect-based proteins could be a promising alternative to animal meat. Insect-based protein production requires less land, emits low GHGs, has low feed-food compatibility, and has the ability to transform organic wastes into valuable proteins, making the insects good for the environment (van Huis & Oonincx, 2017). For instance, using insects to bioconvert waste materials is an innovative strategy and a striking illustration of a circular economy that is sustainable (Sogari etal., 2019). Given their nutritional value, minimal space demand, and high acceptance by various animals, including fish, poultry, and reptiles who consume insects in their natural habitat, insects have a lot of promise as feed (Makkar, 2018). Furthermore, it is ethically acceptable to produce insects used as feed on organic wastes like fish offal and dung (Oteri etal., 2022). High nutritional qualities, feed efficiency, and reproductive capabilities are advantages of employing insects as cattle feed (Van Huis & Gasco, 2023). Insects can provide by-products, are naturally found in the diets of some livestock (such as fish, poultry, and pigs), and can have additional socioeconomic and environmental advantages (Devi & Kim, 2014). There are many types of insects that are acceptable, including mealworms, grasshoppers, crickets, locust, house fly larvae, silkworms, and black soldier fly (BSF) and its larvae (BSFL) (Sogari etal., 2019). BSFL, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), is thought to have the most potential for use as feed. Insect production depends on the environment, but generally speaking, they use less area and emit significantly less water and GHG than conventional feed (Rehman etal., 2023). Assuring a certain level of safety is a crucial component in commercializing any product. A major concern with using insects as food is standardization, because different insects are reared on different substrates, and different insect-consuming nations consequently have different legal systems (Riera, 2018). Laws governing the safety of the substrate that insects are raised on, for example, may not be as stringent in some areas as they are in the European Union (EU). According to experts, the primary obstacle preventing the sector from taking off globally is the stringent EU rules (Van Huis & Gasco, 2023). The poorest and most vulnerable people in society can gain from insect rearing. Insects will eventually replace traditional feed as a more affordable and environmentally friendly source of protein with significant technological advancements. Insects raised on waste have the potential to reduce and value global waste sources (Heuel etal., 2021). By making investments in renewable energy, insect farming will become less dependent on fossil fuels (Surendra etal., 2016). The BSF market has a limited economic potential now, but it is anticipated to rise rapidly over the next few years. The global market had a 2019 value of $128 million but is expected to increase to $3.4 billion by 2030 (Foo & Li, 2021). In addition, Asia Pacific held the greatest share of the global market in 2019 in terms of volume (57.1%) and value (almost 50%). The demand for meat and seafood is expected to rise along with the global population, and the aquaculture business is expanding as well (Foo & Li, 2021). 30275 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… In the past ten years, BSFL treatment has emerged as a viable way of treating biodegradable garbage that may contribute to the three difficulties listed. Biodegradable waste is transformed into two products in this insect-based treatment: a larval biomass rich in proteins and lipids that may be utilized in animal feed and a processing residue known as frass that can be used as fertilizer in a variety of ways (Kumar etal., 2018). This method adheres to the concepts of a circular bio economy, in which the waste from one process becomes the resource in another because two valuable goods are produced (van der Fels-Klerx etal., 2020). One of the key outcomes of the process was frass, which may take the place of traditional N fertilizers and reduce the risk of global warming that comes with using any type of conventional N fertilizer (Schmitt & de Vries, 2020). Reports indicate that the process for frass production from BSFL shows less environmental damage, minimal utilization of energy and water, and less impact on global warming and other impact categories than the process of organic fertilizer (Lopes etal., 2022). It is interesting to note that the environmental advantages of producing insect frass are strongly tied to the substrate source used to feed the larvae, with lesser impacts being documented when using non-utilized waste streams instead of conventional items like soybean meal (Heuel etal., 2021). Frass has begun to draw attention in recent years due to its ongoing production in waste treatment facilities, plenty of plant nutrients, and potential to help the agribusiness industry generate cash (Lugato etal., 2020). However, compared to the larval biomass obtained through the same method, frass has not received as much attention. Particularly, there are several information gaps about the application of frass and its advantages in farming and other cultivation-related activities (Lopes etal., 2022). BSFL composting, using organic wastes to produce frass, and also using BSF as animal feed have all been the subject of extensive investigation. This study will provide the reader with an extensive and succinct source of knowledge by summarizing the results of selected prior studies on BSFL organic waste treatment and the potential use of BSF by-products that focused on larvae and frass. 2 Methodology 2.1 Eligibility criteria, articles search strategy anddataset development We applied the following inclusion in this review by following population, intervention, comparators, outcomes, and study design (PICOS) as follows: (1) Consumers; (2) BSF products; (3) consumer studies focused on future opportunities for products derived from the black soldier fly treatment as animal feed and fertilizer; (4) articles consistently written in English and published after being peer reviewed. After careful evaluation, a raw dataset that reported consumer studies focused on future opportunities for products derived from the black soldier fly treatment as animal feed and fertilizer was constructed and extracted. The articles were carefully chosen and selected following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher etal., 2009). Published articles were extracted into Mendeley references manager (https:// www. mende ley. com/) with the following criteria: (1) name of the author; (2) publication year; (3) year of study; (4) type of BSF product derived and evaluated; and (5) results obtained. Initially, 1050 results were achieved through the Science Direct database (https:// www. scien cedir ect. com/). From these, 200 articles were excluded due to not being related to our topic, future opportunities for products derived from the BSF treatment 30276 S.A.Siddiqui et al. as animal feed and fertilizer and 185 articles for being duplicates; 435 articles were excluded as they did not discuss the effects of different BSF products derived and 15 articles for the language (non-English); 37 articles were excluded for non-peer reviewed papers/ inappropriate interpretation of results/ non-availability of full texts; finally, 178 articles remained for systematic review for consumer studies focused on future opportunities for products derived from the black soldier fly treatment as animal feed and fertilizer (Fig.1). The algorithm search key for the published article was set from 2012 to 2022, using the terms (“Black soldier fly”) AND (“BSF products”) AND (“animal feed” OR “fertilizer” OR “Life Cycle Assessment” OR “opportunities and challenges”). Fig. 1 Diagram flow of article selection 30277 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… 3 Products derived fromblack soldier fly treatment 3.1 Animal feed Animal feed is a food item that is consumed by the domestic animals in the course of Animal Husbandry. Animal feed is the most important source of nutrition intake by animals that ensures improved immunity, accelerated growth, and good health. With an increasing initiative for the production of sustainable protein animal feed acts as a high-value protein source for both livestock and fish. The commercial livestock farming success hugely depends on the constant best quality nutritious feeds supply. The livestock and the animal feed market are in harmony with each other in growth. The animal feed market is expected to surge in the coming years with furiously growing per capita consumption of eggs, boiler meat, and milk (Henchion etal., 2021). By 2050, the FAO of the United Nations predicts that 70% more food must be produced globally (van Dijk etal., 2021). Global meat output per person is expected to rise by 0.3% P.A. to 35.4kg in retail weight equivalent by 2030, according to the OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2021–2030 (OECD/FAO, 2021). As per the International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF), the manufacture of meat (poultry, swine, and cattle) will even double in the nearby future (Veldkamp & Bosch, 2015). The majority of the increase in meat production is, overall, attributed to developing regions, which will produce 80% more than they do now (https:// www. inves tment monit or. ai). Additionally, it was noted that during the following ten years, beef consumption is expected to rise to 76 Mt, accounting for almost 16% of the overall growth in meat consumption over the baseline period (OECD/FAO, 2021). Additionally, it is anticipated that during the next ten years, the global consumption of pig meat would rise to 127 Mt, making up 28% of the overall growth in meat consumption (OECD/FAO, 2021). As a effect, it is anticipated that the market for animal feed will be driven by an increase in meat consumption followed by population growth. Currently, fish meal, processed animal proteins, and soybean meal are significant protein constituents for animal feed (Veldkamp etal., 2012). However, the usage of processed animal proteins in animal feed is outlawed in the European Union as a result of TSE laws (Fumière etal., 2009). The quantity of land that can be utilised for soya farming is also constrained globally, while overfishing in the ocean has decreased the population of small pelagic forage fish, which are needed to produce fish meal and fish oil (Veldkamp etal., 2012). In the previous five years, prices have risen due to the increasing scarcity of resources needed to create these more in-demand ingredients, which already account for 60–70% of production expenses (Veldkamp etal., 2012). Alternative (animal) protein sources are thus desperately needed for aquaculture and cattle (Veldkamp etal., 2012). Insects are an alternate source of animal protein that can be sustainably farmed on organic side streams. Many factors contribute to their high feed conversion efficiency, but their cold blood is most certainly one of them. On a dry matter basis, insects have a protein content of 30–70% (Veldkamp etal., 2012). When a drought or other extreme weather event brought on by climate change affects farmers or herders, they frequently have to switch to more expensive manufactured animal feed, which can have a negative impact on their capacity to make a living (Gitz etal., 2016). Today insect protein is used in fish feed and pet food. A brief overview of feed resources used to prepare different animal feeds and major nutritional composition (Table 2) for poultry, livestock, fish, and pets is depicted in Table1. The next step will be to authorize the use of insect protein for poultry feed and other livestock. Many articles deal with using 30278 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Table 1 Overview of insect-based feed resources for poultry, livestock, fish, and pet Type of animal feed Feed resources Processing technology Uses Animal species Reference BSFL Meal NA Killing, drying, and defatting method larvae meal can partially replace conventional soya bean meal and soya bean oil in the diet for growing broiler quails, thus confirming to be a promising insect protein source for the feed industry Broiler quails (Coturnix coturnix japonicaI) Cullere etal. (2018) Defatted BSFL meal and fat Wheat bran (air dry) & solubles from wheat distillery Larvae were killed by heat shock, dried, and mechanically defatted with an industrial press The results indicate that soybean-based feeds can be replaced completely by black soldier fly meal and fat in diets of highperforming layers Lohmann Brown Classic hens (Crossbreed) Heuel etal. (2021) BSF prepupae meal Organic kitchen waste, fruits and vegetables After harvest, the BSF pre-pupae were dried at 65°C and ground to a meal BSF pre-pupae meal (up to 15%) can be included in broiler diets without influencing the carcass, sensory or meat quality characteristics Cobb broiler chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) Pieterse etal. (2019) BSF Prepupae meal Vegetable and fruit wastes Harvested prepupae processed, sun dried (32°C) for three days and finally, oven dried for three days at 50°C. The ground (around 500μm) prepupae was used for the broiler feeding trials Black soldier fly prepupae meal can be incorporated at 5% in broiler diet Cobb chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) Elangovan etal. (2021) 30279 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… Table 1 (continued) Type of animal feed Feed resources Processing technology Uses Animal species Reference Black soldier fly larvae oil (BSO) NA Obtained from company Findings suggest that BSO can replace Soybean Oil (SO) in the formulation of broiler diets, with 50% BSO being the best Kebao broiler chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) Chen etal. (2022) Live Black soldier fly larvae NA Larvae were produced in GMP + and SecureFeed certified facility under HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) conditions Live BSF larvae can be used in combination with local plant proteins to successfully replace soy in diets of older laying hens. Feeding hens live BSF larvae also had a positive effect on the feather condition of birds with intact beaks Old laying hens Star etal. (2020) Partially and highly defatted BSFL meal Cereal byproducts The collected larvae were dried for 20h in an oven at low temperature (60°C) and ground to a meal. High pressure and without solvents method Defatted BSF meals can be considered as an excellent source of apparent metabolizable energy and digestible amino acid for broilers with a better efficient nutrient digestion Broiler chickens Schiavone etal. (2017) 30280 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Table 1 (continued) Type of animal feed Feed resources Processing technology Uses Animal species Reference BSFL meal and BSFL fat Powdered compound feed and vegetarian b-products of the pasta Harvested larvae, killed (by freezing) and stored at -20°C. Finally the larvae were washed, dried at 60°C for 24–34h depending on the water content, ground and defatted by pressing. A commercial oil press was used Hermetia meal can be a valuable component of layer diets Lohmann selected Leghorn laying hens Maurer etal. (2016) BSFL oil and meal NA NA BSFL oil and meal can be used as dietary energy, protein and amino acids for hen maintenance, egg production and yolk coloration, although there may be upper limits of dietary inclusion White leg horn Patterson etal. (2021) BSF protein derivatives NA Pasteurization, partially defatted & dried, enzymatic hydrolyzation Effective in protecting the animal cells from oxidative damage as a consequence of immune response NA Mouithys-Mickalad etal. (2020) BSF fat Chicken feed Fat from Freeze-dried prepupae extracted with diethyl ether Soybean products (meal and/or toasted beans) can be replaced by BSF without adverse effects on performance Weaned piglets Spranghers etal. (2017) 30287 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… Table 1 (continued) Type of animal feed Feed resources Processing technology Uses Animal species Reference Full-fat BSFL meal Starter feed of broilers BSFL were dehydrated in a forced air circulation oven at 55°C for 24h. Dehydrated larvae were ground in a multiprocessor with 0.8mm mesh BSFL meal seems to be a promising source of protein and energy for omnivorous fish aquafeed Colossoma macropomum (Tambaqui) Monteiro dos Santos etal. (2023) 30288 S.A.Siddiqui et al. insects as feed for pets, pigs, poultry, and as aquafeed. Of all feed produced in the world (1.1 billion tons), poultry takes 44.8%, pigs 25.9%, ruminants 22.2%, aquaculture 4.5% and pets 2.6% (Alltech, 2016). In general, it seems that the nutritional composition of insects, such as the high protein, lauric acid omega 6, and omega 3, and bioactive compounds, such as chitin, seems to have potential in animal feeding (Shah etal., 2022). A schematic summary of how animal feed and fertilizer (BSF Frass) is produced from BSF is given in Fig.2, where the inputs of organic waste are converted by BSFL by artificial rearing in at controlled environment to get outputs as protein meal, lipids, chitin and biofertilizer. 3.1.1 Commercial animal feed versusproducts derived fromBSF larvae 3.1.1.1 Aqua feed By 2030, aquaculture, or fish farming, is anticipated to contribute 62% of the world’s fish supply (FAO, 2014). The need of fish for human feeding and depleted fisheries, amongst other factors, have increased the price and driven up the cost of fish meal and oil, forcing fisheries to look for alternatives like vegetable oils despite the fact that it is well acknowledged that they are essential for aquaculture (Li etal., 2016). Fishmeal and fish oil are the main source of protein and essential fats in aquatic feed production. For the manufacture of these, 18 million tons was used in 2018 which is 10% of the total production Fig. 2 Schematic summary of how animal feed and fertilizer is produced from Black Soldier Fly treatment 30289 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… of world fisheries and aquaculture (FAO, 2020). A major protein source in aquafeeds is soybean meal but its increasing price, poor content of methionine and lysine, and the presence of anti-nutritional factors, especially trypsin inhibitor, is a drawback (Chakraborty etal., 2019; Chen etal., 2019). Processed animal proteins (PAPs) which are allowable to be used in fish feed, are not yet included in many of the feed products on the market today. Insect protein has similar characteristics to PAPs and provides a good, sustainable alternative. The demand for formulated fish feed presents an opportunity for the insect sector. If given a diet that is sufficiently high in lipids, BSFL can hoard fats in their bodies. Vegetable oils are typically less appetising to fish than BSFL. When fish offal is added to the larval diet, pre-pupae that are enriched in omega-3 fatty acids are formed (St-Hilaire etal., 2007). When related to regular fish meals, these "enriched" pre-pupae are fit fish feeds, producing no appreciable changes in fish development and vision (Oncorhynchus mykiss, rainbow trout) (Sealey etal., 2011). Nairuti etal. (2021) reviewed several studies for possible replacement levels of fishmeal with BSF meal and this ranged from 10% for meager juveniles (Argyrosomus regius) to 25% for Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii) and pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), 50% for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) to 100% for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). According to sensory investigation of trout fillets, fish given fish meal, BSFL, or enriched BSFL diets did not differ in any manner (Sealey etal., 2011). One more study on rainbow trout (Renna etal., 2017) suggested supplementing the diet with up to 40% defatted BSFL with no contrary effects on the physical quality of the fillet or the fish’s physiology, but they did notice a drop in beneficial polyunsaturated fats. In another study on rainbow trout, the top limit for BSFL in the diet for unaffected fish growth was determined at 15% (Renna etal., 2017). No differences in growth performance between BSFL oil and soybean oil were detected in a study on young Jian carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian), but it was found that as BSFL oil’s share of the diet increased, carp lipid deposition decreased (Li etal., 2016). After trials with the African catfish, Clarias gariepinus demonstrated that total BSFL replacement of fish meal in diets (where it made up just 25%) had no consequence on development rate and nutrient utilisation indicators, BSFL were proposed as an alternative due to their lower cost. Finally, BSFL can considerably contribute to sustainable aquaculture as a partial or full meal replacement, for aquatic invertebrates like prawns (Cummins etal., 2017). This is the conclusion reached by numerous writers. This is due to BSFL’s capacity to transform potentially low-protein organic wastes into protein-rich edible biomass. Tran etal. (2024) reviewed 107 studies dealing with 23 freshwater and 17 marine fish species, and 17 insect species as a replacement for fishmeal. While in general high levels of BSF seem to depress fish growth (Hua, 2021). The major factors limiting inclusion of insects in aquafeed are: reduction in protein digestibility, imbalanced amino acid profile and increasing levels of saturated fatty acid (Liland etal., 2021). Although Quang Tran etal. (2022) consider insect meal as an excellent potential to supply protein for aquafeeds, they recommend addressing nutritional composition and environmental aspects and developing suitable insect-specific substrates as aquafeed. Future research should focus on nutritive values of different insect species and the necessity to identify optimal levels for different types of insect meals. In July 2017, insect proteins from seven insect species were authorised in the EU for use in aqua feed, opening new feed markets for insect producers. Like other farmed animals, these insect species may only be fed with ‘feed grade materials’ such as materials of plant origin, processed eggs, milk and their derived products. Above 5000 tonnes of insect protein have been commercialised by European insect producers in total, since the authorisation of insect proteins 30290 S.A.Siddiqui et al. for use in aqua feed. Today, the aqua feed market consumes more than 50% of European animal feed made from insects and this is expected to increase in the coming years (Liland etal., 2021). 3.1.1.2 Poultry feed Today insect proteins cannot be fed to poultry in European Union as legislation passed after the BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) crisis in the late 1990s prevents processed animal proteins from being fed to livestock. Only fishmeal may be used and yet, over 90% of EU insect feed producers see poultry feed as a ‘promising opportunity’ (IPIFF, 2018). Dörper etal. (2021) concluded that partial replacement of soybean meal by larvae of BSF or housefly in feed is beneficial for poultry. Chodova and Tumova (2020) reviewed a number of studies, and identified that insect meals can have a positive influence on growth of chickens without adverse impact on carcass and meat quality characteristics. BSFL has been used in poultry feed as an incomplete replacement for maizeor soybased feeds. The species naturallycolonizesand decomposes poultry manure. Where populations of it are routinely maintained by poultry farms for the benefit of waste management and pollution reduction. There was no difference in productive act, breast meat weight, or yield between the control group and either of the two BSFL meal proportions in experiments with grill quails, Coturnix coturnix japonica (Cullere etal., 2018). The oxidative status, lipid content, and sensory and flavour judgements of breast meat were unchanged by BSFL supplementation. However, it did increase the meat’s amino acid content, improving its nutritional value (by increasing glutamic acid, alanine, aspartic acid, serine, tyrosine, and threonine). The amounts of undesirable saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids did, however, rise (Cullere etal., 2018). Similar outcomes were attained by adding BSFL to the feed of domestic broiler chickens (Gallus gallus), with the caveat that utilising defatted BSFL diminished the detrimental effects on fatty acid profiles. In both instances (partial or total replacement of soybean oil by BSFL fat), Schiavone etal. (2017) discovered that BSFL was a suitable source of protein for chicken feed, with the authors depicting that BSFL “inclusion definite satisfactory creative performances, carcass traits and complete meat quality” (Schiavone etal., 2017). The health or concert of the laying hens or the quality of the eggs were not affected by the addition of BSFL (50%) or the complete substitution of soybean cake in the diets of the hens (Maurer etal., 2016). As a result, BSFL are a probable partial replacement for poultry feed since they add extra protein and have the added benefit of being able to be raised on the waste of the same animals that will eventually consume them. 3.1.1.3 Pet feed Pet food is a mainstream market for European insect producers. Insect products are well-suited to the particular needs of pet food, due to their high digestibility and palatability. Some European pet food companies already incorporate insects in their feed formula, notably as a means to expand their products’ range e.g. in hypoallergenic products. This trend is expected to continue to grow in the next few years. While only 3% of all feed produced is for pets, 50% of the insect industry is engaged in producing for this sector (van Huis, 2022). Invitro assays displayed that fraction containing BSF larvae protein significantly inhibited the growth of Clostridium perfringens, which is for 28% of the cases responsible for diarrhoea in dogs (Dong etal., 2021). However, Bosch and Swanson (2021) caution that health-promoting effects of insect products need to be studied more as well as the long-term impact of insects as food on the nutritional status of dogs and cats. Concerning indispensable amino acids, the limiting ones with BSF methionine and threonine for dogs and the first methionine for cats (Bosch etal., 2019). 