Towards a better understanding of management development in South Africa

Human, P.; Human, Linda A icle Towa ds a be e unde s anding o managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Human, P.; Human, Linda (1989) : Towa ds a be e unde s anding o managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 20, Iss. 1, pp. 13-20, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 20i1.934 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/218011 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. 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Human* and Linda Human G adua e School o Business, Uni e si y o Cape Town, P i a e Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Republic o Sou h A ica Recei ed 12 Sep embe 1988; accep ed 1 I No embe 1988 In his a icle, an a emp is made o p o ide a be e unde s anding o managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica by he de elopmen o a heo e ical amewo k wi hin which he p ocess o managemen de elopmen can be si ua ed. I is a gued ha managemen de elopmen can be unde s ood by using a amewo k o domina ion, which p o ides a use ul concep ual model wi hin which he basic dynamics o managemen de elopmen can be placed. This amewo k desc ibes he s uc u al posi ioning o he p incipal ac o s, he ela ionship be ween hem, and he possible wo ld- iews which may a ise om hese posi ions. The p oblem o managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica is discussed in e ms o his amewo k and p ac ical solu ions elici ed. In hie die a ikel wo d 'n eo e iese aamwe k i bes uu son wikkeling in Suid-A ika oo ges el. 'n Be e beg ip an bes uu son wikkeling kan moon lik e k y wo d deu die beg ip an dominansie eo e ies sen aal e plaas. Die aamwe k besk y die s uk u ele posisies an die p ime e ak eu s, die elasies ussen hulle en die moon like we eldbeskouinge wa e bandhoudend is me e skillende posisies. Die p obleme an bes uu son wikkeling in Suid-A ika wo d besp eek in e me an die eo e iese aamwe k en p ak iese oplossings wo d oo ges el. • To whom co espondence should be add essed In oduc ion Managemen , as a dis inc occupa ional g oup wi h speci ic asks o pe o m and speci ic esponsibili ies o mee , is becoming an inc easingly impo an o ce in he cu en and u u e de elopmen o Sou h A ican socie y. The success ul de elopmen o his socie y would appea o be dependen o a high deg ee upon he e ec i eness and e iciency o o ganiza ions in ela ion o he p oduc ion and dis ibu ion o goods and se ices; and as he o ganiza ion can be iewed as a de elopmen al ins umen which is di ec ed and con olled by managemen , i s e ec i eness and e iciency would appea o be la gely a unc ion o he quali y o managemen . This asse ion holds ue o all o ganiza ions - be hey p i a e, public, p o i -making, non-p o i making, la ge o small. Indeed, his a gumen could be ex ended o include he impo ance o managemen no only o he ensu ing o he e ec i eness and,e iciency o he o ganiza ion bu also o he c ea ion o a be e socie y. The de elopmen o p o essional managemen can consequen ly be seen as mo e han a c ucially impo an s a egic objec i e o Sou h A ican o ganiza ions; he de elopmen o p o essional manage s mus also be seen in he b oade con ex o he socie y a la ge. As Ha bison (1973:3) a gues:' ... human esou ces -no capi al no income, no ma e ial esou ces -cons i u e he ul ima e basis o he weal h o na ions... Clea ly, a coun y which is unable o de elop he skills and knowledge o i s people and o u ilize hem e ec i ely in he na ional economy will be unable o de elop any hing else'. In o de o he skills and knowledge o hei employees o be u ilized op imally, o ganiza ions will ha e o manage hei human esou ces a mo e p o essionally han hey a e oday. Indeed, i could be a gued ha many o he p oponen s o he need o black manage de elopmen make one impo an and gene ally w ong assump ion: ha is, ha whi e managemen is al eady adequa ely doing i s job. I will be a gued below ha managemen de elopmen equi es a mo e han he p omo ion o employees in o manage ial posi ions; he e-o ien a ion, aining and de elopmen o hose manage s we al eady ha e, is an u gen p e- equisi e o he de elopmen o hose wi h manage ial po en ial. In his pape , a gene al o ien a ion o managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica is p oposed. The poin o depa u e is ha managemen de elopmen , as i is cu en ly p ac ised, is p oblema ic no only because i is insu icien bu also and p obably mo e impo an ly because i is based on shallow and in i m heo e ical ounda ions. I is a gued ha managemen de elopmen should ini ially be unde s ood in i s sociological con ex a he han as a pu ely echnical issue. Following on om his, we hope o show how managemen de elopmen e o s can be mo e e ec i ely di ec ed. Mo e speci ically, i is a gued ha he p oblem o managemen de elopmen should be unde s ood by using a amewo k buil a ound he concep o domina ion. Domina