Human, P.; Human, Linda
A icle
Towa ds a be e unde s anding o managemen
de elopmen in Sou h A ica
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Human, P.; Human, Linda (1989) : Towa ds a be e unde s anding o
managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN
2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 20, Iss. 1, pp.
13-20,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 20i1.934
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/218011
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(1)
13
Towa ds a be e unde s anding
o
managemen de elopmen
in
Sou h A ica
P.
Human* and Linda Human
G adua e School
o
Business, Uni e si y o Cape Town, P i a e Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Republic o Sou h A ica
Recei ed
12
Sep embe
1988;
accep ed
1 I No embe
1988
In his a icle, an a emp
is
made o p o ide a be e unde s anding o managemen de elopmen
in
Sou h
A ica
by
he de elopmen o a heo e ical amewo k wi hin which he p ocess o managemen de elopmen
can be si ua ed. I
is
a gued ha managemen de elopmen can be unde s ood
by
using a amewo k o
domina ion, which p o ides a use ul concep ual model wi hin which he basic dynamics o managemen
de elopmen can be placed. This amewo k desc ibes he s uc u al posi ioning o he p incipal ac o s, he
ela ionship be ween hem, and he possible wo ld- iews which may a ise om hese posi ions. The p oblem
o
managemen de elopmen
in
Sou h A ica
is
discussed
in
e ms o his amewo k and p ac ical solu ions
elici ed.
In hie die a ikel wo d 'n eo e iese aamwe k i bes uu son wikkeling
in
Suid-A ika oo ges el. 'n Be e
beg ip an bes uu son wikkeling kan moon lik e k y wo d deu die beg ip an dominansie eo e ies sen aal e
plaas. Die aamwe k besk y die s uk u ele posisies an die p ime e ak eu s, die elasies ussen hulle en die
moon like we eldbeskouinge wa e bandhoudend
is
me e skillende posisies. Die p obleme an
bes uu son wikkeling
in
Suid-A ika wo d besp eek
in
e me an die eo e iese aamwe k en p ak iese
oplossings wo d oo ges el.
• To whom co espondence should be add essed
In oduc ion
Managemen , as a dis inc occupa ional g oup wi h
speci ic asks o pe o m
and
speci ic esponsibili ies o
mee ,
is
becoming an inc easingly impo an o ce in he
cu en and u u e de elopmen
o
Sou h A ican
socie y.
The
success ul de elopmen o his socie y
would appea o be dependen
o
a high deg ee upon he
e ec i eness and e iciency
o
o ganiza ions in ela ion
o he p oduc ion and dis ibu ion
o
goods and se ices;
and as he o ganiza ion can be iewed
as
a
de elopmen al ins umen which
is
di ec ed and
con olled by managemen , i s e ec i eness and
e iciency would
appea
o be la gely a unc ion o he
quali y
o
managemen . This asse ion holds ue o all
o ganiza ions -
be
hey p i a e, public, p o i -making,
non-p o i making, la ge
o
small. Indeed, his a gumen
could be ex ended o include he impo ance
o
managemen no only o he ensu ing
o
he e ec i eness
and,e iciency
o
he o ganiza ion bu also o he c ea ion
o a be e socie y.
The
de elopmen
o
p o essional
managemen can consequen ly be seen
as
mo e han a
c ucially impo an s a egic objec i e
o
Sou h A ican
o ganiza ions; he de elopmen
o
p o essional
manage s mus also
be
seen in he b oade con ex o he
socie y
a
la ge. As Ha bison (1973:3)
a gues:'
... human
esou ces -no capi al no income, no ma e ial
esou ces -cons i u e he ul ima e basis o he weal h
o na ions... Clea ly, a coun y which
is
unable o
de elop he skills and knowledge
o
i s people and o
u ilize hem e ec i ely in he na ional economy will be
unable o de elop any hing else'.
In o de o he skills and knowledge
o
hei
employees o be u ilized op imally, o ganiza ions will
ha e o manage hei human esou ces a mo e
p o essionally han hey a e oday. Indeed, i could be
a gued ha many
o
he p oponen s
o
he need o black
manage de elopmen make
one
impo an and
gene ally w ong assump ion: ha is, ha whi e
managemen is al eady adequa ely doing i s job. I will
be a gued below ha managemen de elopmen equi es
a mo e han he p omo ion
o
employees in o
manage ial posi ions; he e-o ien a ion, aining and
de elopmen
o
hose manage s we al eady ha e, is an
u gen p e- equisi e o he de elopmen
o
hose wi h
manage ial po en ial.
In his pape , a gene al o ien a ion
o
managemen
de elopmen in Sou h A ica
is
p oposed.
The
poin
o
depa u e
is
ha managemen de elopmen , as i is
cu en ly p ac ised,
is
p oblema ic no only because i is
insu icien bu also and p obably mo e impo an ly
because i
is
based on shallow and in i m heo e ical
ounda ions.
I
is
a gued ha managemen de elopmen
should ini ially be unde s ood in i s sociological con ex
a he han as a pu ely echnical issue. Following
on
om his, we hope o show how managemen
de elopmen e o s can be mo e e ec i ely di ec ed.
Mo e speci ically, i
is
a gued ha he p oblem
o
managemen de elopmen should be unde s ood by
using a amewo k buil a ound he concep
o
domina ion. Domina ion cons i u es a pe asi e
cha ac e is ic
o
Sou h A ican socie y, and i s na u e
is
such ha he g ound ules
o
social and o ganiza ional
mobili y a e highly biased and inequi able.
I
is
also he
case ha hese g ound ules a e pe cei ed as illegi ima e
by p obably he majo i y
o
he popula ion, wi h cu en
a emp s a es uc u ing such ules also being in g a e
dange o alling oul
o
he pe cep ions
o
he majo i y.
The
p oblem
is
ha hose who ind hemsel es in
ad an ageous posi ions in he social hie a chy equen ly
pe cei e he adi ional ules as legi ima e, such belie s
leading o an inaccu a e assessmen
o
managemen
14
de elopmen p oblems and hence a misdi ec ed e o
in
hei solu ion.