30291 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… 3.1.1.4 Pig feed It is assessed that soybean meal accounts for 85% of the protein supplements fed to pigs (Florou-Paneri etal., 2014). BSF larvae can partly replace soybean meal, and in addition may have interesting functional properties (Kar etal., 2021). The beneficial effects of BSF larvae intake on weaned pigs are diarrhoea reduction, better immune response, and improved small intestinal morphology (Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019). BSF prepupae are rich in lauric acid, known for its antimicrobial effects on Gram positive bacteria (Spranghers etal., 2017). The amino acid digestibility and growth performance in pigs fed BSF larval meal is analogous to that of soybean meal and fishmeal (Hong & Kim, 2022). In commercial conditions damaging behavior such as tail biting often occurs in post weaning pigs. Providing small amounts of live BSFL daily to piglets after weaning can improve piglet welfare while maintaining piglet performance (Ipema etal., 2021). However, the current price of insect meal is still higher than that of soybean, the reason to explore the potential added value of BSF compared to conventional protein sources. The necessity to consider different quality factors is a crucial component of successfully introducing insects into the feed chain. In this regard, the extended quality triangle proposed by Luning and Marcelis (2009) defines three quality aspects related to the product itself. This successful introduction of insect protein in feed is thought to depend on these three factors: insect quality as such, insect availability, and costs. Choosing appropriate insect species and strains, locating affordable rearing substrate (if possible by utilising organic waste side-streams, but ensuring feedstock safety when rearing insects on organic waste and manure), managing diseases and establishing sanitation procedures, producing a consistent supply of high-quality insects (including quality assurance), developing innovative and cost-effective production systems, and increasing a crop’s yield are the main challenges to using insects as feed. These factors can all be connected to one or more feed chain processes and will be further explored in this text (Veldkamp etal., 2012). Whereas, insects are the natural component of the diets of animals, such as carnivorous fish, poultry and pigs. They are high in protein from 50 to 82% (as a dry product) and can be added to animal feed with up to 40% insect content for fish feed and 30% for chicken feed. The environmental benefits of insect mass production include low greenhouse gas emissions (van Huis & Oonincx, 2017), the small amount of land required to produce 1kg of protein (Oonincx & de Boer, 2012), reduced land use due to lower feed-food competition (Makkar, 2018), and the ability to transform organic waste streams into high-value protein products (Meneguz etal., 2018). One innovative strategy and outstanding illustration of a sustainable circular economy is the use of insects in the bioconversion of waste materials (Meneguz etal., 2018). Therefore, it is well recognised that BSFL can be utilised as a substrate for a range of vertebrate wastes and can be used to feed a variety of vertebrates (Tomberlin etal., 2015). This has noteworthy repercussions for low-input, sustainable agriculture in underdeveloped nations (Nyakeri etal., 2017), yet it has no effect on how tasty the meat from BSFL-fed animals is for human consumption. Although the potential assistances are greatest in these developing nations, BSFL and added insect feeds are projected to assume larger roles over time in wealthy nations like the United States due to commitments to minimise waste made by food companies seeking approval from consumers and regulators who are becoming more environmentally sensible, as well as the fluctuating costs of fish meal and other feed driving theproducers to pursue alternatives (Klonick, 2017). 30292 S.A.Siddiqui et al. 3.1.2 Types ofproducts derived fromblack soldier fly larvae 3.1.2.1 Dried larvae BSF larvae meals are a valid, cost-effective, and highly nutritive alternative source of animal protein feed (Edea etal., 2022). Sources of protein in animal feed play an important role in forming body tissues and vital metabolism such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and so on (Beski etal., 2015). The use of insects as a source of protein has been widely studied and discussed around the world. Protein from insects is known to be more economical, environment friendly, easy for mass production and has high feed conversion efficiency (Van Huis, 2013). They are also part of natural feed for poultry (Makkar etal., 2014). One of the determinants of animal feed quality is expressed in terms of crude protein content and essential amino acids profile based on dry feed ingredients. BSF larvae is an alternative feed protein source that cannot be stored in the fresh form for a long time without drying. Fifteen days old larvae of BSF were dried either using the stove oven drying for 75min or using 800 Watts of microwave drying for 25min. The study concludes protein content of BSF larvae, were not significantly different between drying treatments, while the amino acid content was higher in the microwave drying than stove drying method. This study concludes that the above two methods can be used in preserving BSF larvae as a source of dietary protein for farm animals (Purnamasari etal., 2021). The protein content in larvae of BSF is used as animal feed. Larvae are living materials that, if not treated, will continue to grow into adult flies. In addition, if stored in a dead condition, the larval product will rot because it has a high-water content. Drying is an easy and inexpensive method to extend the shelf life of the product. Drying is a process of hydrating or removing water from material. The purpose of drying is to increase durability, reduce packaging costs, reduce transport weight, improve the taste of the ingredients, and maintain the nutritional content of the ingredients (Achanta & Okos, 2000). Therefore, BSF larvae need proper processing strategies to maintain nutrient content in ingredients, to be able to extend a longer shelf life and, make it easier to be used in formulations of feed ration. 3.1.2.2 Protein meal BSF protein meal has high-quality amino acids, lipids and micro nutrients to boost the animal’s health naturally. It fully replaces conventional protein in many dry and wet pet food and aquaculture applications, while adding functional benefits and superior palatability. A well-balanced combination of high-quality amino acids, lipids and micro nutrients, easily digestible proteins (> 85%), superior palatability, high freshness index (BAI < 1), suitable for hypoallergenic diets in pet food, and other functional characteristics (Rawski etal., 2021). The protein content of the insect species is within the soybean/ fish meal range and fat content is higher especially compared to (defatted) soybean meal. The pet industry hasboomed during the pandemic, with purchase and adoption of pets rising, spending on petshitting a recordin 2020, and the trend so intenseveterinarians have struggledto keep up with demand (Hornyak, 2021). BSFL can be processed in different ways which results in ingredients for the feed industry with different protein and fat contents. The defatted BSFL meal (D-BSFL) is produced by partial or total fat extraction using pressing or organic solvents, and the resulting defatted meal is then posteriorly dried and ground. D-BSFL has around 60% protein and 10–12% lipid content (Barroso etal., 2014; Monteiro dos Santos etal., 2023). The full-fat BSFL (FF-BSFL) meal is easy to produce by drying and posteriorly grinding. The FFBSFL is a low-cost technology when related to D-BSFL as it avoids expenses associated with fat extraction processes. FF-BSFL has an average content of 42% crude protein and 30293 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… 30% lipids (Magalhães etal., 2017; Veldkamp etal., 2012). Insects as feed ingredients for aquafeeds are on the rise in science and industry sectors, since there is an emergent necessity for alternative protein sources to fish meal and fish oil (Rawski etal., 2021). 3.1.2.3 Oil Insect lipid thatprovides a quick source of energy due to high levels of easily digestible medium-chain fatty acids. contains 40% lauric acid, which is recognized for its antimicrobial properties in the digestive tract. A healthy gut means a stronger immune system. is an especially valuable energy source for younger animals that suffer from digestive problems and have impaired nutrient absorption. The animals grow healthy while the industry reduces its ecological footprint. Oil extraction efficiency could be improved by acid hydrolysis prior to down-stream processing of BSFL. The separated oil from conventional down-stream process has a high content of trilaurin giving a melting point at 26°C that may cause technical issues for some feed and food applications. Lower trilaurin content and melting point can be achieved by acid hydrolysis of BSFL and/or winterization of the oils. This will allow producers of BSFL to tailor oil properties to various markets (Bogevik etal., 2022). BSFL oil is dominated by a few fatty acids (mainly 12:0, lauric acid) (Ushakova etal., 2019) which limit its inclusion levels in cold-water aquaculture feeds. These feeds normally include fish oil and rapeseed oil with a large distribution of fatty acids including polyunsaturated acids. Replacement of corn oil with BSFL oil at 0, 4, 6 and 8% showed a linear increase of growth in nursery pigs (Heugten etal., 2019). In addition, lauric acid from BSFL demonstrated antimicrobial properties on gastrointestinal bacteria. While 5% inclusion of BSFL oil to a basal broiler chicken diet had no effect on growth, 50 and 100% replacement of soybean oil with BSFL oil reduced growth in broiler chickens (Kim etal., 2020). In a diet to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), replacement of fish oil with BSFL oil had no effect on growth (Kim etal., 2020). Increased inclusion of BSFL meal or oils in diets has generally caused increased saturated fatty acid content in edible meat products. The content of saturated fatty acids in meat is closely related to the texture (Belghit etal., 2019a, 2019b). Thus, an increased ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids is more desirable both for meat quality and human health (Hong etal., 2013; Wood etal., 2004) Nevertheless, the high saturated fatty acid content of the BSFL could be beneficial in terms of energy and antimicrobial activity (Świątkiewicz etal., 2016). 3.2 Frass asfertilizer According to Commission Regulation (EU) 2021/1925, frass is defined as a mixture of excrements derived from farmed insects, the feeding substrate, parts of farmed insects, dead eggs and with a content of dead farmed insects of not more than 5% in volume and not more than 3% in weight (EU, 2021). A large variety of organic waste streams (e.g. manure, food waste, biogas slurries) can be converted by BSF larvae into new insect biomass and the residual fraction is called frass (Elissen etal., 2023). The composition of the produced frass is variable depending on the composition of the substrates (Elissen etal., 2023) especially P, K and micronutrient concentrations (Lopes etal., 2022). Frass can contain significant amounts of N, P, K, organic matter and other components such as chitin (from the larvae skins). Beesigamukama etal. (2022) concluded that BSF frass has significantly higher N (20–130%) and K (17–193%) concentrations compared to frasses of other insects. However, frass is a biologically unstable product, due to its rapid breakdown and the presence of substances with potential phytotoxic properties. As a P dominated 30294 S.A.Siddiqui et al. fertilizer, N supplementation is necessary to make BSF frass a more balanced fertilizer product (Lopes etal., 2022). The frass can be used for different applications: direct or composted as fertilizer or soil conditioner, or for biogas production (e.g. Bulak etal., 2020; Hol etal., 2022). BSF frass application led to the highest seed germination rate/index (Beesigamukama etal., 2022). Table2 highlights the nutrient composition of BSF frass obtained by using different organic wastes. 