ion cons i u es a pe asi e cha ac e is ic o Sou h A ican socie y, and i s na u e is such ha he g ound ules o social and o ganiza ional mobili y a e highly biased and inequi able. I is also he case ha hese g ound ules a e pe cei ed as illegi ima e by p obably he majo i y o he popula ion, wi h cu en a emp s a es uc u ing such ules also being in g a e dange o alling oul o he pe cep ions o he majo i y. The p oblem is ha hose who ind hemsel es in ad an ageous posi ions in he social hie a chy equen ly pe cei e he adi ional ules as legi ima e, such belie s leading o an inaccu a e assessmen o managemen 14 de elopmen p oblems and hence a misdi ec ed e o in hei solu ion. In his pape , we a emp o p o ide a be e unde s anding o he p oblems su ounding managemen de elopmen and o sugges ce ain solu ions emana ing om ou heo e ical o ien a ion. A model o domina ion Tha he ew go e n he many would appea o cons i u e a 'social ac ' e idenced in all socie ies and mos o ganiza ions o collec i i ies o people h oughou he wo ld. All social collec i i ies which, by implica ion, pu sue a single, o a a ie y o , collec i e goals end o de elop a co e o membe s which akes cha ge o he o e all esponsibili y o he coo dina ion o indi idual asks and o he s a egic di ec ion o he collec i i y. Social and o ganiza ional li e a e cha ac e ized by a di ision o labou , he mos undamen al being he di ision be ween hose who make he impo an decisions on behal o he whole and hose wi h limi ed disc e ion. A dis inc ion can hus be made be ween hose who domina e and ha e powe o e o he s and hose who a e subo dina e and ha e li le powe o e o he s. Al hough his kind o dis inc ion is concep ually pleasing, we know, empi ically, ha o ganiza ional li e is nei he ha simple no ha nea . Howe e , o he sake o he a gumen ha ollows, we will e ain his gene alized concep ion o he ime being. I is in he in e es (which may be de ined as oppo uni ies, p i ileges, ewa ds and s a us cu en ly expe ienced o expec ed in he u u e) o he dominan ew o e ain and e en ex end hei posi ion o dominance is-a- is he domina ed. The main ainance o hei in e es s in ol es he p o ec ion o he bounda ies be ween hemsel es and hose who may h ea en such in e es s. This p ocess is called social closu e. 'By social closu e Webe means he p ocess by which social collec i i ies seek o maximise ewa ds by es ic ing access o esou ces and oppo uni ies o a limi ed ci cle o eligibles' (Pa kin, 1979: 44). Domina ion can hus be desc ibed as a p ocess whe eby one g oup consis en ly and success ully monopolizes ad an ages by closing o oppo uni ies o he subo dina e g oup below hem. The c i e ia o exclusion may include any social cha ac e is ic, in e alia, ace, sex, language, eligion, educa ion, social s a us, and geog aphical egion o o igin. The bounda y, o o use Pa kin's (1979) e m, he 's uc u al aul ' unning h ough he socie y o he o ganiza ion in ques ion, and which di ides he dominan and domina ed g oups, oge he wi h he p ocesses in ol ed in bo h he main enance o , and challenges o, his bounda y a e cen al o ou unde s anding o domina ion and mobili y. Two ecip ocal o ms o social closu e exis . The i s occu s h ough a p ocess o exclusion. Exclusion cons i u es he exe cise o powe om abo e and is a ~ oce~s. whe e~y oppo uni ies a e closed o by 1mpos1~1on. This p ocess ine i ably engende s he po en ial o a con e se p ocess, which in ol es S.-A . Tydsk .Bed y sl.1989,20(1) usu pa ion by hose g oups which a e excluded. Usu pa ion ac s in an upwa ds di ec ion and cons i u es a p ocess whe eby he excluded g oups a emp o ob ain some o he ad an ages and oppo uni ies o he powe ul (Pa kin, 1979:44-45). The excluded g oups a emp o cap u e some o all o he ad an ages o he powe ul g oup h ough a ious means and in ex eme cases by he p ocess o e olu ion. The s uc u al aul in socie y o he o ganiza ion can be seen as he line o issu e whe e he di ec ional low o powe changes; he o ien a ion om abo e is op- down and ha om below is bo om-up. This line di ides he social collec i i y in o wo majo classes, he one based on he p inciples o exclusion and he o he on he p inciples o usu pa ion. This issu e ep esen s, mo eo e , he sou ce o mos ideological di e ences inasmuch as he di e en s uc u al posi ions end o de e mine, o o coincide wi h, di e se ideologies o wo ld iews. A numbe o dis inguishing cha ac e is ics o he di e en ideologies a e concep ually iden i ied in Table 1. Table 1 Cha ac e is ics o he di e en ideologies Dominan g oups Subo dina e g oups Powe posi ion Powe ul Powe less Exe cise o powe Downwa ds Upwa ds Goals To main ain To cap u e In e es s Mos ly ma e ial Mos ly ideal Powe base Owne ship o he O he people means o li e chances Time ame Sho e m Long e m Social p essu e High Low Social o ien a ion Indi idualis Collec i is The dominan g oups' powe esides in hei abili y o own o con ol li e chances, in he o m o in e alia, oppo uni ies ( o educa ion o