In his pape ,
we
a emp o p o ide a be e
unde s anding
o
he p oblems su ounding managemen
de elopmen and o sugges ce ain solu ions emana ing
om ou heo e ical o ien a ion.
A model o domina ion
Tha he
ew
go e n he many would appea o
cons i u e a 'social ac ' e idenced
in
all socie ies and
mos o ganiza ions o collec i i ies
o
people h oughou
he wo ld. All social collec i i ies which,
by
implica ion,
pu sue a single,
o
a a ie y o , collec i e goals end o
de elop a co e o membe s which akes cha ge o he
o e all esponsibili y o he coo dina ion
o
indi idual
asks and o he s a egic di ec ion
o
he collec i i y.
Social and o ganiza ional li e a e cha ac e ized
by
a
di ision
o
labou , he mos undamen al being he
di ision be ween hose who make he impo an
decisions on behal o he whole and hose wi h limi ed
disc e ion. A dis inc ion can hus be made be ween hose
who domina e and ha e powe o e o he s and hose
who a e subo dina e and ha e li le powe o e o he s.
Al hough his kind o dis inc ion
is
concep ually
pleasing,
we
know, empi ically, ha o ganiza ional li e
is
nei he ha simple no ha nea . Howe e , o he sake
o he a gumen ha ollows,
we
will
e ain his
gene alized concep ion o he ime being.
I
is
in
he in e es (which may be de ined as
oppo uni ies, p i ileges, ewa ds and s a us cu en ly
expe ienced
o
expec ed
in
he u u e) o he dominan
ew
o e ain and e en ex end hei posi ion
o
dominance is-a- is he domina ed. The main ainance
o
hei in e es s in ol es he p o ec ion o he bounda ies
be ween hemsel es and hose who may h ea en such
in e es s. This p ocess
is
called social closu e. 'By social
closu e Webe means he p ocess
by
which social
collec i i ies seek o maximise ewa ds
by
es ic ing
access o esou ces and oppo uni ies o a limi ed ci cle
o
eligibles' (Pa kin,
1979:
44). Domina ion can hus be
desc ibed as a p ocess whe eby one g oup consis en ly
and success ully monopolizes ad an ages
by
closing o
oppo uni ies o he subo dina e g oup below hem. The
c i e ia o exclusion may include any social
cha ac e is ic, in e alia, ace, sex, language, eligion,
educa ion, social s a us, and geog aphical egion
o
o igin.
The bounda y,
o
o use Pa kin's (1979) e m, he
's uc u al aul ' unning h ough he socie y
o
he
o ganiza ion
in
ques ion, and which di ides he
dominan and domina ed g oups, oge he wi h he
p ocesses in ol ed
in
bo h he main enance o , and
challenges o, his bounda y a e cen al o ou
unde s anding
o
domina ion and mobili y.
Two ecip ocal o ms
o
social closu e exis . The i s
occu s h ough a p ocess
o
exclusion. Exclusion
cons i u es he exe cise
o
powe om abo e and
is
a
~ oce~s. whe e~y oppo uni ies a e closed o by
1mpos1~1on.
This p ocess ine i ably engende s he
po en ial o a con e se p ocess, which in ol es
S.-A . Tydsk .Bed y sl.1989,20(1)
usu pa ion by hose g oups which
a e
excluded.
Usu pa ion ac s
in
an upwa ds di ec ion
and
cons i u es
a p ocess whe eby he excluded g oups a emp o ob ain
some
o
he ad an ages and oppo uni ies
o
he
powe ul (Pa kin, 1979:44-45).
The
excluded g oups
a emp o cap u e some
o
all
o
he ad an ages
o
he
powe ul g oup h ough a ious means and
in
ex eme
cases
by
he p ocess
o
e olu ion.
The s uc u al aul
in
socie y
o
he o ganiza ion can
be seen
as
he line
o
issu e whe e he di ec ional
low
o
powe changes; he o ien a ion om abo e
is
op-
down and ha om below is bo om-up. This line
di ides he social collec i i y in o wo
majo
classes, he
one based on he p inciples
o
exclusion and he
o he
on
he p inciples
o
usu pa ion. This issu e ep esen s,
mo eo e , he sou ce
o
mos ideological di e ences
inasmuch
as
he di e en s uc u al posi ions end o
de e mine,
o
o coincide wi h, di e se ideologies o
wo ld iews. A numbe o dis inguishing cha ac e is ics
o
he di e en ideologies a e concep ually iden i ied
in
Table
1.
Table 1 Cha ac e is ics
o
he di e en ideologies
Dominan g oups Subo dina e g oups
Powe posi ion Powe ul Powe less
Exe cise
o
powe Downwa ds Upwa ds
Goals
To
main ain
To
cap u e
In e es s Mos ly ma e ial Mos ly ideal
Powe base Owne ship
o
he
O he
people
means
o
li e chances
Time ame Sho e m Long e m
Social p essu e High Low
Social o ien a ion Indi idualis Collec i is
The dominan g oups' powe esides in hei abili y o
own
o
con ol li e chances, in he o m
o
in e alia,
oppo uni ies ( o educa ion
o
occupa ional posi ions),
p i ileges and capi al.
The
p ima y
o
mos immedia e
goal
o
hese g oups
is
o main ain hei p i ileged
posi ion. Such p i ileges a e, mo eo e , gene ally
o
a
ma e ial a he han an ideal na u e
and
include money,
li e-s yles and s uc o al posi ions. This does no mean
ha he powe ul a e idealess; a he , his means ha he
cen al emphasis o hei exis ence
is
ma e ial o he
ex en ha hei p i ileged posi ion
is
based upon he
e en ion
o
owne ship and con ol.
The
p ocess
o
usu pa ion also cons an ly eminds hose highe up ha
hei posi ion
is
ickle, he eli e o en being o ced in o
i e- igh ing ac i i ies o o se he challenge om below.