3.2.1 Commercial fertilizer versusblack soldier fly frass The world-wide agricultural industry is confronted with numerous issues. According to the UN, by 2050, the world population will have surpassed nine billion people. This will put a lot of pressure on agricultural business, which is already suffering from a loss of productivity. Farmers are forced to use fertilizers to enhance their agricultural output due to loss of arable land across the globe and to meet requirement of growing population (FAO, 2017). Being expensive, the organic and synthetic fertilizers can’t be affordable by farmers. Many of the organic fertilizers supply limited nutrients and release the nutrients slowly (Shaji etal., 2021). Synthetic fertilizers are toxic to the skin and respiratory system and damage the plants and reduce soil fertility by easy washout of nutrients and also cause eutrophication. This paves a way to use insect frass as potential fertilizer. In fact, the capacity of frass to supply nutrients to plants and enhance plant growth has been compared to that of synthetic fertilizer and its potential to replace conventional fertilizers has been pointed out (Houben etal., 2020). It’s a relatively recent idea to use insect BSF frass as organic fertilizer. Any farming system that uses a novel idea or product as fertilizer has to know how it performs in terms of how it affects crop development, yield, nutrient uptake, and usage efficiency in comparison to other fertilizers. The source, nutrient content, mineralization stage, and storage technique of organic fertilizers all have a significant impact on their efficacy (Ebanyat, 2009; Ndambi etal., 2019; Rufino etal., 2007). For instance, the source, mineralization level, and C/N ratio of manure all have a significant impact on the availability of nutrients (Grigatti etal., 2015; Musyoka etal., 2019). BSF frass being an organic fertilizer is comparable to poultry manures but it has low nutrient contents compared to high-value commercial organic fertilizers (Gärttling & Schulz, 2022). Organic matter content of BSF frass is higher than all other manure and compost types. N content and C/N ratio are closest to the values of cow slurry, while P content is most comparable to that of pig slurry and K content is most comparable to that of poultry manure (Gärttling & Schulz, 2022). Relatively low C/N ratio (13–16 on average) of BSF frass paves a way for easy nutrient uptake (Beesigamukama etal., 2021a) and pH of 6–8 which is a good value for mature compost for agronomic purposes (Basri etal., 2022). C/N ratios of BSF frasses from cow, chicken and pig manure usually tends to be lower than 20, which is indicative of a mature compost (i.e. lower than 25 according to the authors). In addition, germination indexes and nutrient concentrations of all frasses are more than their respective manure (Liu etal., 2019). In comparison to urea and SAFI (a combination of chicken manure, charcoal, and rock phosphate), BSF frass as fertilizer is more successful in increasing yield when applied to maize at rates of 2.5t ha−1 and 30kgN ha−1, respectively, while SAFI needs to be applied at double the rates to get the same yield. Plots treated with BSF frass display the tallest plants, maximum chlorophyll concentrations, and higher nitrogen recovery efficiency. In comparison to the value obtained with an equivalent rate of SAFI, the agronomic N usage efficiency and nitrogen fixing efficiency of maize treated with 2.5 t ha-1 of BSF frass are 30295 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… Table 2 Overview of various organic wastes attributes to black soldier fly composition Type of organic waste Nutrient content BSF frass composition Reference Protein (% dry weight) Fat (% dry weight) Carb Calcium N P K 175g/kg 140g/kg 8g/kg (determined as nitrogen free extract) 9.3g//kg Finke (2013) Poultry manure 34–35% Zhou etal. (2013) Cow manure 34–35% Zhou etal. (2013) Waste 42–49% 38% Makkar etal. (2014) Chicken, pig and cow manure 13.5–30.3g/kg 9.9–39.4g/kg Oonincx etal. (2015) Processed food wastes or brewery spent grains 29.5–33.2g/kg 103–149g/kg 31–19g/kg Devic (2016) Mix of fruits, vegetables, seaweeds 2.45g/kg 0.69g/kg 2.62g/kg Mason (2016) 100% Brown Algae 41.3 ± 1.1% 8.1 ± 0.9% 15g//kg Liland etal. (2017) Fruits waste 35–58% 15–38% Mohd-Noor etal. (2017) and Nyakeri etal. (2017) Human manure 45% 18% Nyakeri etal. (2017) Fruit/vegetable wastes 39% 33% Nyakeri etal. (2017) Organic municipal waste 14.9g/kg 9.8g/kg 10.3g/kg Salomone etal. (2017) organic waste substrates 431.0g/kg 386.0g/kg 1.2g/kg Spranghers etal. (2017) 30296 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Table 2 (continued) Type of organic waste Nutrient content BSF frass composition Reference Protein (% dry weight) Fat (% dry weight) Carb Calcium N P K Municipal organic solid waste 36–46% 25–39% Sprangers etal. (2017) and Nyakeri etal. (2017) Vegetable wastes 44% Tinder etal. (2017) Chicken manure 28g/kg 14.4–19.8g/kg 22.4–24.0g/kg Xiao etal., (2018a, 2018b) Food waste, chicken feaces and saw dust (3:2:1) 1.7% 1.1% 2.1% Attiogbe etal. (2019) Food waste 24 Ermolaev etal. (2019) Maize straw 4.8% 1.0% 0.9% Gao etal. (2019) Chicken, cow and pig manure 17.9–18.7g/kg 9.6–27.0g/kg 13.9–21.2g/kg Liu etal. (2019) Municipal organic solid wastes from domestic, markets and restaurant 3.6–4.8mg/kg 0.8–0.9mg/kg 0.54–0.62mg/kg Sarpong etal. (2019) Wheat bran, alfalfa meal, corn meal 44g/kg 22.7g/kg 34g/kg Setti etal. (2019) Organic waste streams 411.0g/kg 301.0g/kg 1.9g/kg Shumo etal. (2019) Brewary spent grain 2.1% 1.2% 0.2% Beesigamukama etal. (2020b) Food processing waste 19.8–23.7g/kg 5.3–6.4g/kg 9.3–13.9g/kg Bestico (2019/2020) 30303 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… Table 2 (continued) Type of organic waste Nutrient content BSF frass composition Reference Protein (% dry weight) Fat (% dry weight) Carb Calcium N P K Waste Fish Guts 51.2–57.9% 30.2–340.6% Kimmy Farm (2020) Vegetable / organic waste 31.2–36.4% 5.2–6.63% Kimmy Farm (2020) Organic waste 50% 35% 2.8–6.2% Kimmy Farm (2020) 30304 S.A.Siddiqui et al. 2.4 and 2.5 times greater, respectively (Beesigamukama etal., 2020a). But, composition of BSF frass is highly variable (especially regarding micronutrients) and needs to be assessed on an individual basis for specific purposes (Gärttling & Schulz, 2022) and frass cannot be applied at high concentrations, possibly due to ammonia toxicity (Gärttling etal., 2020). High conductivity values and sodium content are also the drawbacks for application (Chavez & Uchanski, 2021). Thus, it is recommended by Chavez and Uchanski (2021) that insect frass in mixture with inorganic fertilizers can be used for best results on crop and pathogen/disease resistance with a typical effective dosage of 10–40% of the total fertilizer volume administered. Hopeful evidences on how the BSF frass affects the plant growth and development by modifying the factors such as better use efficiency of P and K (Putra etal., 2017), improved soil fertility and defence against pathogens (Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019), suppression against Pythium ultimum (Ellison etal., 2019), influence on soil N availability (Kagata & Ohgushi, 2012), stimulation of soil microbial activity and diversity (Houben etal., 2020), not impairing hygienic properties of soils (Klammsteiner etal., 2020), improvement of beneficial microbial activity (Houben et al., 2021), increased dehydrogenase activity (Menino etal., 2021), and increased enzyme activity (dehydrogenase and β-glucosidase) (Esteves, 2020) are reported by many authors. Some pot tests have shown the potential of BSF frass, obtained from substrates of various kinds in reducing mineral fertilization in several crops like lettuce (Esteves, 2020; Kebli & Sinaj, 2017), ryegrass (Kebli & Sinaj, 2017; Klammsteiner etal., 2020), maize (Beesigamukama etal., 2020b), Brassica olaraceae (Wantulla etal., 2023) and swiss chard (Chirere etal., 2021). In terms of N, P, K, and organic matter, Choi etal. (2009) compared BSF larvae frass with a commercial fertilizer (unspecified origin) for Chinese cabbage and found that both fertilisers were equally effective (same number of leaves, leaf length and width, and nutrient accumulation), with the exception of P absorption by plants, which was low when fertilized with BSF frass. Wantulla etal. (2023) reported that soil amendment with BSF frass almost halved Dalia radicum fly emergence from the soil by the action of chitinase enzyme as compared to the synthetic fertilizer treatment in Brassica olaraceae plants and thus increased the yield by reducing the damage. When exposed to tiny amounts of BSF exuviae, Brassica nigra displayed larger plants, more blooms, more pollinators, and eventually more seeds (Barragan-Fonseca etal., 2017). Stronger growth, as demonstrated in lettuce plants that thrived when exposed to BSF frass, may be the cause of this impact (Putra etal., 2017; Setti etal., 2019). Alattar etal. (2016) tested BSF larval frass as a fertilizer for maize plants, using a 1:2 (w/w) frass to soil mixture, without mentioning the nutrient composition of the frass and reported that frass impacted plant growth (dwarf plants and fewer leaves) more negatively than did a micro-aerobic fermentation product made from the same feed substrate (food waste) used to feed the larvae. According to the authors, the reduced growth could be caused by the high concentrations of ammonia in the frass. BSF frass delivered poor growth results (yield, dry matter production, leaf area and nutrient use efficiency) in maize when compared with other byproducts (larval skins and dead adult flies) and the controls (organic and chemical commercial fertilizers) (Gärttling etal., 2020). The author attributed the poor fertilization property to the frass being a P-dominated fertilizer, rather than a N-dominated. In addition, the poor growth of the test crop was indicative that the frass may not have an optimal nutrient composition for certain crops. Kawasaki etal. (2020) assessed the fertilizing potential of BSF larvae frass in Brassica rapa and recommended an application rate of 1/20–1/30 of frass in relation to the amount of soil, in order to benefit growth, as plant growth was impaired with yellow leaves when applied at a higher application rate (1/10). Quilliam etal. (2020) tested 30305 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… BSF larvae frass made from poultry waste, brewery waste and green market waste as fertilizers for growing maize, pepper and shallots in a field experiment in Ghana and reported that amendment of soil with frass bio-fertilizer had no significant effect on yield. This may have been due to the more diffuse broadcast application method that was used and limited the availability of key nutrients at crucial stages of crop development (Fatondji etal., 2009). Chiam etal. (2021) tested okara-derived BSF larvae frass as a fertilizer for lettuce plants, mixing frass with soil at 10, 20 and 30% concentrations (v/v). Interestingly, the general application (20–30%) of frass resulted in poor growth of lettuce, except for when the frass level was at 10%. The authors speculated that this undesired growth response at high frass levels may be attributed to the low C/N ratio of the fertilizer (7.2), which induced rapid mineralization of nutrients in the soil. Plants with the highest chlorophyll concentrations, increased mineral N concentration, highest maize grain yield and 27% more P accumulation than SAFI fertilizer was observed in maize when treated with BSF frass (Beesigamukama etal., 2020b). When BSF larval frass was used as fertiliser, Menino etal. (2021) saw consistent growth, increased biomass, and increased overall ryegrass yield. Along the plant cycle, however, shoot biomass also decreased significantly. Soil’s immobilisation of nutrients and the stimulation of microbial activity, as indicated by the rise in dehydrogenase activity may be the possible reasons for the results. Kale plants grew to much larger heights and produced more leaves after being treated with 100% BSF Frass as Fertilizer (BSFFF). The tallest kale plants were grown using a daily irrigation schedule combined with 100% BSFFF, and the maximum chlorophyll concentrations were attained in the leaves of kale and Swiss chard when 50% BSFFF + 50% NPK or 100% BSFFF were applied. Kale and Swiss chard grown in soil modified with BSFFF had the lowest insect infestation rates and significantly higher fresh shoot weight and leaf dry matter than kale and Swiss chard cultivated in soil without fertilizer. In comparison to NPK treatments, soil amendment with BSFFF preserved higher levels of kale (41–50%) and Swiss chard (33–49%) leaf dry matter during times of water stress (Abiya etal., 2022). 3.2.2 Benefits ofblack soldier fly frass Numerous characteristics make the frass of BSFL interesting for use in our overworked agricultural system. It offers similar application potentials as a soil fertiliser to currently available products, but with a lesser impact on the environment (Gärttling & Schulz, 2022; Smetana etal., 2019). Specific components of the insect by-products, such as exuviae acts as bio-stimulants for plants that come in contact with them (Zande etal., 2023) In terms of profitability, producing the frass can be more advantageous than making biogas or composting because in addition to producing frass, the process also creates proteins, lipids, and other goods that can be sold for more money than the soil conditioners and gas produced by the other two production processes. Below we outline a few advantages of adopting BSF frass as fertilizer. 3.2.2.1 Contain chitin BSF larvae contain 14.5% (DM) and the pupae contain 18% chitin (Coudron etal., 2019) which is non-toxic, biodegradable linear polymer said to have fungicidal and nematicidal effects (Gärttling etal., 2020) and can induce plant defence mechanisms against insects. Chitin being the main component of BSF exoskeleton reported to induce beneficial changes in the soil micro biome by increasing the numbers of chitin-degrading bacteria (e.g. some Gamma proteobacteria) frass amended soils (Nurfikari, 2022) and thus stimulate ecological systems by reducing pest pres- 30306 S.A.Siddiqui et al. sure. Many researches pointed out that chitin is protecting crops from pests, pathogens and physiological disorders. Modes of action include antibiosis and induction of plant defences. A number of cell surface receptors, including the macrophage mannose receptor, toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2), and Dectin-1, have been found to be involved in the recruitment and activation of innate immune cells as well as the induction of the production of cytokines and chemokines by chitin (Lee etal., 2008). Higher chitinase activity in the soil is linked to chitin in the frass. Chitin is also a major component of the cell wall of fungi and is thus prone to degradation by chitinase enzymes (Nagarajkumar etal., 2004) and therefore the frass shows antifungal behaviour (Zhang & Yuen, 2000). It is reported that frass and digestates from pig slurry treatments significantly suppressed the development of Rhizoctonia solani in bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris cv. Prelude) (Gebremikael etal., 2020) and adding BSF exuviae to Brussels sprouts boosted the influx of parasitoid wasps from the neighbourhood, which fought against crop pests (Zande etal., 2019). 