occupa ional posi ions), p i ileges and capi al. The p ima y o mos immedia e goal o hese g oups is o main ain hei p i ileged posi ion. Such p i ileges a e, mo eo e , gene ally o a ma e ial a he han an ideal na u e and include money, li e-s yles and s uc o al posi ions. This does no mean ha he powe ul a e idealess; a he , his means ha he cen al emphasis o hei exis ence is ma e ial o he ex en ha hei p i ileged posi ion is based upon he e en ion o owne ship and con ol. The p ocess o usu pa ion also cons an ly eminds hose highe up ha hei posi ion is ickle, he eli e o en being o ced in o i e- igh ing ac i i ies o o se he challenge om below. This leads us o he no ion ha he o ien a ion o he powe ul is gene ally eac i e. In Sou h A ica since 1976, he black communi y has aken mos o he ini ia i e (in he o m o s ikes, io s, and boyco s) and he whi e communi y has been o ced o espond (wi h labou~ and o he e o ms, commissions o enqui y, he es abhshmen o he U ban Founda ion, e c). This kind S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(1) o eac i e s ance also means ha he ime ame o hose in powe is o en ela i ely sho e m; hey a e unde p essu e and eac o cu en challenges a he han wo king in e ms o a ision o he u u e. A wo ld- iew which may de elop om wi hin dominan g oups may hus be desc ibed as eli is , op-down, eac i e, ma e ialis ic, and agmen ed. By way o con as , he subo dina e g oups o en ha e li le powe apa om hei numbe s; hey o en ha e ela i ely ew ma e ial in e es s (and he e o e li le o lose); hey o en ha e expec a ions ela ing o powe being in hei hands in he u u e; hey a e also o en less p essu ized in e ms o achie ing hei goals. The longe e m, idealis ic and collec i is ben o he subo dina e g oups has many ad an ages, no leas o which is he ela i e ease wi h which collec i e ac ion can be mobilized and he ime and ene gy, uelled by ideals, which hey ha e a hei disposal. This does no necessa ily imply ha hei posi ion is p e e able o ha o he p i ileged g oup. Indeed, hose in powe will consis en ly a emp o supp ess usu pa ion p ac ices by coe cion o by psychological manipula ion. This model cons i u es a use ul concep ual amewo k wi hin which he basic dynamics o domina ion and mobili y can be unde s ood. I bo h desc ibes he s uc u al posi ioning o he p inciple ac o s, he ela ionship be ween hem, and he possible wo ld- iews which may a ise om hese posi ions. In e ining his e y gene alized model, he ollowing conside a ions need o be aken in o accoun : 1. Some g oups in socie y ind hemsel es in a ma ginal posi ion be ween he clea ly dominan and he clea ly subo dina e. A case in poin is he Sou h A ican whi e 'wo king class' who may make use o bo h exclusion ( o keep blacks ou ) as well as usu pa ion ( o gain access o he p i ileges o hose highe up). O he examples include closed-shop unions, black consciousness mo emen s, and eminis s. Exclusion may be iewed in hese ins ances as a sho - e m ac ic ( o ensu e collec i e ac ion) wi h a iew o achie ing long- e m s a egic success in hei usu pa ion p ac ices. 2. The di e se ideologies which a e held o a ise om di e ing s uc u al posi ions a e no necessa ily gene alizable o all membe s o he speci ic g oups. I is an o e simpli ica ion o a gue ha symme y be ween s uc u al posi ion and ideology exis s. Bo h ac oss and wi hin classes, people may sha e some belie s and di e wi h espec o o he s. Howe e , as we a e conce ned p ima ily in his pape wi h wha di ides people and wi h wha inhibi s mobili y, we will concen a e on wi hin-g oup simila i ies and be ween- g oup di e ences. Such simila i ies and di e ences a e, mo eo e , bo h eal and undamen al o ou unde s anding o he p ocess o mobili y. 3. The c i e ia o exclusion equi e u he elabo a ion. Pa kin (1979) a gues ha such c i e ia can be b oadly classi ied as collec i e c i e ia ( ha is, social cha ac e is ics such as class, ace, sex, and cas e) and indi idual c i e ia ( ha is, p ope y and c eden ials). Collec i e c i e ia a e well gea ed o ansmi 15 ad an ages om one gene a ion o he nex , whe eas indi idual c i e ia a e a he less s able o e ime and mo e gea ed owa ds he p o ec ion o cu en ad an ages. The mode niza ion p ocess is gene ally associa ed wi h secula iza ion which ends o shi c i e ia o exclusion om he collec i e o he indi idual. This, some people w ongly assume, implies ha he ounda ions o closu e will be elimina ed. Howe e , al hough he posi ional s uc u e may become mo e lexible and less s able, he p ocess o closu e is only modi ied. The ew s ill go e n he many a he expense o he many and, al hough he ules change, imbalances in he p ocess o social mobili y p e ail. A good example, he e, is p o ided by social mobili y in B i ain. Al hough di ec disc imina ion agains women, blacks, and he wo king-class may ha e dec eased, such disc imina ion s ill pe sis s bu in a di e en o m. Fac o s ela ing o social class such as pa onage, nepo ism, and