This leads us o he no ion ha he o ien a ion
o
he
powe ul
is
gene ally eac i e. In Sou h A ica since
1976, he black communi y has aken mos
o
he
ini ia i e (in he o m o s ikes, io s, and boyco s) and
he whi e communi y has been o ced o espond (wi h
labou~ and
o he
e o ms, commissions
o
enqui y, he
es abhshmen
o
he U ban Founda ion, e c). This kind
S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(1)
o
eac i e s ance also means ha he ime ame
o
hose in powe is o en ela i ely sho e m; hey a e
unde p essu e
and
eac o cu en challenges a he
han wo king in e ms
o
a ision
o
he u u e. A wo ld-
iew which may de elop om wi hin dominan g oups
may hus be desc ibed
as
eli is , op-down, eac i e,
ma e ialis ic, and agmen ed.
By way
o
con as , he subo dina e g oups o en ha e
li le powe apa om hei numbe s; hey o en ha e
ela i ely ew ma e ial in e es s (and he e o e li le o
lose); hey o en ha e expec a ions ela ing
o
powe
being in hei hands in he u u e; hey a e also o en less
p essu ized
in
e ms
o
achie ing hei goals. The longe
e m, idealis ic and collec i is ben o he subo dina e
g oups has many ad an ages, no leas
o
which
is
he
ela i e ease wi h which collec i e ac ion can be
mobilized and he ime and ene gy, uelled by ideals,
which hey ha e
a
hei disposal. This does no
necessa ily imply ha hei posi ion
is
p e e able o ha
o
he p i ileged g oup. Indeed, hose in powe will
consis en ly a emp
o
supp ess usu pa ion p ac ices by
coe cion
o
by psychological manipula ion.
This model cons i u es a use ul concep ual amewo k
wi hin which he basic dynamics o domina ion and
mobili y can be unde s ood.
I
bo h desc ibes he
s uc u al posi ioning
o
he p inciple ac o s, he
ela ionship be ween hem, and he possible wo ld- iews
which may a ise om hese posi ions. In e ining his
e y gene alized model, he ollowing conside a ions
need o be aken in o accoun :
1. Some g oups in socie y ind hemsel es in a ma ginal
posi ion be ween he clea ly dominan and he clea ly
subo dina e. A case in poin
is
he Sou h A ican
whi e 'wo king class' who may make use o bo h
exclusion ( o keep blacks ou ) as well
as
usu pa ion
( o gain access o he p i ileges
o
hose highe up).
O he
examples include closed-shop unions, black
consciousness mo emen s, and eminis s. Exclusion
may be iewed in hese ins ances as a sho - e m ac ic
( o ensu e collec i e ac ion) wi h a iew o achie ing
long- e m s a egic success in hei usu pa ion
p ac ices.
2.
The
di e se ideologies which a e held o a ise om
di e ing s uc u al posi ions a e no necessa ily
gene alizable o all membe s o he speci ic g oups.
I
is an o e simpli ica ion o a gue ha symme y
be ween s uc u al posi ion and ideology exis s. Bo h
ac oss and wi hin classes, people may sha e some
belie s and di e wi h espec o o he s. Howe e ,
as
we a e conce ned p ima ily
in
his pape wi h wha
di ides people and wi h wha inhibi s mobili y, we will
concen a e
on
wi hin-g oup simila i ies and be ween-
g oup di e ences. Such simila i ies and di e ences
a e, mo eo e , bo h eal and undamen al o ou
unde s anding
o
he p ocess
o
mobili y.
3.
The
c i e ia o exclusion equi e u he elabo a ion.
Pa kin (1979) a gues ha such c i e ia can be b oadly
classi ied as collec i e c i e ia ( ha is, social
cha ac e is ics such as class, ace, sex, and cas e) and
indi idual c i e ia ( ha is, p ope y and c eden ials).
Collec i e c i e ia a e well gea ed
o
ansmi
15
ad an ages om
one
gene a ion
o
he nex , whe eas
indi idual c i e ia a e a he less s able o e ime and
mo e gea ed owa ds he p o ec ion
o
cu en
ad an ages.
The
mode niza ion p ocess
is
gene ally
associa ed wi h secula iza ion which ends
o
shi
c i e ia
o
exclusion om he collec i e
o
he
indi idual. This, some people w ongly assume,
implies ha he ounda ions
o
closu e will
be
elimina ed. Howe e , al hough he posi ional
s uc u e may become mo e lexible and less s able,
he p ocess
o
closu e
is
only modi ied.
The
ew s ill
go e n he many a he expense
o
he many and,
al hough he ules change, imbalances in he p ocess
o
social mobili y p e ail. A good example, he e, is
p o ided by social mobili y in B i ain. Al hough
di ec disc imina ion agains women, blacks, and he
wo king-class may ha e dec eased, such
disc imina ion s ill pe sis s bu in a di e en o m.
Fac o s ela ing o social class such as pa onage,
nepo ism, and inhe i ance (collec i e c i e ia) may
ha e been eplaced by indi idual c i e ia (such as
c eden ials
o
educa ion) bu he abili y
o
p o ide a
good educa ion
is
s ill g ea e amongs hose who hold
powe ul posi ions. In
o he
wo ds,
'As
socie y ies
o
become " ai e ", wi h equal pay legisla ion
and
he
like, new "un ai nesses" may a ise as he dominan
g oups y
o
ind new ways
o
pe pe ua ing hei
posi ion. Di ec disc imina ion in he labou ma ke
may decline bu compe i ion o schooling and
c eden ials may in ensi y' (Hea h, 1981: 191). I could
be a gued, ha he powe ul a e in he bes posi ion o
win his ba le, e en hough he lowe classes may
ha e mo e oppo uni ies han hey had be o e.
4. This b ings us o a e y impo an poin . Since
exclusion
is
ine i able and pe haps e en a necessi y
( conside he case
o
specializa ion in he
o ganiza ion), and since exclusion om all means
o
li e a ely exis s in an endu ing o m (Mu phy,
1986:25), he ques ion 'when does closu e become
p oblema ic' becomes ele an . Closu e becomes
p oblema ic when he c i e ia o closu e a e no
accep ed by he majo i y
o
he popula ion. When
closu e and i s c i e ia a e pe cei ed as illegi ima e,
se e e con lic can shake he socie y (Mu phy;
1986:27).
