Bye s, Michael
Wo king Pape
Ou e space and he A c ic: Connec ions, oppo uni ies,
challenges
CIGI Pape s, No. 303
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion (CIGI), Wa e loo, On a io
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bye s, Michael (2024) : Ou e space and he A c ic: Connec ions, oppo uni ies,
challenges, CIGI Pape s, No. 303, Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion (CIGI), Wa e loo
(On a io)
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CIGI Pape s No. 303 — Sep embe 2024
Ou e Space and he A c ic:
Connec ions, Oppo uni ies,
Challenges
Michael Bye s
CIGI Pape s No. 303 — Sep embe 2024
Ou e Space and he A c ic:
Connec ions, Oppo uni ies,
Challenges
Michael Bye s
Abou CIGI
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Table o Con en s
i Abou he Au ho
1 Execu i e Summa y
1 In oduc ion
1 Space and he A c ic
5 Space and A c ic Secu i y
11 Conclusion
12 Wo ks Ci ed
i CIGI Pape s No. 303 — Sep embe 2024 • Michael Bye s
Abou he Au ho
Michael Bye s holds he Canada Resea ch Chai
in Global Poli ics and In e na ional Law a he
Uni e si y o B i ish Columbia. Michael has been a
ellow o Jesus College, Ox o d Uni e si y; p o esso
o law a Duke Uni e si y; isi ing p o esso a he
uni e si ies o Cape Town, Tel A i , No d (No way)
and No osibi sk (Russia); and senio global ellow
a he Uni e si y o S And ews. He is he au ho
o In e na ional Law and he A c ic (Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess, 2013) and he co-au ho o Who
Owns Ou e Space? (Camb idge Uni e si y P ess,
2023). Bo h olumes we e awa ded he Donne P ize
o he bes book on public policy by a Canadian.
1Ou e Space and he A c ic: Connec ions, Oppo uni ies, Challenges
Execu i e Summa y
Sa elli es suppo communica ions, na iga ion,
secu i y, sea ch and escue and scien i ic esea ch
ac oss he A c ic. The numbe o sa elli es is
g owing quickly, c ea ing oppo uni ies o g ow h
and de elopmen . Howe e , he inc eased use o
space also ca ies isks o na ional and egional
go e nmen s, local communi ies, Indigenous
o ganiza ions and companies. Sa elli es a e
ulne able o sys em ailu es, delibe a e a acks and
na u al o ces such as sola s o ms. Redundancies
o all kinds a e needed o p o ec agains hese
isks. Fo ins ance, g ound-based na iga ional aids
o a ia ion should be main ained, no wi hs anding
he cos -sa ing a ac ions o GPS. A he same
ime, sa elli es con ibu e o A c ic secu i y
h ough an enhanced unde s anding o wha
po en ial ad e sa ies a e doing — o no doing.
One o he g ea geopoli ical isks in he A c ic
in ol es secu i y dilemmas, whe e s a es eel
compelled o build up hei mili a y capabili ies
in an escala ing se ies o esponses o suspec ed
inc eases by o he s. Sa elli es help o p e en
unnecessa y escala ions, acciden s and a ms aces.
In oduc ion
Humani y is expanding quickly in o ou e space
(“space”) as a esul o new echnologies and a
d ama ic inc ease in he capabili ies o p i a e
space companies. These de elopmen s c ea e
oppo uni ies o g ow h and de elopmen in
he A c ic, whe e sa elli es al eady suppo
communica ions, na iga ion, su eillance, secu i y,
sea ch and escue, disas e elie , o es i e igh ing,
wea he o ecas ing, ishing, p ospec ing,
educa ion, heal h ca e and en i onmen al esea ch.
Mo eo e , mos Ea h obse a ion sa elli es, used
o e e y hing om in elligence ga he ing o sea-
ice moni o ing, a e placed in pola o bi s. These
o bi s a e oughly pe pendicula o he equa o
and he e o e con e ge o e he A c ic. Fo his
eason, he wo ld’s la ges sa elli e g ound s a ion is
loca ed in he egion, on he No wegian a chipelago
o S alba d (Filipo a and Foun ain 2021), while
wo smalle g ound s a ions a e loca ed a Inu ik,
No hwes Te i o ies (Kongsbe g Sa elli e Se ices
[KSAT] 2019).1 G ound-based in as uc u e is
ano he way ha de elopmen s in space can
spu g ow h and de elopmen in he A c ic.