inhe i ance (collec i e c i e ia) may ha e been eplaced by indi idual c i e ia (such as c eden ials o educa ion) bu he abili y o p o ide a good educa ion is s ill g ea e amongs hose who hold powe ul posi ions. In o he wo ds, 'As socie y ies o become " ai e ", wi h equal pay legisla ion and he like, new "un ai nesses" may a ise as he dominan g oups y o ind new ways o pe pe ua ing hei posi ion. Di ec disc imina ion in he labou ma ke may decline bu compe i ion o schooling and c eden ials may in ensi y' (Hea h, 1981: 191). I could be a gued, ha he powe ul a e in he bes posi ion o win his ba le, e en hough he lowe classes may ha e mo e oppo uni ies han hey had be o e. 4. This b ings us o a e y impo an poin . Since exclusion is ine i able and pe haps e en a necessi y ( conside he case o specializa ion in he o ganiza ion), and since exclusion om all means o li e a ely exis s in an endu ing o m (Mu phy, 1986:25), he ques ion 'when does closu e become p oblema ic' becomes ele an . Closu e becomes p oblema ic when he c i e ia o closu e a e no accep ed by he majo i y o he popula ion. When closu e and i s c i e ia a e pe cei ed as illegi ima e, se e e con lic can shake he socie y (Mu phy; 1986:27). The deg ee o which closu e is p oblema ic in a gi en social collec i i y is di ec ly p opo ional o he ex en o which he membe s o ha collec i i y deem he ules o exclusion as illegi ima e. Legi imacy is a ma e o belie o con ic ion; i in ol es people judging ules o p ac ices as mo ally ' igh ' and complying wi h hese ules o p ac ices ou o a sense o 'du y' o mo al espec . Legi imacy a ises om wi hin he indi idual and canno be imposed o expec ed om wi hou . The legi imacy c isis in Sou h A ica. 'Sou h A ica p ac ises he ex book case o legal iola ions o legi imacy by denying he majo i y popula ion equal poli ical igh s' (Adam & Moodley, 1986:129). Bo h he policy o Apa heid and all ha i en ails a e ejec ed by he majo i y o he popula ion. 16 Illegi imacy may be iewed as he no m. Al hough hose in powe iew he ules o domina ion (p incipally based on ace and e hnici y) as legi ima e, and al hough hose in powe a emp o legi imize hese ules h ough he legal amewo k, his sys em is ejec ed by he majo i y o Sou h A icans. As pe cep ions o legi imacy a e limi ed o membe s o he dominan g oups, and as he subo dina e g oups do no comply ou o a sense o belie in he sys em, o de is main ained p ima ily h ough a p ocess o coe cion. Pu simply, compliance is based on ea . Compliance o unjus laws and acquiescence wi h unequal li e chances in bo h he o ganiza ion and socie y a la ge a e made possible by co-e cion and dependency; o en subo dina e g oups a e opp essed o he ex en ha usu pa ion p ac ices become oo cos ly (in e ms o loss o job, income, housing, e c.) The absence o legi imacy wi h espec o he c i e ia o exclusion esul s in a agile and highly explosi e social sys em. Indeed, a cen al p oblem in Sou h A ica conce ns di e en pe cep ions wi h espec o hese c i e ia; he dominan g oups gene ally ega d hese c i e ia as legi ima e whils he subo dina e g oups ejec hem. The 'de- acializa ion' o socie y and o mos la ge co po a ions is in essence an a emp o emo e he mos isible ba ie s o mobili y ac oss he 's uc u al aul '. A c i ical ques ion which has o be asked, howe e , is whe he he emo al o one, albei impo an , c i e ion, undamen ally changes he s uc u e o domina ion o whe he i me ely se es o modi y he basis o domina ion. In o he wo ds, does he emo al o his one c i e ion imply he shi om collec i e o indi idual c i e ia o exclusion wi hou changing he undamen als o domina ion? Pu in ano he way, is he emo al o he 'pe y apa heid' appa a us enough o does his me ely 'mode nize acial domina ion'? (See Adam, 1971). The c i e ia o exclusion a e a sys ema ic complex o mani es ( o mal, legal and no ed) c i e ia and la en (unde lying belie s, hidden pe cep ions and s e eo ypes) p inciples. In o he wo ds, c i e ia o exclusion ha e hei ounda ion in he o e all belie sys em o pa adigm o he dominan g oup. I we a e se iously in e es ed in managemen de elopmen , which in i sel is p oblema ic gi en he con ex o domina ion, i is impo an o in es iga e he basic assump ions unde lying he pa adigms o he main ac o s; in o he wo ds, he alues o bo h he powe ul and he powe less. Pa adigms Thomas Kuhn employed he concep 'pa adigm' o desc ibe ' ... he en i e cons ella ion o belie s alues echniques, and so on sha ed by membe s o a gi e~ communi y' (Camhis, 1979:60). Pa adigms a e bes unde s ood as wo ld iews o ac ion amewo ks which a e cohe en , in e nally logical and s uc u ed. I is gene ally assumed ha unde lying assump ions and alues will in o m and be ela ed o a i udes and pe cep ions which, in u n, will in o m and be ela ed o beha iou . S.