The
deg ee o which closu e
is
p oblema ic
in a gi en social collec i i y is di ec ly p opo ional
o
he ex en
o
which he membe s
o
ha collec i i y
deem he ules
o
exclusion as illegi ima e. Legi imacy
is a ma e
o
belie
o
con ic ion; i in ol es people
judging ules
o
p ac ices as mo ally ' igh ' and
complying wi h hese ules
o
p ac ices
ou
o
a sense
o
'du y'
o
mo al espec . Legi imacy a ises om
wi hin he indi idual and canno
be
imposed
o
expec ed om wi hou .
The legi imacy c isis in Sou h A ica.
'Sou h A ica p ac ises he ex book case
o
legal
iola ions o legi imacy by denying he majo i y
popula ion equal poli ical igh s' (Adam & Moodley,
1986:129). Bo h he policy
o
Apa heid and all ha i
en ails a e ejec ed by he majo i y
o
he popula ion.
16
Illegi imacy may be iewed as he no m. Al hough hose
in
powe iew he ules o domina ion (p incipally based
on ace and e hnici y)
as
legi ima e, and al hough hose
in
powe a emp o legi imize hese ules h ough he
legal amewo k, his sys em
is
ejec ed
by
he majo i y
o
Sou h A icans. As pe cep ions o legi imacy a e
limi ed o membe s o he dominan g oups, and
as
he
subo dina e g oups do no comply ou o a sense
o
belie
in
he sys em, o de
is
main ained p ima ily h ough a
p ocess
o
coe cion. Pu simply, compliance
is
based on
ea .
Compliance o unjus laws and acquiescence wi h
unequal li e chances in bo h he o ganiza ion and socie y
a la ge a e made possible
by
co-e cion and dependency;
o en subo dina e g oups a e opp essed o he ex en
ha usu pa ion p ac ices become oo cos ly (in e ms o
loss o job, income, housing, e c.)
The absence
o
legi imacy wi h espec o he c i e ia
o
exclusion esul s
in
a agile and highly explosi e
social sys em. Indeed, a cen al p oblem
in
Sou h A ica
conce ns di e en pe cep ions wi h espec o hese
c i e ia; he dominan g oups gene ally ega d hese
c i e ia
as
legi ima e whils he subo dina e g oups ejec
hem. The 'de- acializa ion' o socie y and
o
mos la ge
co po a ions
is
in
essence an a emp o emo e he mos
isible ba ie s o mobili y ac oss he 's uc u al aul '. A
c i ical ques ion which has o be asked, howe e ,
is
whe he he emo al
o
one, albei impo an , c i e ion,
undamen ally changes he s uc u e o domina ion
o
whe he i me ely se es o modi y he basis
o
domina ion. In o he wo ds, does he emo al
o
his one
c i e ion imply he shi om collec i e o indi idual
c i e ia
o
exclusion wi hou changing he undamen als
o domina ion? Pu
in
ano he way,
is
he emo al o he
'pe y apa heid' appa a us enough
o
does his me ely
'mode nize acial domina ion'? (See Adam, 1971).
The c i e ia
o
exclusion a e a sys ema ic complex o
mani es ( o mal, legal and no ed) c i e ia and la en
(unde lying belie s, hidden pe cep ions and s e eo ypes)
p inciples. In o he wo ds, c i e ia o exclusion ha e
hei ounda ion in he o e all belie sys em
o
pa adigm
o
he dominan g oup.
I
we
a e se iously in e es ed
in
managemen
de elopmen , which
in
i sel
is
p oblema ic gi en he
con ex o domina ion, i
is
impo an o in es iga e he
basic assump ions unde lying he pa adigms o he main
ac o s;
in
o he wo ds, he alues
o
bo h he powe ul
and he powe less.
Pa adigms
Thomas Kuhn employed he concep 'pa adigm' o
desc ibe ' ... he en i e cons ella ion
o
belie s alues
echniques, and so on sha ed
by
membe s
o
a gi e~
communi y' (Camhis, 1979:60). Pa adigms a e bes
unde s ood as wo ld iews
o
ac ion amewo ks which
a e cohe en , in e nally logical and s uc u ed. I
is
gene ally assumed ha unde lying assump ions and
alues
will
in o m and be ela ed o a i udes and
pe cep ions which,
in
u n,
will
in o m and be ela ed o
beha iou .
S.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1989,20(1)
Social ac o s c ea e he pa adigm in e ms
o
which
hey li e. A pa adigm ' ... comes in o being as indi iduals
ake ac ion, in e p e ha ac ion, and sha e wi h o he s
hei in e p e a ions. These in e p e a ions, o
" ypi ica ions" a e a emp s o classi y he beha iou in o
ca ego ies ha
will
enable he ac o s o espond o i
in
simila ashion' (Sco , 1987:495).
The
p ocess o
ecip ocal ypi ica ion
is
a long- e m p ocess whe eby
ce ain o ms
o
ac ion come o be associa ed wi h
ce ain classes o ac o s.
Fo
example, he dominan
g oups gi e o de s and he subo dina e g oup complies.
The accep ance
o
ypi ica ions
is
called
ins i u ionaliza ion. 'Ins i u ionaliza ion occu s
whene e he e
is
a ecip ocal ypi ica ion o
habi ualized ac ions by ypes
o
ac o s' (Be ge &
Luckmann, 1967:54). Once ins i u ionaliza ion occu s a
pa adigm
is
o med and acqui es an objec i e exis ence
independen o pa icula ac o s. The assump ions
o
he
pa adigm a e ' aken o g an ed' as '
....
he "way hings
a e" and/o he "way hings a e o be
done"'
(Sco ,
1987:496).
Pa adigms a e accep ed by hei use s as alid and
na u al and hei con en
is
a ely ques ioned. Kuhn
(1970:5) a gues ha du ing imes
o
ela i e social
s abili y, people wo k unde he assump ion ha hei
pa adigm
is
co ec . He sugges s, mo eo e , ha
'A
pa adigm can insula e he communi y om hose socially
impo an p oblems ha a e no educible
o
puzzle
o m, because hey canno be s a ed
in
e ms
o
he
concep ual and ins umen al ools he pa adigm supplies'
(Kuhn, 1970:37).