3.2.2.2 Promote beneficial microorganisms The microbiological compositions of organic fertilizers could benefit more sustainable production systems and has been noted that soil amendment with insect frass could stimulate the activity of beneficial microbes (Poveda etal., 2019) and sustain the microbial biomass for a more extended period (Zhang etal., 2020) even under limited nutrient conditions (Gebremikael etal., 2020). Due to the chitin content of the frass and easily degradable components with high N content, numbers of chitin-degrading bacteria (e.g. some Gamma proteobacteria) and some fast-growing high N containing fungi (e.g. Mortierellomycota) can be found in frass amended soils. The beneficial micro-biota of frass also include Sporosarcina spp., Corynebacterium spp. and Bacillus spp. (Kawasaki etal., 2020), Lactobacillus spp., Bacillus spp., Actinobacteria spp., and Pseudomonas spp. (Ahemad & Kibret, 2014; Babalola, 2010; Lugtenberg & Kamilova, 2009) and PGPR (Abbott etal., 2018; Ahmad etal., 2020; Pathania etal., 2020; Pérez-Montaño etal., 2014; Treonis etal., 2010) and the microbial composition changes according to the feed substrate supplied to the larvae (Gold etal., 2020; Wynants etal., 2019). These microorganisms act in the rhizosphere, which is the fine region of soil that is influenced by the secretions of plant roots (root exudates) and can be stimulated by the input of organic fertilizers, benefiting the soil and the plant as a whole (Berendsen etal., 2012; Lugtenberg & Kamilova, 2009). The presence of valuable microorganisms in the soil develops higher nutrient use efficiency, improve soil quality, resistance to abiotic stress conditions and improve plants growth, performance and crop yields (Balestrini etal., 2017; Mącik etal., 2020; Poveda etal., 2019). 3.2.2.3 Rich innutrient content The characteristics of frass from BSF larvae reported in literature indicated that it is a rich source of plant nutrients. The total C, N, P and K content in the frass vary from 26. 8–48.8%, 1.8–5.1%, 0.5–5.2% and 0.2–4.1% respectively (Lopes etal., 2022) depending upon the feed substrate used during the larval growing period (Table2). It also contains the secondary nutrients like calcium (0.2– 45g/kg), magnesium (0.2–10.5g/kg) and sodium (0.3–5g/kg), and also the micronutrients like iron (3.7–600mg/kg), copper (0.7–46.1mg/kg), manganese (0.2–149mg/ kg) and zinc (0.1–140mg/kg) in appreciable quantities which promote very good plant growth and development and thus significantly yield higher crop yield (Lopes etal., 2022). 30307 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… 3.2.3 Physiochemical properties ofBSF frass 3.2.3.1 Moisture content The moisture content of the BSF frass varies from 30% from brewery spent grain substrate (Beesigamukama etal., 2020b) to 72% from the food waste, chicken faeces, and sawdust mixture (3:2:1 ratio) (Attiogbe etal., 2019). The moisture content of other commercial fertilizers varies from 30 to 61% (Basri etal., 2022). The beneficial effect of BSFL frass with low moisture content is good for soil aeration and solubility; on the other hand, the BSFL frass with high moisture content could have inadequate oxygen supply for the plant (Klammsteiner etal., 2020), have adverse impact of BSFL frass leachates, could also cause ammonia poisoning in the plant and may stunt plant development (Zahn & Quilliam, 2017). High moisture content of frass can lead to anaerobic conditions and should be post-processed to be further degraded, for example by composting or anaerobic digestion (Klammsteiner etal., 2020). 3.2.3.2 pH The pH of BSFL frass from various food waste ranges from the lowest of 5.6 in fruit and vegetables (Klammsteiner etal., 2020) to the highest as 8.0 pH value in mixture of food waste, chicken faeces, and sawdust (3:2:1 ratio) (Klammsteiner etal., 2020) and maize straw substrates (Gao etal., 2019). The pH of BSFL frass typically ranges between 7.0 and 8.0 which is comparable with other commercial fertilizers (pH 6—8.1) and is the optimum range for promoting plant growth (Surendra etal., 2020) and providing a conducive environment for the beneficial bacterial communities in BSFL frass (Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019). 3.2.3.3 Temperature Temperature is an essential factor in determining whether decomposition proceeds at the mesophilic or thermophilic level, or even reaches the maturity level to generate natural plant fertiliser (Kamaruzzaman etal., 2018). BSFL frass temperature ranges from 24 to 27°C ((Attiogbe etal., 2019; Basri etal., 2022; Sarpong etal., 2019), when compared to the temperature of other composts viz., compost from windrow composting (26–28°C), composting bin (30°C), and aerated composting (32°C); all reach an ambient temperature and is considered to have entered maturation phase (Hamid etal., 2019; Ho etal., 2022). The temperature of the BSF composting is mesophilic and the aeration can be improved on the compost system by the movement and natural turning of the waste by the larvae (Sarpong etal., 2019). As suggested by Cooperband (2002), the optimum temperatures for bacterial decomposition are at 21–49°C. While, other researchers have reported that high temperature (i.e. 45°C or more) could cut down the pathogenic loads of the final compost (Banks, 2014; Dortmans, 2015; Tirado, 2008). As temperature is one of the important factors which affect the nutrient availability (Pang etal., 2020) and optimum waste consumption by BSFL, maintaining relatively constant waste temperature (about 30°C) is inevitable (Pang etal., 2020). Rearing BSFL at the optimum temperature improves their ability to reduce Escherichia coli (Liu etal., 2008). Chen etal. (2019) stated that the continuous movement of BSFL could reduce the BSFL frass temperature, which helps retain nitrogen in the BSFL frass and ensure a high nitrogen content in the BSFL frass. 3.2.3.4 C/N ratio The C/N ratio of BSFL frass derived from different types of food may range from 8:1 to 27:1; kitchen waste range from 8:1 to 17:1, municipal food waste range from 8:1 to 9:1, household food waste at 17:1, fruits and vegetables at 27:1, okara and wheat bran at 8:1 (fresh frass), okara and wheat bran (composted frass) at 10:1, and brewery spent grain at 17:1 (Lopes etal., 2022). In a well-conducted composting process, the C/N will decrease constantly due to the biological mineralization of carbon compounds and loss as 30308 S.A.Siddiqui et al. CO2 (Insam etal., 2007). Compost with a C/N ratio higher than 30 is more likely to immobilize nitrogen for plant uptake (Sarpong etal., 2019). BSF frass has a relatively low C/N ratio (13–16 on average) and thus makes the nutrients easily available for plant uptake (Basri etal., 2022). C/N ratio can be increased by providing substrates like brewery spent grains with sawdust to BSF larvae (Beesigamukama etal., 2021b). Liu etal. (2019) found that the C/N ratios of frasses from cow, chicken and pig manure after 9days were all minor than 20, which is indicative of a mature compost (i.e. lower than 25 according to the authors). The C/N ratio of various commercial other fertilizers varies from 6:1 to 36:1. 3.2.3.5 Contaminants (heavy metals, residual pesticides) BSF frass reported to have low concentration of heavy metals and pesticide residues due to the ability of BSFL to biologically accumulate heavy metals in their tissues and to degrade the pesticides with the help of enzymes (e.g. dehydrogenase) (Menino etal., 2021). Salomone etal. (2017) conducted an experiment where he measured the concentrations of toxic metals in the BSFL frass fed with food waste substrates and found that the concentration of toxic was below the limits stated in the Italian regulation for fertilizer and thus proved the ability of BSFL to reduce and accumulate various forms of heavy metals in the BSFL treatment process. One more study was carried out where large quantities of mercury have been added to the BSFL feedstock to be observed in a 13-day experiment and resulting in low mercury levels in the BSFL frass and were noted to be below the European Union’s (EU’s) threshold values of 0.7–10mg Hg/ kg (Attiogbe etal., 2019). Assessment of the heavy metal contents in BSFL frass showed 92–98% (0.0002–0.0008mg/kg) removal of Arsenic, 99–100% (0.00029–0.00170mg/kg) of Cadmium, and 80–90% (0.001–0.002mg/kg) of Lead (Sarpong etal., 2019). 3.2.3.6 Maturity andstability Compost maturity refers to the degree of completeness of composting and absence of phytotoxic compounds and plant or animal pathogens that could negatively affect seed germination, plant growth and soil health (Bernal etal., 2017). The stability of compost can be identified when one that is no longer undergoing rapid decomposition and whose nutrients are tightly bonded; unstable compost, on the other hand, may either release nutrients into the soil owing to additional decomposition or tie up nitrogen from the soil (Insam etal., 2007). Within a short period of BSFL rapid composting (two weeks to a month), organic wastes fed by the BSFL may not be properly composted (Kawasaki etal., 2020; Song etal., 2021). The BSFL composting process must also stop when the larvae reach the prepupae stage, as a result, producing impartial compost, biologically unstable and immature compost (Insam etal., 2007; Setti etal., 2019). Therefore, it is preferred that this product should be given some sort of posttreatment (e.g. thermophilic composting), in order to stabilize it and making it suitable as a bio-fertilizer for cultivation (Alattar etal., 2016; Chirere etal., 2021; Song etal., 2021) and to promote the degradation of its organic matter and the mineralization of nutrients (Bernal etal., 2009; Chen etal., 2014). But, the stability of BSF frass is better than that of S. gregaria, B. mori, S. icipe and T. molitor and G. krucki (Beesigamukama etal., 2022). The formation of humic substances during composting of organic materials is one of the main indicators of compost stability (resistance to decomposition) and maturity (use for a determined purpose) (Zhou etal., 2014). These substances contribute to several soil fertility parameters by regulating soil acidity, improving the cation exchange capacity, increasing the water holding capacity, improving the uptake of nutrients and stimulating plant growth (Abbott etal., 2018; Canellas & Olivares, 2014; Conselvan etal., 2018; Olaetxea etal., 2018; Sutton & Sposito, 2005). According to studies (Barral & Paradelo, 30309 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… 2011; Emino & Warman, 2004; Luo etal., 2018; Musyoka etal., 2019), the application of immature and unstable compost results in nutrient immobilisation and phytotoxicity, which inhibit seed germination and produce poor crop growth and yield. According to Liu etal. (2019), the feed substrate’s high electrical conductivity and concentration of N-NH4+ may have contributed to the frass’s lack of maturity. In contrast, Setti etal. (2019) found that the germination indexes were above 70%, indicating no sign of phytotoxicity. BSFL frass temperature range from 24 to 27°C, if compared to the temperature of other compost (El-Haggar, 2007; Ho etal., 2022), which is suitable for microbial activity. The frass always has a lower C/N ratio than the feed substrate provided (Sarpong etal., 2019). The moisture content of BSFL frass varies from 10 to 65% depending upon substrate on which the BSF larvae feeds and the BSFL frass derived from fruit and vegetables is at 10% which is not suitable for agronomic purposes and may lead to hydrophobicity and be difficult to rewet (Basri etal., 2022). 