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1989,20(1) Social ac o s c ea e he pa adigm in e ms o which hey li e. A pa adigm ' ... comes in o being as indi iduals ake ac ion, in e p e ha ac ion, and sha e wi h o he s hei in e p e a ions. These in e p e a ions, o " ypi ica ions" a e a emp s o classi y he beha iou in o ca ego ies ha will enable he ac o s o espond o i in simila ashion' (Sco , 1987:495). The p ocess o ecip ocal ypi ica ion is a long- e m p ocess whe eby ce ain o ms o ac ion come o be associa ed wi h ce ain classes o ac o s. Fo example, he dominan g oups gi e o de s and he subo dina e g oup complies. The accep ance o ypi ica ions is called ins i u ionaliza ion. 'Ins i u ionaliza ion occu s whene e he e is a ecip ocal ypi ica ion o habi ualized ac ions by ypes o ac o s' (Be ge & Luckmann, 1967:54). Once ins i u ionaliza ion occu s a pa adigm is o med and acqui es an objec i e exis ence independen o pa icula ac o s. The assump ions o he pa adigm a e ' aken o g an ed' as ' .... he "way hings a e" and/o he "way hings a e o be done"' (Sco , 1987:496). Pa adigms a e accep ed by hei use s as alid and na u al and hei con en is a ely ques ioned. Kuhn (1970:5) a gues ha du ing imes o ela i e social s abili y, people wo k unde he assump ion ha hei pa adigm is co ec . He sugges s, mo eo e , ha 'A pa adigm can insula e he communi y om hose socially impo an p oblems ha a e no educible o puzzle o m, because hey canno be s a ed in e ms o he concep ual and ins umen al ools he pa adigm supplies' (Kuhn, 1970:37). When he con ex changes, and he inapp op ia eness o he pa adigm becomes oo ob ious o igno e, a pa adigm shi should occu . In he absence o pa adigm shi , he pa adigm becomes an ine ec ual bu den. Such is he case wi h cu en managemen de elopmen s a egies. The i s s ep in he sea ch o a new and app op ia e pa adigm is he su acing and e alua ion o cu en aken- o -g an ed assump ions. We will ake a look a hese assump ions in he p ocess o applying hese heo e ical insigh s o he p ocess o managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica. Applica ion The heo y o social closu e helps us o unde s and hose social p ocesses by means o which dominan g oups, who ha e in e es s o hei own o p o ec , exclude he domina ed g oups om compe i ion, as well as hose social p ocesses by means o which he domina ed a emp o usu p he ad an ages o he powe ul. I has been a gued ha collec i e c i e ia (such as ace, sex, and eligion) ha e been made anach onis ic by he p ocess o indus ializa ion and ha , in mos mode n socie ies, hese c i e ia ha e been eplaced by he indi idual c i e ia o c eden ials and p ope y. In Sou h A ica, and in mos Sou h A ican o ganiza ions, howe e , a ension s ill exis s be ween collec i e and indi idual c i e ia, his ension being exace ba ed by he alues o hose in cha ge. As he ules o exclusion a e S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(1) based on he alues o he powe ul, and as alues end o e lec hemsel es in he a i udes and beha iou o he dominan g oup, i would appea , con a y o he public s a emen s o many la ge co po a ions, ha , on he alues le el, hese co po a ions a e nei he able no willing a p esen o de elop non- acial cul u es o o p o ide managemen de elopmen wi h he impe us i equi es. The esea ch o Human (1988) sugges s ha he pa adigms o mos whi e Sou h A ican manage s a e such as o place a low p io i y on managemen de elopmen . Mo eo e , he esea ch o Human (1988) and Human & Ho mey (1987) also indica es an an ipa hy o he de elopmen o blacks. Mo e speci ically, his esea ch sugges s ha , whils p o essing o accep equal oppo uni y and a i ma i e ac ion in he o ganiza ions in which hey wo k, he majo i y o whi e Sou h A ican manage s s ill doub he inhe en capabili ies o blacks. The pa adigms o hese manage s appea o be incohe en in he sense ha wha hey say hey belie e in (equal oppo uni ies; a non- acial wo k- o ce) and wha hey ac ually belie e in (blacks a e inhe en ly in e io ) a e wo di e en hings. Al e na i ely, he ailu e o managemen de elopmen , and speci ically black manage de elopmen p og ammes in many o ganiza ions could be asc ibed o he ac ha lip-se ice is paid o hese ac i i ies, whils manage s con inue o manage in e ms o a compe ing pa adigm. I would appea , mo eo e , ha he dominan pa adigm - he ' a ional ac o ' pa adigm which a ou s indi idualism, conse a ism, au oc acy, uni a ism, and a ionalism -is amenable nei he o managemen de elopmen no he ad ancemen o blacks in o manage ial posi ions (Human, 1988). I would appea ha , o managemen de elopmen ac i i ies o be success ul, a pa adigm shi has o ake place amongs he majo i y o whi e manage s; in o he wo ds ha hese manage s ha e o be 'con e ed' o a social consciousness o ien a ion. I would also appea ha hese manage s ha e o be ained in people managemen , expe ience sugges ing ha such skills a e sadly lacking in mos o ganiza ions. Thus, i managemen de elopmen in ol es c ea ing and de eloping manage s who can manage o he s o he mo e e ec i e and e icien u iliza ion o esou ces, o ganiza ions ha e a wo- old