When he con ex changes, and he inapp op ia eness
o
he pa adigm becomes oo ob ious o igno e, a
pa adigm shi should occu . In he absence
o
pa adigm
shi , he pa adigm becomes an ine ec ual bu den. Such
is
he case wi h cu en managemen de elopmen
s a egies.
The i s s ep
in
he sea ch o a new and app op ia e
pa adigm
is
he su acing and e alua ion
o
cu en
aken- o -g an ed assump ions. We will ake a look a
hese assump ions
in
he p ocess
o
applying hese
heo e ical insigh s o he p ocess
o
managemen
de elopmen
in
Sou h A ica.
Applica ion
The heo y o social closu e helps us o unde s and hose
social p ocesses by means
o
which dominan g oups,
who ha e in e es s
o
hei own
o
p o ec , exclude he
domina ed g oups om compe i ion, as well as hose
social p ocesses by means
o
which he domina ed
a emp o usu p he ad an ages
o
he powe ul. I has
been a gued ha collec i e c i e ia (such as ace, sex,
and eligion) ha e been made anach onis ic by he
p ocess
o
indus ializa ion and ha ,
in
mos mode n
socie ies, hese c i e ia ha e been eplaced by he
indi idual c i e ia o c eden ials and p ope y. In Sou h
A ica, and
in
mos Sou h A ican o ganiza ions,
howe e , a ension s ill exis s be ween collec i e and
indi idual c i e ia, his ension being exace ba ed by he
alues o hose
in
cha ge. As he ules
o
exclusion a e

S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(1)
based
on
he
alues
o
he
powe ul,
and
as alues
end
o e lec hemsel es in he a i udes and beha iou
o
he
dominan
g oup,
i would
appea ,
con a y
o
he
public
s a emen s
o
many la ge co po a ions,
ha ,
on
he
alues le el, hese co po a ions
a e
nei he able
no
willing
a
p esen
o
de elop non- acial cul u es
o
o
p o ide
managemen
de elopmen wi h he impe us i
equi es.
The
esea ch
o
Human
(1988) sugges s
ha
he pa adigms
o
mos whi e Sou h A ican manage s a e
such as
o
place a low p io i y
on
managemen
de elopmen .
Mo eo e ,
he esea ch
o
Human
(1988)
and
Human
&
Ho mey
(1987) also indica es an
an ipa hy
o
he
de elopmen
o
blacks. Mo e
speci ically, his esea ch sugges s
ha ,
whils p o essing
o accep equal
oppo uni y
and
a i ma i e ac ion in
he
o ganiza ions in which hey wo k, he majo i y
o
whi e
Sou h A ican manage s s ill
doub
he
inhe en
capabili ies
o
blacks.
The
pa adigms
o
hese manage s
appea
o
be
incohe en in he sense
ha
wha hey say
hey belie e in (equal oppo uni ies; a non- acial wo k-
o ce)
and
wha
hey ac ually belie e in (blacks a e
inhe en ly in e io ) a e wo di e en hings.
Al e na i ely,
he
ailu e
o
managemen de elopmen ,
and
speci ically black manage de elopmen
p og ammes in many o ganiza ions could be asc ibed o
he ac
ha
lip-se ice
is
paid o hese ac i i ies, whils
manage s con inue
o
manage in e ms
o
a compe ing
pa adigm.
I
would
appea ,
mo eo e , ha he dominan
pa adigm -
he
' a ional ac o ' pa adigm which a ou s
indi idualism, conse a ism, au oc acy, uni a ism, and
a ionalism -is amenable nei he
o
managemen
de elopmen
no
he
ad ancemen
o
blacks in o
manage ial posi ions
(Human,
1988).
I
would
appea
ha ,
o managemen de elopmen
ac i i ies
o
be
success ul, a pa adigm shi has
o
ake
place amongs he majo i y
o
whi e manage s; in
o he
wo ds
ha
hese manage s ha e
o
be 'con e ed'
o
a
social consciousness o ien a ion.
I
would also
appea
ha hese manage s ha e
o
be ained in people
managemen ,
expe ience sugges ing
ha
such skills
a e
sadly lacking in mos o ganiza ions. Thus, i
managemen
de elopmen in ol es c ea ing and
de eloping manage s who can manage o he s o he
mo e e ec i e
and
e icien u iliza ion
o
esou ces,
o ganiza ions ha e a wo- old challenge
o
con on : hey
no
only ha e
o
ain
and
de elop people om
disad an aged g oups
and
mo e hem
up
in o
manage ial posi ions,
bu
also -
and
pe haps
mo e
impo an ly -o ganiza ions mus examine he alues
and de elop
he
people managemen skills
o
hose
manage s hey al eady ha e. Thus, managemen
de elopmen equi es a mo e han me ely mo ing
gene ally black people h ough he s uc u al aul ; as
much
a en ion
needs
o
be
paid o hose who will
manage
hem
once
hey
a e
he e. In
o he
wo ds he
pa adigms
o
he
alues
and
assump ions
o
manage s
ha e
o
be
changed
p io
o
he
p o ision
o
people
managemen
skills.
The
p oblems
o
managemen
de elopmen a e many
and
complex
and
include p oblems ela ing
o
he
s uc u al aspec s
o
socie y as well as he pa icula
17
issues aced by black manage s
on
hei
a i al in highe
le el posi ions.
One
o
he
majo
p oblems
ela ing
o
he
s uc u al
aspec s
o
socie y conce ns
he
p ocesses
o
social
mobili y men ioned ea lie . Because
o
he his o ical
de elopmen
o
he
Sou h A ican socie y, whi es
end
o
occupy manage ial
and
p o essional posi ions
and
blacks
he lowe le el, semi-skilled
and
unskilled pos s.