A he same ime, a g owing eliance on
space also ca ies isks, including sys em
ailu es, delibe a e a acks and na u al o ces
such as sola s o ms. Na ional and egional
go e nmen s, local communi ies, Indigenous
o ganiza ions and companies should emb ace
he oppo uni ies p esen ed by de elopmen s
in space, while planning o isks and
main aining e es ial sys ems as backups.
Space and he A c ic bo h play a ole in global
secu i y, al hough he e is li le e idence o an
a ms ace in space, and no eason o belie e ha
Russia o China pose majo h ea s o Canada’s
A c ic so e eign y. Sa elli es a e an impo an ool
o main aining peace and s abili y in he egion.
Space and he A c ic
Space and he A c ic a e closely connec ed
in mul iple ways, om as ophysics o
cul u e, communica ions, na iga ion, sea ch
and escue and en i onmen al science.
The A c ic Only Exis s
Because o Space
The A c ic en i onmen only exis s because o
space, since he ex eme seasons ha de ine
he egion a e a consequence o Ea h’s o bi al
mechanics, mos no ably he il o he plane as i
o bi s he sun.2 This leads o he absence o sunligh
in win e and o 24-hou sunligh in summe in
he Ea h’s pola egions. The A c ic’s connec ions
wi h space a e also isible in he au o a bo ealis,
c ea ed when cha ged pa icles om he sun slam
in o Ea h’s magne ic ield and a e edi ec ed
no hwa d, in e ac ing wi h he uppe a mosphe e
o c ea e a dynamic luminescence.3 Ano he
1 See h ps://na u al- esou ces.canada.ca/ esea ch-cen es-and-labs/
sa elli e- ecei ing-s a ions/sa elli e- acili ies/inu ik-sa elli e-s a ion-
acili y/10953.
2 See h ps://nsidc.o g/lea n/pa s-c yosphe e/a c ic-wea he -and-clima e/
science-a c ic-wea he -and-clima e.
3 See www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/as onomy/no he n-ligh s/wha -a e-
no he n-ligh s.asp.
2CIGI Pape s No. 303 — Sep embe 2024 • Michael Bye s
connec ion wi h space is isible in he ex eme
ides o eas e n Nuna u and no he n Quebec
(Oceans No h 2018, 33), which esul om he
Ea h’s in e ac ion wi h he moon’s g a i y.
The Inui , who li e in ha mony wi h he seasons,
a e ully awa e o hei ela ionship wi h space.
Kenojuak Ashe ak’s Nuna u (Ou Land) celeb a es
he 1993 Nuna u Land Claims Ag eemen , which
led o a new majo i y-Inui e i o y in Canada
in 1999. The 4 m wide li hog aph ch onicles he
annual cycle o Inui li e in a ci cle e ol ing
a ound he sun, he moon and he s a s.4
A c ic Communica ions
Depend on Sa elli es
In 1962, Canada became he hi d coun y wi h
a sa elli e in o bi .5 Aloue e-I was designed o
s udy a laye o he uppe a mosphe e, called
he ionosphe e, o unde s and why A c ic adio
communica ions we e dis up ed by sola s o ms.
I was named a e he olksong oyageu s sang
as hey paddled he ade ou es o no he n
Canada. Al hough he sa elli e was u ned o
a e a decade o scien i ic se ice, i emains
in o bi oday, a piece o Canadian his o y in
he sky (Canadian Space Agency 2023).
In 1972, Anik A1 was launched in o geosynch onous
o bi , abou 36,000 km abo e he equa o .6 The
wo ld’s i s domes ic communica ions sa elli e, i
enabled he CBC o b oadcas om coas o coas
o coas . “Anik” means “li le b o he ” in Inuk i u .
E en oday, Nuna u , he la ges o Canada’s
h ee no he n e i o ies, is en i ely dependen
on sa elli es o communica ions. These ha e
acili a ed heal h ca e, educa ion, economic
de elopmen and go e nance, bu he e been
limi a ions, because connec i i y wi h he es
o he e i o y, coun y and wo ld has been
expensi e, un eliable and slow (Rabouam 2023).