challenge o con on : hey no only ha e o ain and de elop people om disad an aged g oups and mo e hem up in o manage ial posi ions, bu also - and pe haps mo e impo an ly -o ganiza ions mus examine he alues and de elop he people managemen skills o hose manage s hey al eady ha e. Thus, managemen de elopmen equi es a mo e han me ely mo ing gene ally black people h ough he s uc u al aul ; as much a en ion needs o be paid o hose who will manage hem once hey a e he e. In o he wo ds he pa adigms o he alues and assump ions o manage s ha e o be changed p io o he p o ision o people managemen skills. The p oblems o managemen de elopmen a e many and complex and include p oblems ela ing o he s uc u al aspec s o socie y as well as he pa icula 17 issues aced by black manage s on hei a i al in highe le el posi ions. One o he majo p oblems ela ing o he s uc u al aspec s o socie y conce ns he p ocesses o social mobili y men ioned ea lie . Because o he his o ical de elopmen o he Sou h A ican socie y, whi es end o occupy manage ial and p o essional posi ions and blacks he lowe le el, semi-skilled and unskilled pos s. Mo emen h ough he s uc u al aul in socie y is exace ba ed by he p ocesses o social mobili y which, in he majo i y o coun ies o Wes e n Eu ope and e en he USA, assign be e oppo uni ies and li e chances o hose males bo n o a he s in eli e posi ions. Pu simply, he highe he posi ion o he a he on he occupa ional ladde , he g ea e he chances ha his son will each a simila posi ion himsel (Hea h, 1981). Boys bo n o a he s a he op o he job s uc u e s and a be e chance han hose bo n o lowe le el a he s o ob aining meaning ul wo k. Thus, al hough di ec disc imina ion agains blacks may ha e declined somewha and may con inue o decline in he u u e, he dominan g oups will con inue o pe pe ua e hei posi ion h ough he p o ision o quali y educa ion o hei child en. In o he wo ds, e en i ace becomes a less ele an c i e ion o exclusion in he u u e, he dominan whi e g oup will s ill y o ind new ways o pe pe ua ing domina ion. I is likely ha , wi h a mo emen om collec i e o indi idual c i e ia o exclusion, compe i ion o educa ional quali ica ions will become mo e acu e. E en hough, i his si ua ion we e o ma e ialize, black people may well ha e be e oppo uni ies han be o e, whi es would emain in a powe ul posi ion o e ain hei ad an ages in his ega d. A gumen s ela ing o social mobili y link in o ano he se o a gumen s ela ing o he ole o legisla ion, en i onmen and educa ion in he p o ision o li e chances. His o ically, in Sou h A ica, bo h legisla ion and he p o ision o educa ion ha e been gea ed owa ds keeping black people in a domina ed posi ion below he s uc u al aul . Simila ly, he kinds o en i onmen in which black child en ha e had o g ow up a e o en a in e io o he kinds o housing, acili ies and ameni ies a ailable o whi es. All o hese ac o s ha e impac ed and s ill impac on he abili y o black people o mo e in o managemen posi ions. Such ac o s a e ela ed, mo eo e , o a conse a i e ideology, an ideology which is s ill pe asi e amongs many o hose whi es in senio posi ions in he o ganisa ions in which black people a e being de eloped. The black manage wo king in an en i onmen which is domina ed by whi es is hus in an unen iable posi ion. Indeed, he esea ch o Human & Icely (1987); Human & Ho mey (1987) and Human (1988), sugges s ha he a i udes o whi es owa ds black managemen de elopmen a e gene ally nega i e and ha a g ea deal o sub le and no so sub le disc imina ion exis s. As s a ed ea lie , hese kinds o a i udes ela e back o he alues o hese manage s, hei pa adigm being esponsi e nei he o black managemen de elopmen in pa icula no managemen de elopmen in gene al. 18 O he p oblems expe ienced by black manage s. in essen ially whi e o ganiza ions include p oblems ela mg o cul u e, educa ion and hei ma ginal posi ion. To begin wi h he la e , black manage s ind hemsel es caugh be ween he wo compe ing ideologies o exclusion and usu pa ion. In o he wo ds, hey a e caugh be ween he con lic ing p essu es o black esis ance o exclusion and a emp s by whi es o eac o his esis ance. Black manage s a e o en no accep ed by whi es and a e equen ly pe cei ed as 'sell-ou s' by blacks, hei ambiguous o schizoph enic posi ion being exace ba ed by he sepa a ion o he domes ic and social wo lds o blacks and whi es. Black manage s hus ind hemsel es aced wi h compe ing loyal ies and esponsibili ies; pu simply, hey o en do no know whose side hey should be on. Resea ch sugges s ha he unde pe o mance o some black manage s may esul om his ma ginal posi ion a he han om an inabili y o do he job (Human, 1981, Human & Ho mey , 1985). O he p oblems aced by black manage s include p oblems ela ing o cul u e and a lack o educa ional quali ica ions. Al hough bo h o hese a gumen s a e impo an , hey should no be o e s a ed. Bo h o hese a gumen s could well exace ba e con en ions o illegi imacy, inasmuch