Mo emen h ough
he
s uc u al aul in socie y is
exace ba ed by he p ocesses
o
social mobili y which, in
he
majo i y
o
coun ies
o
Wes e n
Eu ope
and
e en
he
USA,
assign
be e
oppo uni ies
and
li e chances
o
hose males bo n
o
a he s in eli e posi ions.
Pu
simply,
he highe he posi ion
o
he
a he
on
he
occupa ional
ladde ,
he
g ea e
he
chances
ha
his son will each a
simila posi ion himsel
(Hea h,
1981). Boys
bo n
o
a he s
a
he
op
o
he
job
s uc u e
s and
a
be e
chance han hose
bo n
o
lowe le el a he s
o
ob aining meaning ul wo k.
Thus,
al hough di ec
disc imina ion agains blacks may ha e declined
somewha
and
may con inue
o
decline in
he
u u e,
he
dominan g oups will con inue
o
pe pe ua e
hei
posi ion h ough he p o ision
o
quali y educa ion o
hei child en.
In
o he
wo ds, e en i ace becomes a
less ele an c i e ion o exclusion in he u u e,
he
dominan whi e
g oup
will s ill y
o
ind new ways
o
pe pe ua ing domina ion.
I
is likely
ha ,
wi h a
mo emen om collec i e
o
indi idual c i e ia
o
exclusion, compe i ion o educa ional quali ica ions will
become mo e acu e. E en hough, i his si ua ion
we e
o
ma e ialize, black people may well ha e
be e
oppo uni ies
han
be o e, whi es would emain in a
powe ul posi ion
o
e ain hei ad an ages in his
ega d.
A gumen s ela ing
o
social mobili y
link
in o
ano he
se
o
a gumen s ela ing
o
he
ole
o
legisla ion,
en i onmen
and
educa ion in
he
p o ision
o
li e
chances. His o ically, in Sou h A ica,
bo h
legisla ion
and
he p o ision
o
educa ion ha e
been
gea ed
owa ds
keeping black people in a
domina ed
posi ion below
he
s uc u al aul . Simila ly, he kinds
o
en i onmen
in
which black child en ha e
had
o g ow
up
a e
o en
a
in e io
o
he
kinds
o
housing, acili ies
and
ameni ies
a ailable
o
whi es. All
o
hese ac o s ha e impac ed
and
s ill impac
on
he
abili y
o
black people
o
mo e
in o managemen posi ions. Such ac o s
a e
ela ed,
mo eo e ,
o
a conse a i e ideology,
an
ideology which
is s ill pe asi e amongs many
o
hose whi es in
senio
posi ions in he o ganisa ions in which black
people
a e
being de eloped.
The
black
manage
wo king in
an
en i onmen
which
is domina ed by whi es is hus in an unen iable posi ion.
Indeed,
he esea ch
o
Human
& Icely (1987);
Human
&
Ho mey
(1987)
and
Human
(1988), sugges s
ha
he
a i udes
o
whi es owa ds black
managemen
de elopmen a e gene ally nega i e
and
ha
a g ea deal
o
sub le
and
no
so sub le disc imina ion exis s.
As
s a ed ea lie , hese kinds
o
a i udes
ela e
back
o
he
alues
o
hese manage s,
hei
pa adigm being
esponsi e nei he o black
managemen
de elopmen
in
pa icula
no
managemen de elopmen in gene al.
18
O he
p oblems expe ienced by black manage s. in
essen ially whi e o ganiza ions include p oblems ela mg
o cul u e, educa ion and hei ma ginal posi ion.
To
begin wi h he la e , black manage s ind hemsel es
caugh be ween he wo compe ing ideologies
o
exclusion and usu pa ion. In
o he
wo ds, hey
a e
caugh be ween he con lic ing p essu es
o
black
esis ance
o
exclusion and a emp s by whi es o eac o
his esis ance. Black manage s a e o en no accep ed
by whi es and a e equen ly pe cei ed as 'sell-ou s' by
blacks, hei ambiguous
o
schizoph enic posi ion being
exace ba ed by he sepa a ion
o
he domes ic and social
wo lds
o
blacks and whi es.
Black manage s hus ind hemsel es aced wi h
compe ing loyal ies and esponsibili ies; pu simply, hey
o en do no know whose side hey should
be
on.
Resea ch sugges s ha he unde pe o mance
o
some
black manage s may esul om his ma ginal posi ion
a he han om an inabili y o
do
he
job
(Human,
1981, Human & Ho mey , 1985).
O he
p oblems aced by black manage s include
p oblems ela ing o cul u e and a lack
o
educa ional
quali ica ions. Al hough bo h
o
hese a gumen s a e
impo an , hey should no be o e s a ed. Bo h
o
hese
a gumen s could well exace ba e con en ions
o
illegi imacy, inasmuch as bo h could be pe cei ed
inc easingly as a p oxy o collec i e c i e ia on he
g ounds
o
ace. In
o he
wo ds, a cen al challenge o
mos o ganiza ions
is
he eassessmen
o
minimum en y
c i e ia o speci ic jobs as well as a eo ien a ion
owa ds he concep
o
'me i '. I he minimum
educa ional quali ica ions equi ed o ce ain jobs a e
oo high
o
i he o ganiza ion in ques ion akes a limi ed
and appa en ly dubious app oach o he assessmen
o
po en ial
o
abili y -and in some ins ances his would
indeed
appea
o be he case - hen black people could
assume ha hey a e excluded om jobs hey eel able o
do. Exclusion, in u n, could be pe cei ed as ela ed o
ace wi h wha a e pe cei ed as un ealis ically high
educa ional quali ica ions
o
inapp op ia e assessmen s
o
me i being cons ued as me ely an excuse o keep
black people ou . Simila ly, a gumen s ela ing
o
di e ences be ween A ican and wes e n cul u e should
also be handled wi h ca e. Again, many black manage s,
who eel ha ew eally impo an di e ences be ween
hemsel es
and
hei whi e coun e pa s exis in e ms
o
abili y
o
ge he
job
done, ejec a gumen s o he e ec
ha hei cul u e lea es hem
a
a disad an age in he
business wo ld. Al hough hese black manage s would
no wan o a gue away cul u al di e ences, hey would
ques ion he ele ance
o
cul u al a gumen s o
pe o mance. Again he e exis s a dange ha he
cul u al a gumen is employed as a p oxy o he
collec i e c i e ion
o
ace. Wha appea s o be equi ed
is a model which would allow us o assess indi iduals as
indi iduals and in e ms
o
which indi idual s eng hs
and
weaknesses
and
he e ec s
o
indi idual p oblems in
ela ion
o
cul u e, educa ion and ma ginali y could be
assessed by bo h
he
subo dina e and his manage in a
spi i
o
us and co-ope a ion.