4 Challenges andopportunities ofproducts derived fromblack soldier fly treatment 4.1 Opportunities ofproducts derived fromblack soldier fly Global population growth, increasing wealth, and urbanization, particularly in Asia and Africa, create changes in global consumption patterns, lifestyles and food preferences, leading to an increase in animal protein demands (Smith & Barnes, 2015; Van Huis, 2013). This will affect the demand for livestock feed and inevitably place heavy pressure on already limited resources (Van Huis, 2013). Additionally, this will have an effect on the demand for animal feed and inevitably put a significant strain on already scarce resources (Van Huis, 2013). Protein shortages are caused by the rising demand, hence alternate sources of sustainable protein are required (Halloran etal., 2016; Van Huis etal., 2015). The cost of feed, including replacements like fishmeal and soybean meal, which accounts for 60–70% of production expenses, is one of the main restrictions (Vantomme etal., 2012). Protein sources, among other conventional feed streams, are subject to supply and import price fluctuations. According to recent estimates, the global feed market demand for poultry, pigs, cultured fish, and pets, respectively, is 464, 254, 35, and 23 million megagrams (Mg) (Alltech, 2016). Insect-based feeds are therefore anticipated to provide a significant contribution to the world’s feed supply while minimising negative environmental effects (Dobermann etal., 2017; Makkar etal., 2014). BSF are being used more and more sustainably to recycle organic waste into high-quality protein feed and organic fertiliser with no impact on the environment. Recent studies (Abro etal., 2020; Chia etal., 2019) demonstrate the technological and possible economic viability of BSF. According to Makkar etal. (2014), the dry BSF larvae contain about 42–49% crude proteins, 38% lipids, 20% crude fibre, 20% ash, and vitamins, all of which have been shown to enhance the production of pig, fish, and poultry (Kierończyk etal., 2020; Schiavone etal., 2017; Sypniewski etal., 2020). Due to its high nutrient content and potential for use as organic fertiliser, the BSF frass fertiliser is a by-product that is growing in popularity (Anyega etal., 2021; Bortolini etal., 2020; Gärttling etal., 2020; Lalander etal., 2015; Oonincx etal., 2015; Setti etal., 2019). Farmers who already raise BSF larvae for use as animal feed would benefit from the creation of frass fertiliser from BSF farming. 30310 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Globally, BSFL business development yields an opportunity to initiate a zero-waste campus according to academics, helping to reduce food waste in cafeterias and colleges and other institutional settings (prisons, hospitals, and etc.). Segregated food waste from the community and oil palm wastes could be used as feed for BSFL. Production and insect milling processes in remote areas, support livelihood options in rural locations (Raman etal., 2022). BSFL produced at a large-scale can be marketed locally and commercial BSFL industries could expand and look to export BSFL products. Smallholder BSFL farmers could substitute costly animal or fish feed with low-cost BSFL as an alternative protein source for local poultry and aquaculture which reduce dependence on imported and high-cost animal feed (Raman etal., 2022). 4.1.1 Economical perspectives Insects appear to be a component of a sustainable solution given the demand on natural resources and rising costs of conventional feed. Therefore, combining frass fertilizerfrom insects with animal feed offers greater economic advantages. This may enhance the lives and food security of smallholder farmers (Beesigamukama etal., 2022). Using BSFL frass as a value-added product has been added profitable for BSFL farming than using just the net income from BSFL animal feed. Compost-like qualities can be seen in BSFL frass (Bortolini etal., 2020). According to several studies (Attiogbe etal., 2019; Bortolini etal., 2020; Gao etal., 2019; Sarpong etal., 2019), the quick composting of organic waste by BSFL produced compacted BSFL frass with high macronutrients (NPK), micronutrients, and organic material contents that are immediately usable for agricultural application. In contrast to BSF farming alone, using BSFL frass fertiliser increased farmers’ net income by 5–15 times, according to a study by Beesigamukama etal. (2020a). Rearing insects can provide livelihood diversification methods for many small-scale producers, thereby reducing vulnerability and supporting women’s empowerment (FAO, 2014; Halloran etal., 2016; Crysantus, 2016). One megagram (Mg) of dried BSF larvae (USD 900) yields 10–34Mg of BSFL frass fertiliser (USD 3000–$10,200) per megagram (Mg) of dried BSF larvae. Field trials were also used to assess the agronomic efficacy of BSFL frass fertilizer on maize crops. Maize planted on BSFL frass fertilizer-treated plots had net revenue that was 29–44% more than maize grown on commercial organic fertilizer-treated plots. Furthermore, smallholder insect farmers who use BSFL frass fertilizer directly for maize growing will generate 30–232% more net revenue than farmers who buy identical BSFL frass fertilizer. The presence of chitin in BSFL frass also helps promote plant development and trigger plant defences (Surendra etal., 2020). Applying even a minimum amount of BSFL frass chitin to plants results in better growth, more flowers and seeds, and attracts more pollinators (Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019). BSFL frass has a rich beneficial microbe (Gold etal., 2020), such as nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria that make nitrogen available for plant uptake (Choi & Hassanzadeh, 2019; Poveda etal., 2019). Nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria are crucial because fixed nitrogen is a limited nutrient in most ecosystems, and nitrate assimilation into plant roots makes soils more resilient to flood, drought, and land degradation. In addition, by enhancing nitrogen uptake, the high phosphorus concentration in the BSFL frass has aided in promoting nitrogen accumulation in plants since phosphorus is essential for energy transfer (Klammsteiner etal., 2020). BSFL frass can recapture nitrogen and phosphorus from the food chain for reuse as fertilizer, thus reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Frass fertiliser can be used to obtain a lower optimum N rate (79kg N/ 30311 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… ha), which suggests that employing it would result in cheaper fertiliser costs and higher net profits, returns on investment, and gross profit margins (Beesigamukama etal., 2022). 4.1.2 Environmental perspectives Unfortunately, there hasn’t been much research done on how insect farming and using the frass as fertiliser affect the environment. Insect farming will gain more benefits because of BSF farming’s social and environmental services. Therefore, additional research is needed to assess the economic viability and social-environmental benefits of BSF farming across various production systems in order to scale up insect-based feed and frass fertiliser sustainable and innovative technologies (Beesigamukama etal., 2022). Almost half of the global waste generation is food waste, which 37% of them go in landfills and 33% of them are disposed in open dumps area (Kaza etal., 2018). However, this food stream, which contains high concentrations of organic matter, macroand micronutrients, if not properly disposed of, might constitute harm to the environment. Therefore, in ecological perspectives, BSFL frass production has contributed to the recycling of nutrients from food waste and has prevented the environment from becoming a concern owing to the emission of greenhouse gases and soil/water contamination with poisonous chemicals and nutrients from leachates (Lopes etal., 2022; Pang etal., 2020). Although the manufacture of insects depends on the environment, they generally have low land and water requirements and significantly reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Halloran & Vantomme, 2013; Oonincx etal., 2010) as compared to other livestock production (Van Huis, 2013; Smith and Bernes, 2015; Oonincx etal., 2010) where, livestock was found to be responsible for 9% of CO2, 35–40% of CH4, 65% of N2O, and 64% of NH3 productions of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (Steinfeld, 2006). The production of insects has a much lower global water footprint than that of meat because they are cold-blooded, can obtain their moistness needs from food rather than necessarily needing drinking water, and can grow on organic waste (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2010; Miglietta etal., 2015). This helps conserve water. 4.2 Challenges ofproducts derived fromblack soldier fly 4.2.1 Animal feed Being a novel sector, production and sale of insects as feed faces several challenges, from legal to consumer acceptance and to industrialization and growth. Although the legal framework is changing and adapting to this new reality, consumers still have to prepare for it, and insect producers have a lot to learn from other livestock and industrial sectors (Alhujaili etal., 2023). According to Regulation EC Nr 1069/2009, insects used as food are regarded as Processed Animal Proteins (PAPs) in the EU (Smith & Barnes, 2015). Insects were no longer allowed to be used as animal feed as a result of Regulation EC Nr 999/2001’s restriction on PAPs following the BSE crisis (EFSA Scientific Committee, 2015). Aquaculture species can now be fed non-ruminant PAPs according to an amendment to Regulation EC Nr 56/2013. Processed insect protein, however, is exempt from this requirement (EFSA Scientific Committee, 2015; Smith & Barnes, 2015). Additionally, on-farm killing of livestock, including insects, is prohibited by European legislation governing abattoir regulations. Since this law was not intended for insect killing, it hinders effective insect farming (Charlton etal., 2015; 30312 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Smith & Barnes, 2015). In Australia, there are significant challenges to importing any kind of live insect, and companies must get approval to bring in insect-derived feed products. This will be a challenge for startups like AgriProtein as they look to enter the Aussie market with their branded MagMeal™ product (Nolet, 2017). A potential allergenic issue of the products derived from the BSF larvae is one more challenge to the farmers who are engaged in the rearing and processing (Halloran etal., 2016; Fitches, 2016). Therefore, for the large-scale insect farming sector to flourish globally, feasible production techniques must be devised (Fitches, 2016). The creation of a legal framework that must be upheld globally and across the board in order to achieve industry-wide standardisation is required. Since each government has different priorities (e.g., addressing the issue of food waste), it can be difficult to establish standardisation in terms of international trade (Vantomme etal., 2012). But dealing with this issue is essential (Vantomme etal., 2012). Leveraging BSFL as a sustainable food and feed source holds the promise of effectively managing waste, mitigating environmental pollution, and tackling the urgent challenge of food security in an environmentally conscious manner. Nonetheless, it is imperative to conduct additional research and foster innovation to guarantee the safety, quality, and economic feasibility of products derived from BSF for consumption by both animals and humans (Siddiqui etal., 2024). High capital and operational costs to build and run the BSFL production, securing sufficient breeding stock, identifying a cost-effective BSFL production system, ensuring a constant and sufficient supply of organic waste of BSFL, high price of BSFL, challenges in obtaining constant BSFL supplies as an animal feed ingredient, lack of financial resources to conduct research, lack of knowledge on insect studies and skilled expertise to work in BSFL industries, lack of education of workers in food and beverage departments to segregate food waste in an industry with high staff turnover, high costs of a large supply of feed source for BSFL, challenges in ensuring constant BSFL nutrient quality as an animal feed ingredient (Raman etal., 2022). Dried BSF larvae nutritional valuecontains up to50% protein, 35% fat, 6% calcium, 1.2% phosphorus, 1% magnesium, and 0.3% sodium but is greatly varies according to the source of substrate fed (Raman etal., 2022). Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industries of Malaysia mentioned that the current price of BSFL is similar to that of fishmeal, so despite its potential, BSFL’s competitiveness (both in terms of price and nutritional value) needs improvement before it could replace fishmeal (Raman etal., 2022). Public perception of BSF as yucky insect and therefore public concerns about smell and hygiene for BSFL rearing area is of great importance. Convincing the government for potential use of BSFL as an animal feed ingredient is a difficult task. In order to prevent contamination and spoiling and to guarantee the safety of food and feed, safety considerations like adequate processing, handling, and storage are necessary. According to Schabel (2010), entomophagy has been linked to cases of botulism, parasitoses, and food poisoning, such as aflatoxins, and the zoonotic danger of insects as a whole need to be taken into consideration. While the BSF industry has successfully established a supply chain that revolves around utilizing waste and by-products to produce feedstuff through the larvae, there is an ongoing exploration of alternative and more challenging substrates for rearing the larvae. Simultaneously, there is a growing interest in uncovering novel applications of bioactive molecules derived from BSF beyond the traditional use in animal feed. This indicates a dynamic shift towards diversification and innovation within the BSF industry (Tettamanti & Bruno, 2024). 