Al hough sa elli es like Anik A1 we e game
change s o he Canadian A c ic, connec i i y
om geosynch onous o bi su e s om la ency,
i.e., small delays in ecep ion and ansmission,
due o he dis ance ha he adio signals ha e
o a el (Seal and Ri chie 2023). Sa elli e signals
4 See www.his o ymuseum.ca/blog/nuna u /.
5 See www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/sa elli es/aloue e.asp.
6 See www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/mul imedia/sea ch/image/156.
om geosynch onous o bi also encoun e
line-o -sigh challenges abo e abou 70° no h,
and gene ally canno each abo e 75° no h.
This poses a p oblem o some communi ies
in Nuna u , no ably Pond Inle (72°), Resolu e
Bay (74°) and G ise Fio d (76°), while Canadian
Fo ces S a ion Ale is loca ed a 82° no h.
Connec i i y om geosynch onous o bi has
imp o ed somewha o e he decades, due o
imp o ed echnologies, bu an explosion in in e ne
usage has s ill le ope a o s s uggling o mee
demand. In 2018, O awa-based Telesa launched
Tels a 19 VANTAGE (Roge s 2018). This single
sa elli e p o ided a i e- old inc ease in b oadband
connec i i y o he Canadian A c ic. Then, in
2021, SSi Canada signed a deal wi h Luxembou g-
based SES o edi ec an exis ing sa elli e owa d
no he n Canada, p o iding compe i ion and
addi ional capaci y (McKay 2021). Howe e , hese
imp o emen s ha e been o se by p oblems. In
2022, Anik F2, an 18-yea -old sa elli e ope a ed by
Telesa , began o ail. The company announced
ha i would pu chase ano he exis ing sa elli e,
om an unnamed ope a o , and edi ec i owa d
he A c ic o main ain capaci y (Rainbow 2022).
Communica ions sa elli es in geosynch onous o bi
a e now being supplemen ed, and may soon be
supplan ed, by “mega-cons ella ions” o sa elli es
in low-Ea h o bi (Boley and Bye s 2021). Loca ed
a much lowe al i udes, hese sys ems o e lowe
la ency. They also p o ide g ea e co e age o he
A c ic, because some o he sa elli es a e placed
on pola o bi s, which b ings hem wi hin line
o sigh a all loca ions. Howe e , because he
sa elli es a e a low al i udes and mo e ela i e o
he Ea h’s su ace, hund eds, e en housands o
hem a e needed o p o ide con inuous co e age.
SpaceX’s S a link is he cu en ma ke leade
and i s e minals, each abou he size o a pizza
box, a e appea ing ou side homes and businesses
ac oss he No h (Cha on-Lecle c 2023). SpaceX’s
abili y o compe e is augmen ed by i s eusable
Falcon 9 ocke s and he la packing o up o
60sa elli es, each mo e han 350 kg, in o a single
payload ai ing — he ca go hold on he op
o a ocke . SpaceX, which cu en ly has mo e
han 5,500 S a link sa elli es in o bi (Pul a o a
and Howell 2024), is he new game change o
he Canadian A c ic. Hea h ca e, educa ion and
comme ce will all be ad anced. Inui and Fi s
Na ions you h can now wo k o global ech
companies o c ea e s a -ups o hei own.
9Ou e Space and he A c ic: Connec ions, Oppo uni ies, Challenges
ho ible o he wo ld… he one limi ing ac o
is no deb is. Wha e e you do, don’ c ea e
deb is” (quo ed in Billings 2015). Widesp ead
awa eness and conce n abou deb is help o
explain why no s a e has e e used a kine ic ASAT
weapon agains a sa elli e om ano he s a e.