In
he absence
o
his
kind
o
model,
he
po en ial o he inc easing
S.
-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.1989
,20(
1)
illegi imacy
o
he ules
o
exclusion in
e ms
o
bo h
collec i e
and
indi idual c i e ia emains acu e. And
wi hou ules
o
exclusion which
a e
pe cei ed
as
legi ima e by he majo i y
o
employees
in he
o ganiza ion, an ex emely uns able
and
unmanageable
si ua ion will de elop.
Managemen de elopmen p ac ice
An
analysis
o
managemen
de elopmen
in
e ms
o
he
insigh s men ioned abo e helps us
bo h
o
be e
unde s and he p oblems
o
managemen
de elopmen
as well as wha needs
o
be
done
abou
hem.
Wi h
espec
o
managemen
de elopmen
p ac ice, he
ollowing poin s a e
o
no e:
Managemen
de elopmen
is a s a egic issue which
should be ecognized by
op-managemen
du ing he
s a egic planning p ocess. I is
no
an
issue which should
be
consigned o
he
pe sonnel
depa men
bu ,
a he ,
i s
impo ance should be ecognized
a
he
s a egic le el
and weighed up agains
o he
s a egic decisions. The
pe sonnel
depa men
has a ole
o
play in he
coo dina ion
o
aining
and
de elopmen
bu
should no
be held esponsible o d i ing
he
decision
o
accep he
eo ien a ion
o
alues
and
ammg
in people
managemen skills as a key s a egic h us .
The
esponsibili y o his h us
should
lie wi h op
managemen and he line unc ion. This de e mina ion
o
p io i ies
a
s a egic le el p o ides a
clea
indica ion
o
he impo ance
o
he
ole
o
managemen
de elopmen in he company.
Wi hou
op
managemen
commi men o
managemen
de elopmen ,
li le is likely
o happen.
The ea e ,
op
managemen
commi men
o
aining
and
de elopmen as well as i s
commi men
o
o he
s a egic objec i es should
be
il e ed down he
o ganiza ion. Such
commi men
should,
mo eo e ,
include a commi men
o
he
eo ien a ion
and
aining
in people managemen skills
o
cu en
manage s
and
he
inclusion
o
he managemen
o
subo dina es
in
he
key
objec i es
o
each manage . Unless
manage s
a e
assessed, in e ms
o
hei
own
pe o mance,
on
he
ex en o which hey ha e
coached
hei
subo dina es,
o he
key objec i es
a e
going
o
ake
p io i y.
I has al eady
been
s a ed
ha
he
pa adigms
o
he
majo i y
o
whi e manage s mili a e agains
managemen
de elopmen in gene al
and
he
managemen
de elopmen
o
blacks in pa icula .
Value
su acing
exe cises can be employed
o
expose
hese
alues
and
an
a emp
can
be
made
o
c ea e
an
app op ia e
se
o
alues
o
ensu e
managemen
de elopmen .
In
his way,
some kind
o
syn hesis be ween
he
mo e
b oadly
based
ideologies
o
exclusion
and
usu pa ion
can
be
achie ed
in an
a emp
o
bo h
educe di e ences be ween
manage s
and
managed
and
o
al e
he
alue s uc u es
o
manage s. Such
a emp s
a
alue
change
can
be
ein o ced by
op
managemen
commi men ,
by
egula
moni o ing
o
p og ess
and
by
making line manage s
accoun able o
he
p og ess
o
hei
subo dina es. Value
change is, mo eo e , c i ical
o
he
legi imacy
o
indi idual c i e ia
o
exclusion.
S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(1)
I
is
du ing he s a egic planning s age ha decisions
wi h ega d o a i ma i e ac ion should be made. These
decisions should be based on a s eng hs, weaknesses,
oppo uni ies and h ea s analysis
o
he company as well
as
bo h a sho and long- e m e alua ion
o
he b oade
en i onmen and an analysis
o
company alues.
P oposed a i ma i e ac ion ac i i ies should be ed in o
he manpowe planning p ocess and selec ion and
ec ui men me hods.
Manpowe planning, as pa
o
he s a egic p ocess,
p o ides us wi h he oppo uni y o de e mine cu en
and u u e manpowe equi emen s. This in u n links
in o he succession planning p ocess which p o ides us
wi h he oppo uni y o de elop indi iduals wi h
po en ial o u u e posi ions. Succession planning, in
u n, links in o he p ocess
o
p o essional people
managemen . People managemen , as he join
esponsibili y
o
he manage and subo dina e, in ol es
a p ocess whe eby key asks and measu able
pe o mance s anda ds a e de e mined, (cu en , and in
e ms
o
he succession plan, u u e) aining needs a e
iden i ied, aining, de elopmen and coaching akes
place, and pe o mance eedback/app aisal and ca ee
planning a e unde aken. P o essional people
managemen
is
a c i ical aspec
o
he de elopmen
o
people
o
all aces.
This p ocess ea s indi iduals as indi iduals and
p o ides a logical s uc u e in e ms
o
which indi idual
aining needs can be iden i ied. Coaching, aining and
de elopmen should, mo eo e , be gea ed o indi idual
needs and ca ee plans.
People managemen p o ides a p ocess by means
o
which o ganiza ions can mo e away om an emphasis on
ace owa ds an indi idual assessmen
o
s eng hs and
weaknesses as de e mined h ough a p ocess
o
nego ia ion be ween manage and subo dina e.