as bo h could be pe cei ed inc easingly as a p oxy o collec i e c i e ia on he g ounds o ace. In o he wo ds, a cen al challenge o mos o ganiza ions is he eassessmen o minimum en y c i e ia o speci ic jobs as well as a eo ien a ion owa ds he concep o 'me i '. I he minimum educa ional quali ica ions equi ed o ce ain jobs a e oo high o i he o ganiza ion in ques ion akes a limi ed and appa en ly dubious app oach o he assessmen o po en ial o abili y -and in some ins ances his would indeed appea o be he case - hen black people could assume ha hey a e excluded om jobs hey eel able o do. Exclusion, in u n, could be pe cei ed as ela ed o ace wi h wha a e pe cei ed as un ealis ically high educa ional quali ica ions o inapp op ia e assessmen s o me i being cons ued as me ely an excuse o keep black people ou . Simila ly, a gumen s ela ing o di e ences be ween A ican and wes e n cul u e should also be handled wi h ca e. Again, many black manage s, who eel ha ew eally impo an di e ences be ween hemsel es and hei whi e coun e pa s exis in e ms o abili y o ge he job done, ejec a gumen s o he e ec ha hei cul u e lea es hem a a disad an age in he business wo ld. Al hough hese black manage s would no wan o a gue away cul u al di e ences, hey would ques ion he ele ance o cul u al a gumen s o pe o mance. Again he e exis s a dange ha he cul u al a gumen is employed as a p oxy o he collec i e c i e ion o ace. Wha appea s o be equi ed is a model which would allow us o assess indi iduals as indi iduals and in e ms o which indi idual s eng hs and weaknesses and he e ec s o indi idual p oblems in ela ion o cul u e, educa ion and ma ginali y could be assessed by bo h he subo dina e and his manage in a spi i o us and co-ope a ion. In he absence o his kind o model, he po en ial o he inc easing S. -A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.1989 ,20( 1) illegi imacy o he ules o exclusion in e ms o bo h collec i e and indi idual c i e ia emains acu e. And wi hou ules o exclusion which a e pe cei ed as legi ima e by he majo i y o employees in he o ganiza ion, an ex emely uns able and unmanageable si ua ion will de elop. Managemen de elopmen p ac ice An analysis o managemen de elopmen in e ms o he insigh s men ioned abo e helps us bo h o be e unde s and he p oblems o managemen de elopmen as well as wha needs o be done abou hem. Wi h espec o managemen de elopmen p ac ice, he ollowing poin s a e o no e: Managemen de elopmen is a s a egic issue which should be ecognized by op-managemen du ing he s a egic planning p ocess. I is no an issue which should be consigned o he pe sonnel depa men bu , a he , i s impo ance should be ecognized a he s a egic le el and weighed up agains o he s a egic decisions. The pe sonnel depa men has a ole o play in he coo dina ion o aining and de elopmen bu should no be held esponsible o d i ing he decision o accep he eo ien a ion o alues and ammg in people managemen skills as a key s a egic h us . The esponsibili y o his h us should lie wi h op managemen and he line unc ion. This de e mina ion o p io i ies a s a egic le el p o ides a clea indica ion o he impo ance o he ole o managemen de elopmen in he company. Wi hou op managemen commi men o managemen de elopmen , li le is likely o happen. The ea e , op managemen commi men o aining and de elopmen as well as i s commi men o o he s a egic objec i es should be il e ed down he o ganiza ion. Such commi men should, mo eo e , include a commi men o he eo ien a ion and aining in people managemen skills o cu en manage s and he inclusion o he managemen o subo dina es in he key objec i es o each manage . Unless manage s a e assessed, in e ms o hei own pe o mance, on he ex en o which hey ha e coached hei subo dina es, o he key objec i es a e going o ake p io i y. I has al eady been s a ed ha he pa adigms o he majo i y o whi e manage s mili a e agains managemen de elopmen in gene al and he managemen de elopmen o blacks in pa icula . Value su acing exe cises can be employed o expose hese alues and an a emp can be made o c ea e an app op ia e se o alues o ensu e managemen de elopmen . In his way, some kind o syn hesis be ween he mo e b oadly based ideologies o exclusion and usu pa ion can be achie ed in an a emp o bo h educe di e ences be ween manage s and managed and o al e he alue s uc u es o manage s. Such a emp s a alue change can be ein o ced by op managemen commi men , by egula moni o ing o p og ess and by making line manage s accoun able o he p og ess o hei subo dina es. Value change is, mo eo e , c i ical o he legi imacy o indi idual c i e ia o exclusion. S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(1) I is du ing he s a egic planning s age ha decisions wi h ega d o a i ma i e ac ion should be made. These decisions should be based on a s eng hs, weaknesses, oppo uni ies and h ea s analysis o he company as well as bo h a sho and long- e m e alua ion o he b oade en i onmen and