Sa elli es Help P e en “Secu i y Dilemmas”
Wi h space-based echnologies, i is ela i ely easy
o ga he in o ma ion abou mili a y ac i i ies,
especially in he A c ic whe e he e a e ela i ely
ew human ac i i ies o ees, buildings and o he
objec s ha migh o e concealmen . One example
conce ns syn he ic ape u e ada sa elli es,
which — as discussed abo e — can iden i y and
ack ships, e en a nigh and h ough clouds.20
Ano he example in ol es he mal imaging
sa elli es, which a e mos e ec i e in de ec ing
human ac i i y when empe a u es a e cold.21
This abili y o ga he in o ma ion om space
helps o p e en a “secu i y dilemma,” whe e one
s a e, unce ain abou he ac ions and mo i es o
ano he , eels compelled o inc ease i s mili a y
capabili ies. This can lead o an escala ing and
des abilizing se ies o esponses, e en i he ini ial
esponse was based on inco ec in o ma ion o
assump ions (He z 1950; Boo h and Wheele 2007).
Fo ins ance, he e-opening and expansion o Cold
Wa -e a mili a y bases in he Russian A c ic has
p omp ed conce n, mos ly in he Wes e n media
(Williams and No ak 2023). Ye i is ela i ely
easy, including wi h publicly a ailable Google
Ea h o low-cos Plane image y, o obse e
ha he changes a e modes in scale and appea
de ensi e in cha ac e (Walsh and Dean 2022).
The acking o subma ines is a mo e complex
ma e (Bye s 2013, 245), al hough sa elli es can
be used o de ec depa u es and a i als in po .
Some imes, syn he ic ape u e ada sa elli es
migh be able o iden i y changes in wa e pa e ns
caused by subme ged subma ines. Howe e ,
nuclea missile subma ines a e he co e o he
US and Russian nuclea de e en s, as he asse s
mos likely o su i e a su p ise “ i s s ike.”
In o he con ex s, sa elli e su eillance can
b ing g ea e s abili y o in e na ional ela ions
by helping o p e en secu i y dilemmas, bu
nuclea missile subma ines a e di e en — no
20 See www.ea hda a.nasa.go /lea n/backg ounde s/wha -is-sa .
21 See h ps://c isp.nus.edu.sg/~ esea ch/ u o ial/in a ed.h m.
being able o ack hem con inuously om space
is p obably a good a he han a bad hing.
Russia and Wes e n S a es S ill Coope a e in
Space
Russia has long coope a ed wi h Wes e n s a es in
he A c ic. This coope a ion began du ing he Cold
Wa , as exempli ied by he 1973 Pola Bea T ea y
among Canada, Denma k, No way, he So ie
Union and he Uni ed S a es.22 By p ohibi ing he
use o helicop e s and iceb eake s o hun ing
pola bea s, he ea y a es ed a sha p decline
in bea popula ions a ound he egion. In 1982,
he So ie Union and he Uni ed S a es led he
nego ia ion o he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on
he Law o he Sea, a “cons i u ion o he oceans”
con aining p o isions o di ec ele ance o he
A c ic, such as a icle 234 on pollu ion p e en ion
in ice-co e ed wa e s and a icle 76 on coas al
s a e igh s o e con inen al shel es ex ending
mo e han 200 nau ical miles om sho e).23 In
1987, So ie leade Mikhail Go bache p omp ed
a p ocess o ins i u ion building ha , a e
addi ional Finnish and Canadian leade ship, led
o he A c ic En i onmen al P o ec ion S a egy
in 199124 and he A c ic Council in 1996.25 Al hough
he A c ic Council does no deal wi h secu i y
ma e s, du ing he 2010s i g ew in o he cen al
go e nance mechanism o he egion, ini ia ing
he nego ia ion o he 2011 A c ic Sea ch and
Rescue Ag eemen 26 and o he new ea ies on oil
spill p epa edness and esponse27 and scien i ic
22 Ag eemen on he Conse a ion o Pola Bea s, Canada, Denma k,
No way, Union o So ie Socialis Republics and he Uni ed S a es,
15 No embe 1973, 30 ILM 13.
23 Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea, 10 Decembe 1982,
1833 UNTS 397 (en e ed in o o ce 16 No embe 1994).
24 A c ic En i onmen al P o ec ion S a egy, Canada, Denma k, Finland,
Iceland, No way, Sweden, Union o So ie Socialis Republics and he
Uni ed S a es, 4 June 1991, 30 ILM 1624.
25 Decla a ion on he Es ablishmen o he A c ic Council, Canada, Denma k,
Finland, Iceland, No way, Sweden, he Russian Fede a ion and he Uni ed
S a es, 19 Sep embe 1996, 35 ILM 1387.