30319 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… related to the rising demand for protein meals from producers of animal feed, the rising costs of soy and fish meals, and government backing and approval for the use of insect meal in animal feed. Additionally, the biofertilizers (frass) industry is anticipated to hold the greatest proportion of the overall black soldier fly market in terms of volume in 2022. The animal feed market is anticipated to experience rapid expansion over the course of the forecast period, depending on application. The rapid expansion of this industry is primarily related to increased demand for animal-derived goods and the ensuing rise in demand for animal feed high in protein, rising soy meal prices, and official approval of the use of BSF as an ingredient in animal feed. Additionally, there are numerous potentials for market expansion due to the increasing use of insects as a substitute source of protein in animal feed. In terms of geography, Europe is projected to have the largest market share for BSF in 2022. This substantial market share can be attributed to the expanding aquaculture sector, increased interest in alternative protein sources for animal feed, and the upward trend in fish meal prices. Furthermore, throughout the projected period, Europe is expected to experience the highest (CAGR) in this field. Additionally, this region is anticipated to control the highest proportion of the worldwide black soldier fly market in terms of volume in 2022. The global black soldier fly market is characterized by the presence of several key players, including Protix B.V. (Netherlands), Enterra Feed Corporation (Canada), InnovaFeed (France), EnviroFlight LLC (U.S.), Bioflytech (Spain), Entobel Holding PTE. Ltd. (Singapore), Entofood (Malaysia), Sfly (France), Hexafly (Ireland), F4F (Chile), Nutrition Technologies Group (Malaysia), nextProtein (France), and Protenga Pte Ltd (Singapore), among others, which are mentioned by Meticulous Research Market (2022). Some of the key leading companies in BSF market as animal feed and frass production are listed in Table3. 6 Policy andregulations ofproducts derived fromblack soldier fly treatment In order to create more and larger batches of insects, it is necessary to be aware of potential techniques for stabilizing insects as intermediate or final goods, ideally with a cost–benefit analysis. Dehydration has so far drawn the most interest as a method of insect preservation in both industry and research. Chemical and microbiological breakdown processes are known to be slowed down or even stopped when water is removed from a product (Van Campenhout etal., 2021). The chemical and/or microbiological stability of dried edible insects during storage has been the subject of several investigations as for BSFL (Kamau etal., 2020; Larouche etal., 2019), for long horned grasshopper (Fombong etal., 2017), for yellow mealworm (Kröncke etal., 2018, 2019; Lenaerts etal., 2018), and for different cricket species (Bawa etal., 2020; Lee etal., 2020; Lucas-González etal., 2019; Vandeweyer etal., 2018). Industrial-scale insect production primarily serves as a replacement for less environmentally friendly protein sources in feed. Currently, the most significant species raised for this purpose are the BSFL. The larvae must be transported and stored in a stable manner following production to prevent degradation. Both fermentation and vacuum packaging technology are viable stabilization options (Van Campenhout etal., 2021). The logistic chain includes stabilization, storage, and transportation in addition to the creation of 30320 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Table 3 Leading companies involved providing BSFL as animal feed and its frass as fertilizer Company Name Continent Country Products Product Packaging Reference BioFLY South America Colombia BSF based larva flour, biofertilizer, dehydrated larvae, live BSFL https:// www. biofly. co/ shop Beyond Ag Australia Australia Larvae, protein, chitin, Frass https:// www. bardee. com/ prote in Beta Bugs Limited Europe UK Larvae and Frass, https:// www. betab ugs. uk/ blacksoldi erflyprodu cts/ Chapul North America USA Whole, Dried BSFL, Dark Popped BSFL, Light Popped BSFL, BSFL Meal, Digestate, BSFL oil, Frass https:// www. chapu lfarms. com/ produ cts Ecofly GmbH Europe Austria BSF-protein, fertilizer, oil, whole dried BSFL, neonates https:// www. ecofly. at/ en/ produ cts FarmInsect GmbH Europe Germany Larvae https:// farmi nsect. eu/ produ kte/# jungl arven 30321 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… Table 3 (continued) Company Name Continent Country Products Product Packaging Reference Insectta Asia Singapore Larvae, Chitosan https:// www. insec tta. com/ ourinsec ts Inseco (Pty) Ltd Africa South Africa Black Soldier Fly https:// inseco. co. za/ ourprodu cts/# secti on-2111 Little Fat Worm Biotechnology Company Ltd Asia China Fish meal, www. littl efatw orm. com Oberland Agriscience Inc North America Canada Protein, Frass and Larvae https:// www. oberl andag risci ence. ca/ produ cts PROCENS South America Argentina BSF based protein, oil, fertilizer and larvae https:// www. proce ns. org/ produ ctos/ 30322 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Table 3 (continued) Company Name Continent Country Products Product Packaging Reference ProNuvo North America Costa Rica Whole dried BSFL, Defatted BSFL protein powder, Natural BSFL insect oil, Organic BSFL frass https:// pronu vo. com/ eng/ ourprodu cts/ PT Magalarva Sayana Indonesia Asia Indonesia Dried larvae, protein, oil, fertilizer, fresh larvae https:// magal arva. com/ produ cts Protix Europe Netherlands Pet feed, Oil, fertilizer https:// protix. eu/ produ cts_ by_ proti x/# oerei Sanergy Africa Kenya BSF https:// www. regen organ ics. co/ produ cts/ Vivotein North America USA Whole dried BSFL, Live BSFL, Exotic feed, Frass https:// www. vivot ein. com/ produ cts 30323 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… larvae. A good preservation technique to pursue for the storage and transportation of BSFL is not thought to be vacuum packaging (Van Campenhout etal., 2021). Van Campenhout et al. (2021), investigated the potential perseveration technology between vacuum packaging and fermentation for the BSFL. The vacuum packaging was applied to living, blanched and frozen larvae while fermentation pulverised blanched BSFL were used for the investigation. The vacuum packaged BSFL were stored for 6–10days at various temperatures and gas composition, for the killed larvae-microbial counts while for the living larvaesurvival rate recorded. In fermentation, the pulverised BSFL were fermented for one week at 35°C and stored at 4°C for two weeks, pH and microbial counts was observed and recorded. Author reported that fermentation allowed for the storage of pulverized larvae. However, certain factors to consider were the rapid decrease in pH and the presence of bacterial endospores. On the other hand, vacuum packaging did not offer any additional benefits compared to cooling alone. This conclusion applied to all types of larvae investigated. Thus, vacuum packaging is not considered a valuable preservation technique to pursue for the storage and transportation of BSFL (Van Campenhout etal., 2021). Salomone etal. (2017), conducted measurements of toxic and essential metal concentrations in the BSFL frass that was fed with food waste substrates. The results revealed that the concentrations of both toxic and essential metals were below the limits specified in the Italian regulation for fertilizers. This indicates that BSFL frass has minimal amounts of heavy metals due to the capability of BSFL to effectively decrease and accumulate different forms of heavy metals during the treatment process (Basri etal., 2022). In actuality, storage and transportation methods should be able to maximize the survival of living insects and (microbiological) quality of insects that have already been killed. The BSFL placed in pouches without a vacuum had the highest rate of survival (Rumpold & Schlüter, 2013). A lower storage temperature led to better survival, which indicated that the storage temperature was a significant influencing factor. Vacuum packaging has no beneficial effects on the microbiological quality of dead BSFL. The microbiological quality and dynamics of the gas composition in the package were significantly influenced by the initial microbiological quality following killing (which was better after blanching than merely freezing). Additionally, the insects’ quality during storage was marginally improved by the lower temperature (Vandeweyer etal., 2021). The "traditional" usage of insects as food is not usually connected to the regulatory framework governing the use of insects as feed, which varies greatly between nations globally. Table4 gives a succinct overview of the laws that are now in effect in the different countries or union around the globe regarding the use of insects as feed. Insects are a rising source of protein that is relevant to farmers, feed manufacturers, food producers, and food marketers worldwide. Due to antiquated food and feed restrictions regarding the use of insects, this industry’s expansion is somewhat constrained. Since 2018, measures bringing insects under the purview of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 on new foods have been in effect with regard to insects as food for human consumption. In accordance with this new Regulation, EFSA-approved marketing of insect feeding items is the only condition for their sale (Lähteenmäki-Uutela etal., 2018). Regulation (EU) No 2017/893 brought about one of the most significant modifications in 2017 with regard to insects used as animal feed. This legislation brought about amendments to Regulations (EC) No 999/2001 and (EU) No 142/2011, permitting the utilization of seven insect species as feed for aquaculture animals (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021). These species include the house cricket (Acheta domesticus), black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), common housefly (Musca domestica), yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), lesser mealworm 30324 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Table 4 Laws or legislation for governing the insect (BSF) as food Authority Country Remarks on Insects as feed Reference EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) European union Authorized insect fat in feed Authorization of processed animal proteins in aquaculture European Commission (2017) CFIA (Canadian Food Inspection Agency) Canada BSF products approved poultry use Raw materials for feeding require permission Lähteenmäki-Uutela etal. (2018) FDA (Federal Food and Drug Administration) USA For insects, an additional permission list or GRAS are required BSFL are a component of animal diet Lähteenmäki-Uutela etal., (2021) None China Not require Lähteenmäki-Uutela etal., (2018) Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs North Korea Strictly prohibited Jo and Lee (2016) Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs South Korea Not require Han etal., (2017) 30325 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… (Alphitobius diaperinus), banded cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus), and field cricket (Gryllus assimilis) (Lahteenmaki-Uutela etal., 2017). Only one species of bug has been defined by the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) as an animal food item for cattle feed. Aquaculture salmonids including salmon, trout, and char can be fed BSFL, including dried entire larvae (since 2016) and processed BSF meal (since 2018). The AAFCO’s choice has been examined and authorized by the FDA (Belluco etal., 2017). It is worth noting that various feed-grade materials, such as pre-consumer food waste used as a substrate, by-products from food production like brewery grains, and other approved feed-grade materials, can all be utilized for the cultivation of black soldier fly larvae. Products made from black soldier flies have been approved for use in the feeding of broiler chickens, tilapia, salmonids, and other poultry such as chickens, turkey, ducks, and geese. Another regulation category is pet foods. Mealworms, silkworm pupae, and black army fly larvae are all offered for sale as pet food in Canada (Arbour & Hoeung, 2016; Pisanello & Caruso, 2018). Brazilian scientists, farmers, and businesses are becoming more and more interested in using insects as food and feed, especially when it comes to feeding poultry black soldier fly meal instead of soybean meal. The use of insects as food and feed might one day be regulated internationally. The scientific community may approve the use of insects worldwide as food and feed (Allegretti etal., 2018). In the absence of a global food and feed administration organization, the global harmonization of substantive and procedural norms would prove advantageous for both business owners and authorities. The FAO/Who is Codex Alimentarius Commission is the setting for creating international feed and food standards (Lähteenmäki-Uutela etal., 2021). Due to current ambiguous statutory limitations surrounding its usage as feed, the commercialization of BSFL is restricted. Under certain restrictions, the manufacture and trade of BSFL as feed is particularly permitted in the European Union, Australia, Canada, and the United States. It is interesting to note that while regulatory frameworks are now being developed, the majority of nations where entomophagy is a tradition lack particular restrictions regarding their usage as feed. Harmonizing the industrial upscaling of BSFL as animal feed requires an understanding of the legislative structure (Alagappan etal., 2022). 