an analysis o company alues. P oposed a i ma i e ac ion ac i i ies should be ed in o he manpowe planning p ocess and selec ion and ec ui men me hods. Manpowe planning, as pa o he s a egic p ocess, p o ides us wi h he oppo uni y o de e mine cu en and u u e manpowe equi emen s. This in u n links in o he succession planning p ocess which p o ides us wi h he oppo uni y o de elop indi iduals wi h po en ial o u u e posi ions. Succession planning, in u n, links in o he p ocess o p o essional people managemen . People managemen , as he join esponsibili y o he manage and subo dina e, in ol es a p ocess whe eby key asks and measu able pe o mance s anda ds a e de e mined, (cu en , and in e ms o he succession plan, u u e) aining needs a e iden i ied, aining, de elopmen and coaching akes place, and pe o mance eedback/app aisal and ca ee planning a e unde aken. P o essional people managemen is a c i ical aspec o he de elopmen o people o all aces. This p ocess ea s indi iduals as indi iduals and p o ides a logical s uc u e in e ms o which indi idual aining needs can be iden i ied. Coaching, aining and de elopmen should, mo eo e , be gea ed o indi idual needs and ca ee plans. People managemen p o ides a p ocess by means o which o ganiza ions can mo e away om an emphasis on ace owa ds an indi idual assessmen o s eng hs and weaknesses as de e mined h ough a p ocess o nego ia ion be ween manage and subo dina e. I is, howe e , wi h he p ocesses o selec ion and ec ui men ha he eal mo e om collec i e c i e ia o exclusion o indi idual c i e ia o exclusion has o ake place in a meaning ul way. A p esen , many o ganiza ions con use educa ional quali ica ions wi h s anda ds and assume ha i he educa ional equi emen s a ached o speci ic jobs a e lowe ed, hen s anda ds will also d op. This is no necessa ily he case, howe e , as s anda ds may also d op i he educa ional le el is oo high and people a e bo ed wi h wha hey a e doing o i o he job- ela ed c i e ia a e mo e impo an han educa ion. Also, i h ough inadequa e de ini ion and unde s anding o he job a hand, we a ach educa ional c i e ia which a e oo high o he job, we un ai ly exclude disad an aged g oups om compe i ion. In ou sea ch o he igh pe son o he job, wo impo an ac s should be bo ne in mind. Fi s ly, he skills sho age is going o de e io a e and secondly, he e a e a la ge numbe o disad an aged people who ha e he abili y o he po en ial o pe o m managemen jobs bu who ha e no ob ained he educa ional quali ica ions hey would ha e had, had his o ical ci cums ances been di e en . In iew o hese ac s, oge he wi h he p oblems su ounding he use o psychome ic es s, ad e isemen s and all-whi e 19 selec ion panels, he cen al challenge which cu en ly con on s o ganiza ions which wish o de elop a non- acial managemen eam is he de elopmen o ai e me hods o selec ion which selec o ei he he po en ial o he abili y o do he pa icula clea ly de ined job a hand in a way which allows us o adequa ely assess he po en ial o he abili y o all applican s i espec i e o backg ound. Unless we a e able o de elop hese echniques and unless we a e able o eo ien a e ou sel es wi h espec o he concep o me i , whe e such eo ien a ion does no in ol e a lowe ing o s anda ds, he passage om collec i e ( ace) o indi idual (c eden ials) c i e ia o exclusion is no going o be a smoo h one, pa icula ly in iew o pe sis en gla ing inequi ies in he educa ional sys em. As long as ace is linked o educa ion and selec ion is (dubiously) linked o educa ion (ins ead o mo e ele an selec ion c i e ia) and hence ace, he legi imacy o e en indi idual c i e ia o exclusion emains p oblema ic. Conclusion In his a icle, an a emp has been made o p o ide a be e unde s anding o managemen de elopmen in Sou h A ica by he de elopmen o a heo e ical amewo k wi hin which he p ocess o managemen de elopmen can be si ua ed. I has been a gued ha he p oblem o managemen de elopmen should be unde s ood by using a amewo k o domina ion, which p o ides a use ul concep ual amewo k wi hin which he basic dynamics o managemen de elopmen can be unde s ood. This amewo k has been employed o unde s and he s uc u al posi ioning o he p inciple ac o s, he ela ionship be ween hem, and he wo ld- iews which may a ise om hese posi ions. I has been a gued ha managemen de elopmen should be unde s ood wi hin his amewo k and e o mula ed acco dingly. Such a e o mula ion would in ol e managemen de elopmen being ega ded as a s a egic issue and as in ol ing he eo ien a ion and aining o whi e manage s in o de o acili a e he upwa d mo emen o blacks. I has also been p edic ed ha se e e consequences would ensue om a decision no o eo ien a e ou sel es o cu en c i e ia o exclusion. Re e ences Adam, H. 1971. Mode nizing Racial Domina ion. Be keley: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess. Adam, H. & Moodley, K. 1986. Sou h A ica wi hou Apa heid. 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