I
is, howe e , wi h he p ocesses
o
selec ion and
ec ui men ha he eal mo e om collec i e c i e ia
o
exclusion o indi idual c i e ia
o
exclusion has o ake
place in a meaning ul way.
A
p esen , many
o ganiza ions con use educa ional quali ica ions wi h
s anda ds and assume ha i he educa ional
equi emen s a ached o speci ic jobs a e lowe ed, hen
s anda ds will also d op. This
is
no necessa ily he case,
howe e , as s anda ds may also d op i he educa ional
le el
is
oo high and people a e bo ed wi h wha hey a e
doing
o
i
o he
job- ela ed c i e ia a e mo e impo an
han educa ion. Also, i h ough inadequa e de ini ion
and unde s anding
o
he
job
a hand, we a ach
educa ional c i e ia which a e oo high o he
job,
we
un ai ly exclude disad an aged g oups om
compe i ion. In
ou
sea ch o he igh pe son o he
job, wo impo an ac s should be bo ne in mind.
Fi s ly, he skills sho age is going o de e io a e and
secondly, he e a e a la ge numbe
o
disad an aged
people who ha e he abili y
o
he po en ial o pe o m
managemen jobs bu who ha e no ob ained he
educa ional quali ica ions hey would ha e had, had
his o ical ci cums ances been di e en . In iew o hese
ac s, oge he wi h he p oblems su ounding he use
o
psychome ic es s, ad e isemen s and all-whi e
19
selec ion panels, he cen al challenge which cu en ly
con on s o ganiza ions which wish
o
de elop a non-
acial managemen eam is he de elopmen
o
ai e
me hods o selec ion which selec o ei he he po en ial
o
he abili y o do he pa icula clea ly de ined
job
a
hand
in
a way which allows us o adequa ely assess he
po en ial
o
he abili y
o
all applican s i espec i e
o
backg ound. Unless we a e able
o
de elop hese
echniques and unless we a e able o eo ien a e
ou sel es wi h espec o he concep
o
me i , whe e
such eo ien a ion does no in ol e a lowe ing
o
s anda ds, he passage om collec i e ( ace) o
indi idual (c eden ials) c i e ia
o
exclusion
is
no going
o be a smoo h one, pa icula ly in iew
o
pe sis en
gla ing inequi ies
in
he educa ional sys em. As long as
ace
is
linked o educa ion and selec ion
is
(dubiously)
linked o educa ion (ins ead
o
mo e ele an selec ion
c i e ia) and hence ace, he legi imacy
o
e en
indi idual c i e ia o exclusion emains p oblema ic.
Conclusion
In his a icle, an a emp has been made o p o ide a
be e unde s anding
o
managemen de elopmen in
Sou h A ica by he de elopmen
o
a heo e ical
amewo k wi hin which he p ocess
o
managemen
de elopmen can be si ua ed.
I
has been a gued ha he
p oblem
o
managemen de elopmen should be
unde s ood by using a amewo k
o
domina ion, which
p o ides a use ul concep ual amewo k wi hin which he
basic dynamics
o
managemen de elopmen can be
unde s ood. This amewo k has been employed o
unde s and he s uc u al posi ioning
o
he p inciple
ac o s, he ela ionship be ween hem, and he wo ld-
iews which may a ise om hese posi ions. I has been
a gued ha managemen de elopmen should be
unde s ood wi hin his amewo k and e o mula ed
acco dingly. Such a e o mula ion would in ol e
managemen de elopmen being ega ded as a s a egic
issue and as in ol ing he eo ien a ion and aining
o
whi e manage s in
o de
o acili a e he upwa d
mo emen
o
blacks. I has also been p edic ed ha
se e e consequences would ensue om a decision no
o
eo ien a e ou sel es
o
cu en c i e ia
o
exclusion.
Re e ences
Adam, H.
1971.
Mode nizing Racial Domina ion. Be keley:
Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess.
Adam, H. & Moodley,
K.
1986.
Sou h A ica wi hou
Apa heid. Cape Town: Maskew Mille and Longman.
Be ge , P. & Luckmann, T.
1967.
The Social Cons uc ion
o
Reali y. New Yo k: Doubleday.
Camhis,
M.
1979. Planning Theo y and Philosophy. London:
Ta is ock.
Ha bison,
F.
1973.
Human Resou ces
as
he Weal h
o
Na ions.
New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Hea h, A. 1981. Social Mobili y. Glasgow: Fon ana.
Human, L.
1981.
Some en a i e commen s on he Black
Manage
in
a Whi e Wo ld. S.A .
J.
Bus. Mgm ., ol.12,
103-108.
20
Human, L. & Ho mey ,
K.
1985.
Black Manage s
in
Sou h
A ican O ganisa ions. Cape Town: Ju a.
Human, L. & Icely,
N.
1987. T ends
in
he A i udes o Whi e
Wo ke s o he Upwa d Occupa ional Mobili y o Blacks:
Findings om wo companies.
S.
A .
J.
Labou Rel.,
ol.11, 4-23.
Human, P. 1988. Do Mul i-Na ionals Make a Di e ence?
Pape p esen ed a Mul i-na ional Cul u e: Social Impac s
o
a Global Economy. New Yo k, Hemps ead, Ho s a
Uni e si y, Ma ch 1988.
Human, P. & Ho mey ,
K.
1987.
A i udes
o
Sou h A ican
S. -A . Tydsk . Bed y sl .1989
,20(
1)
Manage s
o
he Ad ancemen
o
Blacks in Business.
s.
A .
J.
Labou Rel., ol.11, 53-68.
Kuhn, T.S. 1970. The S uc u e
o
Scien i ic Re olu ions.
Chicago: Uni e si y
o
Chicago P ess.
Mu phy, R. 1986. Webe ian Closu e Theo y: A con ibu ion
o he ongoing assessmen . B .
J.
Soc., ol.37, pa 1,
21-41.
Pa kin, F. 1979. Ma xism and Class Theo y: A Bou geois
C i ique. London: Ta is ock.
Sco , W.R. 1987.
The
Adolescence
o
Ins i u ional Theo y.
Admin. Sci. Qua ., ol.32, 493-511.