7 Life cycle assessment ofproducts derived fromblack soldier fly treatment It is necessary to enumerate the environmental effects connected with the entire life cycle of these processes in order to estimate the environmental profile of products derived from insects. An important method for analysing and assessing the environmental influence of industrial processes and insect-based products is life cycle assessment (LCA) (Spinelli etal., 2019). Technical advancements can aid a shift towards renewable energy, lessening the possibility for global warming. LCA demonstrate increased energy use in the generation of some insects, such as BSF and housefly larvae (van Zanten etal., 2015). According to Smith and Barnes (2015), "regions with year-round high temperatures, high density of concentrated animal operations, and presence of food processing industry facilities" are where the best insect-rearing facilities can be found. According to IPIFF, adding insects to conventional feed (such soybean or fishmeal) will ease the strain on the environment, protected areas, and the world’s fish populations. The various parameters considered for LCA studies on BSF by different authors are discussed in Table5. A comprehensive LCA offers 30326 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Table 5 Parameters Considered for Life Cycle Assessment Studies on Black Soldier Fly, H. illucens Life cycle assessment study Parameters considered Reference BSFL as an alternative feed source and agro-waste disposal route growth performance, feed conversion ratios and nutritional composition of diets, and harvested larvae and the remaining organic matter (frass), insect diets, harvest, transportation, insect production, BSF composting versus conventional agro-residue treatment, BSF versus soybean meal or fishmeal protein Beyers etal. (2023) Environmental impact scenarios oforganic fraction municipal solid waste treatment withBSFL material depletion, energy consumption, water use, and feedstock conversion, Equipment lifespan, Sub-product generation, Use of renewable energies, Energy consumption, Transport of the final products Ferronato etal. (2023) Greenhouse Gas Emissions substrate quality, experimental design parameters, ambient conditions, sampling procedure, gas detection and measurement methods, account for GHG emission variations between studies, larvae age before the experiment, the larvae density, feed rate, feeding strategies such as continuous, intermittent, and bulk; and the housing chamber, volume, moisture content, sensory characteristics, chemical properties, rheology, porosity, and pre-treatment Boakye-Yiadom etal. (2022) Environmental performance ofinsect protein insect diet(a] Vegetables with high economic value (mixes of grains, four, bran, vegetables and beer yeast) b]Vegetables with low economic value (distiller’s dried grains with solubles, spent grains, cookie remains) Modahl and Brekke (2022) Food waste bio-conversion by black soldierfly larvae (Hermetia illucens L.) Nitrogen emission during bioconversion, Substitution capability of mineral fertilizer, Energy consumption for drying, Substitution capability of protein feed, Energy consumption for separation, Nitrogen emitted during post-composting, acidification and terrestrial eutrophication Guo etal. (2021) Insect production and processing as a path to efficient and sustainable food waste treatment insect meal, feed conversion ratio, larvae biomass, size, the weight and the composition of the larvae, temperature, relative humidity, photoperiod, rearing density, Ites etal. (2020) Chemical v/s Enzymatic-Assisted Extraction of Proteins from BSF Pre-pupae for the Preparation of Biomaterials for Potential Agricultural Use Different phases of BSF rearing viz., adult mating, oviposition, egg hatching and larva, BSF biomolecule extraction and fractionation, extraction yield and bio-plastic preparation Rosa etal. (2020) 30327 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… Table 5 (continued) Life cycle assessment study Parameters considered Reference Conversion of organic resources by BSFL: legislation, efficiency and environmental impact Energy use, land Use, global warming potential, CO2 emission Bosch etal. (2019) BSF bio-waste treatment—Assessment of global warming potential Direct and indirect emission of CH4, N2O, system design, aeration rate, turning frequency, and/or feedstock used Mertenat etal. (2019) Sustainable use of Hermetia illucens insect biomass for feed and food Water use, feed inputs, electricity and heat consumption, production yields from an industrial producer Smetana etal. (2019) Using black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens) to bio-convert waste from the livestock production chain BSF breeding, BSF biomolecule fractionation, bio-plastic production Spinelli etal. (2019) Alternative Scenarios for Waste Treatment—Food Waste Production by the Mass-Retail Sector Insect meal, electricity and diesel consumption, e direct emissions due to waste treatment, water consumption, leachate disposal, transport Salomone etal. (2017) Environmental impact of food waste bioconversion by Hermetia illucens food-waste, output composed of dried larvae, protein content, lipid content Salomone etal. (2017) Biodegradable waste treatment systems through BSF loss of nitrates through leaching and runoff, electricity production from biogas, phase of the digestate/compost produced, Ammonia volatilisation losses, Avoided emissions Smetana etal. (2016) Biodegradable waste treatment systems for sub-Saharan African cities Anaerobic digestion, composting, downstream emission, system capacity and lifespan, CO2 emission, transportation, energy utilized, electricity Komakech etal. (2015) 30328 S.A.Siddiqui et al. a holistic perspective on the environmental impact of products derived from black soldier fly treatment. Analyzing each stage of the life cycle allows for the identification of potential environmental hotspots and informs sustainable practices in the production and utilization of these valuable insect-derived materials (Boakye-Yiadom etal., 2021). 7.1 The environmental benefits ofproducts derived fromBSF larvae: asanimal feed andfertilizer Because food systems are the main cause of environmental deterioration, recent publications have highlighted the need for diet change (FAO, 2021; Kim etal., 2020). In comparison to the base period average of 2018–2020, the output of meat worldwide is predicted to rise by 13% (44 Mt) over the next ten years, reaching 374 Mt by 2030 (OECD/FAO, 2021; p. 48). According to FAOSTAT 2021, the percentage of all agricultural emissions attributed to animals through intestinal fermentation and manure is 44% and 20%, respectively, in 2019. According to OECD/FAO (2021; p. 165), greenhouse gas productions from agriculture over the 2018–2020 period accounted for around 54% of all emissions (on CO2 equivalence basis). Edible insects could be created to replace meat products and also be used as feed elements because they have a high protein content on the edge and a strong nutrient profile, making them a significant substitute to conventional cattle (Rumpold & Schlüter, 2013). Insects require very little land or energy to produce, and they can be produced quickly and all year round, unlike other feedstock such as soybeans. FAO endorsed insects for their sustainability benefits, saying, “Insects have a high food conversion rate, e.g. crickets require six times less feed than cattle, four times a lesser amount of than sheep, and twice less than pigs and broiler chickens to produce the same amount of protein.” And finally, insects can serve as a protein-rich substitute for the wild-caught fish that are often used as aquaculture inputs, rendering aquaculture a sustainable solution to overfishing (Slimen etal., 2023). According to Celitron, 2021, cattle need 7.7kg of feed to produce 1kg of meat, sheep needs 6.3kg, pork needs 3.6kg, chicken needs 2.2kg, and BSFL meat needs 1.5kg. This leads to the inference that plant-based diets are preferable to animal products obtained from conventional cattle in terms of global water consumption as well as the increased demand for food brought on by an expanding worldwide population (Celitron, 2021). It would be exciting to compare insects’ water footprint with that of animal products as well as feed crops in terms of nutritional quality because they have a much higher feed conversion efficiency since they are cold-blooded, can derive their moisture demand from food and do not necessarily need drinking water, and can grow on organic waste (Van Huis, 2015). Nevertheless, it has to be considered, that the feed conversion efficiency of BSF is temperature-dependent (Chia etal., 2018). It may be inferred that temperature-controlled raising containers are required for insects to gain maximum mass in the shortest amount of time, use the least amount of food, and emit the fewest amount of emissions, which indicates greater energy consumption than for conventional livestock (Rumpold & Schlüter, 2013). In addition to the water used in the manufacture of food and feed, its effects on greenhouse gas emissions must be taken into account. Regarding livestock’s overall worldwide contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, it was discovered that cattle produced 9% of CO2, 35–40% of CH4, 65% of N2O, and 64% of NH3 of all anthropogenetic greenhouse gas emissions (Rumpold & Schlüter, 2013). When comparing the environmental impact of lab-grown meat and mycoprotein-based analogues scored highest and insect-based and soy meal-based substitutes lowest (Smetana etal., 2015). But Onwezen etal. (2021) found that 30335 Future opportunities forproducts derived fromblack soldier… these benefits, current regulations hinder the introduction of these products into the western livestock feed market. Additionally, by-products of BSF, such as antimicrobial peptides, show potential for serving as novel antimicrobial medicines for animals and humans. Chitin, another BSF by-product, exhibits immunological effects on human lung diseases and holds promise for medical applications. In the domain of organic fertilizers, BSF larvae frass emerges as a valuable option for sustainable cultivation globally. However, further investigation is needed regarding the potential of frass obtained from composting biodegradable wastes using BSF larvae. The composition of frass varies considerably, with nutrient concentrations like P, K, and micronutrients being heavily dependent on the feed substrate. As frass may not possess the optimal nutrient composition, particularly being P-dominated, supplementing it with another nutrient input, specifically N-dominated, could create a more balanced fertilizer. Future studies should explore nutrient supplementation for frass-based fertilizers to meet the specific needs of different crops. Additionally, the role of bio-stimulants, plant growthpromoting rhizobacteria, and fungi in BSFL frass requires further exploration, offering significant potential for advancing sustainable cultivation practices globally. A comprehensive approach connecting different process steps with various aspects of interest is crucial for fully understanding the potential of BSF-derived products in animal feeds and wastederived fertilizers. Author contributions SAS—Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review and Editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project Administration, Investigation, Funding Acquisition, Resources. ASG— Writing-Original Draft. MH—Writing—Original Draft. TR— Conceptualization, Review and Editing. SNP—Validation. IF—Writing—Review and Editing. RC-MFormal Analysis. Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. The open access publishing fee is covered under the agreement between the DEAL Consortium and Springer and Springer Nature upon acceptance due to Shahida Anusha Siddiqui being affiliated to the Technical University of Munich. Data availability No data were used or analysed in this study. Declarations Competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. 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Authors and Affiliations ShahidaAnushaSiddiqui1,2 · AnkushSubhashGadge3· MuzaffarHasan4· TeguhRahayu5· SergeyNikolaevichPovetkin6· ItoFernando7 · RobertoCastro‑Muñoz8 * Shahida Anusha Siddiqui [email protected] * Roberto Castro-Muñoz food.biotec[email protected] 30354 S.A.Siddiqui et al. Ankush Subhash Gadge [email protected] Muzaffar Hasan [email protected] Teguh Rahayu teguh.raha[email protected] Sergey Nikolaevich Povetkin [email protected]u Ito Fernando i_fer[email protected] 1 Campus Straubing forBiotechnology andSustainability, Technical University ofMunich, Essigberg 3, 94315Straubing, Germany 2 German Institute ofFood Technologies (DIL E.V.), Prof.-Von-Klitzing Str. 7, 49610Quakenbrück, Germany 3 Forest College andResearch Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Mettupalayam,Coimbatore, TamilNadu641301, India 4 Centre ofExcellence onSoybean Processing andUtilization, ICAR-Central Institute ofAgricultural Engineering, Bhopal, MadhyaPradesh462038, India 5 CV HermetiaTech, Voza Premium Office 20th Floor, Jl. HR. Muhammad No. 31A, Putat Gede, Surabaya, JawaTimur60189, Indonesia 6 Laboratory ofFood andIndustrial Biotechnology, North Caucasus Federal University, Pushkina Street 1, Stavropol, Russia355000 7 Department ofPlant Pests andDiseases, Faculty ofAgriculture, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, EastJava65145, Indonesia 8 Department ofSanitary Engineering, Faculty ofCivil andEnvironmental Engineering, Gdansk University ofTechnology, G. Narutowicza St. 11/12, 80–233Gdańsk, Poland