26 A c ic Council, Ag eemen on Coope a ion on Ae onau ical and Ma i ime
Sea ch and Rescue in he A c ic, Canada, Denma k, Finland, Iceland,
No way, he Russian Fede a ion, Sweden and he Uni ed S a es, 12 May
2011, online: <h ps://oaa chi e.a c ic-council.o g/handle/11374/531>.
27 A c ic Council, Ag eemen on Coope a ion on Ma ine Oil Pollu ion
P epa edness and Response in he A c ic, Canada, Denma k, Finland,
Iceland, No way, he Russian Fede a ion, Sweden and he Uni ed S a es,
15 May 2013, online: <h ps://oaa chi e.a c ic-council.o g/i ems/
ee4c9907-7270-41 6-b681- 797 c81659 >.
10 CIGI Pape s No. 303 — Sep embe 2024 • Michael Bye s
coope a ion.28 In 2017, he i e A c ic Ocean s a es
along wi h China, Japan, Sou h Ko ea, Iceland and
he Eu opean Union signed a ea y p ohibi ing
comme cial ishing in he cen al A c ic Ocean
un il scien i ic e idence suppo s i s opening.29
A simila his o y o coope a ion exis s in space.
Du ing he ea ly Cold Wa , while he So ie
Union and he Uni ed S a es we e building
in e con inen al ballis ic missiles designed o ly
h ough space, hey we e also nego ia ing ou
mul ila e al ea ies se ing ou igh s and du ies
o space a ing s a es: he Ou e Space T ea y, he
Rescue Ag eemen , he Liabili y Con en ion and
he Regis a ion Con en ion (Uni ed Na ions O ice
o Ou e Space A ai s 2017). In 1975, he So ie
Union and he Uni ed S a es coope a ed in he
Apollo-Soyuz Tes P ojec , which saw a docking
be ween wo spacec a and a amous handshake
in o bi .30 Ano he ma ke o coope a ion came in
1978 a e Cosmos 954, a So ie nuclea -powe ed
econnaissance sa elli e, mal unc ioned and
e-en e ed he a mosphe e wi h mo e han 50
kg o U anium-235 on boa d (Volynskaya 2013).
The deb is was sca e ed ac oss he No hwes
Te i o ies and, a e an expensi e eco e y e o ,
Canada eques ed $6 million in compensa ion.
The So ie Union denied legal esponsibili y bu
paid hal o he eques ed amoun .31 La e , in he
1990s, Russia was in i ed o be a ull pa ne in
he In e na ional Space S a ion (ISS), as pa o he
Uni ed S a es’ mo e gene al policy o p oac i ely
coope a ing wi h i s o me ad e sa y du ing
he ea ly pos -Cold Wa pe iod (Sheehan 2007).
Russia and Wes e n s a es ha e con inued o
coope a e in space a e he 2022 in asion o
Uk aine. The ISS has been unc ioning no mally,
wi h some Wes e n as onau s a elling he e in
Soyuz spacec a , and some Russian cosmonau s
a elling in SpaceX C ew D agons. The Cospas-
28 A c ic Council, Ag eemen on Enhancing In e na ional A c ic Scien i ic
Coope a ion, Canada, Denma k, Finland, Iceland, No way, he Russian
Fede a ion, Sweden and he Uni ed S a es, 17 May 2017, online:
<h ps://oaa chi e.a c ic-council.o g/i ems/9d1ecc0c-e82a-43b5-9a2 -
28225b 183b9>.
29 Ag eemen o P e en Un egula ed High Seas Fishe ies in he Cen al
A c ic Ocean, Canada, China, Denma k, Eu opean Union, Iceland,
Japan, No way, Russia, Sou h Ko ea and he Uni ed S a es, 2018, online:
<www.d o-mpo.gc.ca/in e na ional/ag eemen -acco d-eng.h m.>
30 See www.nasa.go /mission_pages/apollo-soyuz/as p_mission.h ml.
31 P o ocol on Se lemen o Canada’s Claim o Damages Caused by
“Cosmos 954,” Canada and Union o So ie Social Republics, 2 Ap il
1981, 20 ILM 689.
Sa sa P og amme o sa elli e-suppo ed sea ch
and escue is also unc ioning no mally. One
explana ion o his con inued coope a ion
conce ns he “cold, da k, and dange ous” cha ac e
o bo h he A c ic and space (Bye s 2019). In e e y
egion, na u al ac o s such as geog aphy, clima e
and he p esence o absence o esou ces play a
ole in na ional in e es s and policy p e e ences. In
he A c ic and space, a combina ion o emo eness
and ex eme condi ions makes almos any ac i i y
isky and ex emely expensi e, and his c ea es
an incen i e o coope a ion and bu den sha ing.
Na u al Risks
Fo es i es, which can damage ib e-op ic cables,
a e no he only na u al h ea s o space-based
se ices in he A c ic. A mo e se ious h ea comes
om space i sel , in he o m o sola s o ms.
Sola s o ms occu wi h some equency, and
mos cause li le in e e ence. Bu a “co onal
mass ejec ion” can be an en i ely di e en
ma e . Composed o elec ons, p o ons and o he
pa icles, hese powe ul s o ms a e unp edic able
in se e i y, iming, speed and di ec ion. A some
poin — pe haps nex yea , pe haps decades om
now — he pa h o a se e e co onal mass ejec ion
will coincide wi h Ea h’s o bi al posi ion.
When ha happens, he deluge o high-ene gy
pa icles will p oduce an excep ionally s ong
au o a. In 1859, in wha was called he Ca ing on
E en , people in Hawaii could see he No he n
Ligh s (May and Dob ije ic 2022). A he same
ime, powe ul cu en s will be p oduced in long
conduc o s. Powe g ids, elephones and he
in e ne could be ende ed inope able o weeks,
mon hs, pe haps e en yea s. No he n coun ies
such as Canada, and especially hei A c ic egions,
a e pa icula ly ulne able o hese e ec s because
Ea h’s magne ic ield bends inwa d nea he poles.
The scale o he damage is di ec ly p opo ional
o a socie y’s eliance on echnology: he mo e
elec onics we use, he g ea e he isk. In 1859,
eleg aph ope a o s ecei ed shocks h ough
hei equipmen . In 1921, a co onal mass ejec ion
dis up ed ain se ices in he Uni ed S a es, while
elephone swi chboa ds in Sweden caugh i e.
In 1989, a much smalle s o m, jus one- en h he
s eng h o he 1921 e en , o e loaded he Hyd o-
Québec g id and le he en i e p o ince in da kness
o nine hou s (Mo on 2022). In May 2024, ano he
ela i ely small s o m dis up ed GPS signals o
11Ou e Space and he A c ic: Connec ions, Oppo uni ies, Challenges
a m ac o s ac oss No h Ame ica, delaying he
all-impo an sp ing plan ing (Albeck-Ripka 2024).
Sa elli es hemsel es a e a isk. When he
magne ic ield becomes ene gized, i aises he
a mosphe e, which inc eases he d ag in low o bi s.
I a sa elli e’s on-boa d h us e s a e no powe ul
enough o coun e his e ec , i can be d agged
down, back o Ea h. In 2022, a ela i ely small
sola s o m caused he loss o 49 SpaceX sa elli es
ha had jus been deployed o hei ini ial al i ude
o abou 216 km (And ews 2022). The deluge o
high-ene gy pa icles om a co onal mass ejec ion
could also damage he elec onics on sa elli es,
ende ing hem de unc . Sa elli es a all al i udes,
including GPS sa elli es, a e exposed o his isk.
The odds o a co onal mass ejec ion s iking Ea h
a e abou 12 pe cen pe decade (Riley 2012), wi h
he likelihood inc easing nea he peak o he
app oxima ely 11-yea sola cycle. Du ing he 2012
peak, a co onal mass ejec ion na owly missed
Ea h. In May 2024, a ela i ely small co onal
mass ejec ion c ea ed la ge au o as and had some
dis up i e e ec s. This could almos be expec ed:
he cu en sola cycle is p edic ed o peak in 2025.32
The e is good news. I is possible o build esilience
in o powe g ids and, in some places, his has
al eady been done. A e he 1989 sola s o m,
Hyd o-Québec ins alled con e e s ha p o ide
some p o ec ion agains sudden in luxes o “di ec
cu en ” on i s ans o me s. Resilience can also
be buil in o sa elli es, o ins ance, wi h be e
p opulsion sys ems and shielding agains in luxes
o high-ene gy pa icles. All hese measu es
aise cos s, which go e nmen s and publicly
owned companies such as Hyd o-Québec can
abso b, bu which p i a e companies migh no
incu unless equi ed o do so by egula o s.
Mos c ucially, go e nmen s and companies can
plan o he delibe a e u ning-o o powe g ids,
ib e-op ic ne wo ks and sa elli es — e ec i ely
pu ing hem in o “sa e mode” — be o e a
se e e sola s o m a i es (Bye s 2022). Such a
shu down would ha e o be ini ia ed as soon as
a wa ning is ecei ed: while obo ic spacec a
s a ioned nea he sun would p o ide one, i
would a i e only a ew hou s be o e he s o m
i sel . Fo his eason, Canada needs a obus ,
well- es ed na ional p o ocol o aking d as ic-
32 See www.swpc.noaa.go /p oduc s/sola -cycle-p og ession.
bu -necessa y ac ion as soon as a se e e sola
s o m is de ec ed on a pa h owa d Ea h. Sa elli e
companies need simila p o ocols, including
o eign companies such as SpaceX ha inc easingly
p o ide essen ial se ice o emo e communi ies.
Wi hou such p o ocols, communi ies ac oss
Canada, and especially in he A c ic, could lose
communica ions o weeks, mon hs o e en yea s.
Conclusion
New space echnologies and a d ama ic inc ease
in comme cial space capabili ies c ea e exci ing
oppo uni ies o A c ic go e nmen s, communi ies
and companies. No he n esiden s can now
access he in e ne a a bandwid h, la ency and
cos compa able o he esiden s o la ge ci ies
in he Sou h, enabling hem o access eleheal h
and online educa ion and o pa icipa e ully in
he na ional and global economies. The A c ic,
once isola ed, is now pa o he digi al wo ld.
A he same ime, syn he ic ape u e ada sa elli es
ha e made i sa e o ships and snowmobiles o
na iga e sea ice, he Cospas-Sa sa P og amme
has emo ed he “sea ch” om sea ch and
escue, and sa elli es o all kinds a e suppo ing
communica ions, a ia ion, su eillance, secu i y,
disas e elie , o es i e igh ing, wea he
o ecas ing, ishing, p ospec ing, educa ion,
heal h ca e and en i onmen al esea ch.
Mili a ies also bene i g ea ly om sa elli es
o posi ioning, na iga ion, su eillance and
si ua ional awa eness, as well as o he all-
impo an sea ch and escue mission. Sa elli es
a e necessa y o ope a e i h-gene a ion igh e
je s and long- ange d ones. Bu pe haps he
mos impo an con ibu ion o sa elli es o
mili a ies is an enhanced unde s anding o wha
po en ial ad e sa ies a e doing — o no doing.
One o he g ea geopoli ical isks in he A c ic
in ol es secu i y dilemmas, whe e s a es eel
compelled o build up hei mili a y capabili ies
in an escala ing se ies o esponses o suspec ed
inc eases by o he s. Sa elli es help o p e en
unnecessa y escala ions, acciden s and a ms aces.
They a e hus an impo an ool o main aining
peace and s abili y — he bes o m o secu i y.
12 CIGI Pape s No. 303 — Sep embe 2024 • Michael Bye s
The A c ic is mo e connec ed o space han
any o he egion. Ye connec i i y can c ea e
dependency and he e o e exposu e o new isks,
which in he case o sa elli es include sys em
ailu es, delibe a e a acks and na u al o ces such
as sola s o ms. Redundancies o all kinds a e
needed o p o ec agains hese isks. Fo ins ance,
i is sa e o ha e mul iple sa elli e companies
p o iding A c ic communica ions, a he han
a po en ial monopoly p o ide such as SpaceX.
Simila ly, g ound-based na iga ional aids o
a ia ion should be main ained, no wi hs anding
he cos -sa ing a ac ions o GPS. Las bu
no leas , na ional and egional go e nmen s,
Indigenous o ganiza ions, communi ies and
companies should all be p epa ed o shu
down hei elec ical sys ems quickly, i
no i ied o an incoming se e e sola s o m.
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