Robinson, Robe J.
A icle
Quali y ci cles as a means o achie ing wo ke sa is ac ion
- o jus a heal hy manage ial clima e? A Sou h A ican
sample
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Robinson, Robe J. (1993) : Quali y ci cles as a means o achie ing wo ke
sa is ac ion - o jus a heal hy manage ial clima e? A Sou h A ican sample, Sou h A ican Jou nal
o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS),
Cape Town, Vol. 24, Iss. 4, pp. 134-141,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 24i4.1736
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/218111
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
134
S.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1993,24(4)
Quali y ci cles as a means o achie ing wo ke sa is ac ion -
o
jus
a heal hy
manage ial clima e? A Sou h A ican sample
Robe J. Robinson
G adua e
School o Business Adminis a ion, Ha a d Uni e si y, Soldie s Field, Bos on, Massachuse es 02163
Uni ed S a es
o
Ame ica
Recei ed Feb ua y 1993, accep ed Augus 1993
The e
is
e y li le e idence ha pa icipa i e wo k p og ammes such
as
quali y ci cles (QCs) imp o e he subjec i e
expe ience
o
wo ke s, ei he
on
he job, o
in
hei li es gene ally. Pa
o
he eason o such limi ed success
is
o e -
ed
by
li e a u e sugges ing ha in e en ions such
as
QCs should e lec a gene al o ganiza ional philosophy
o
pa ici-
pa ion, a he han being he means
o
en o ce o ganiza ional change. This s udy was unde aken in a la ge Sou h
A ican elec ical u ili y, and consis ed
o
187
QC
membe s and
63
non-QC membe s. Manage ial clima e
was
measu ed using a sho
o m
o Like 's o ganiza ional clima e ques ionnai e, while wo ke sa is ac ion was measu ed
using i e di e en measu es. Resul s e ealed
QC
membe s sco ed highe on li e sa is ac ion, sel -es eem and
pu pose-in-li e han non-QC membe s. Signi ican posi i e co ela ion was ound be ween manage ial clima e
and
sa is ac ion indices. Reg ession analysis indica ed ha manage ial clima e a iables accoun ed o he majo sha e o
he o al a iance
in
sa is ac ion indices, while pa icipa ion
in
he QC p og amme accoun ed o ela i ely li le: he
implica ion
is
ha QC pa icipa ion
may
b ing abou inc eased wo ke sa is ac ion, bu a c i ical p e equisi e appea s o
be
a sui ably pa icipa i e clima e
in
he
o ganiza ion.
Daa bes aan baie min bewyse da deelnemende bes uu sp og amme, soos gehal ek inge, we kneme s se subjek iewe
e a inge by die we k
o
in
hul gewone Iewens e be e . Die bepe k e sukses an sulke p og amme wo d
in
die li e a-
uu deels daa aan oegesk y da ing epe soos gehal ek inge
'n
algemene o ganisa o iese iloso ie an deelname be-
hoo
e
e lek ee , ee de
as
om
die ins umen
e
wees wa o ganisa o iese e ande ing a dwing. Die s udie
is
gedoen
by 'n g oo Suid-A ikaanse elek isi ei s oo siene
en
he
187
gehal ek inglede en
63
nie-Iede ingeslui . Die bes uu s-
/climaa
is
gemee deu
'n
e ko e o maa
an
Like se o ganisasie-k1imaa s aelys e geb uik. We kneme -
e edenheid
is
deu middel an y e skillende me ings gee aluee . Die esul a e oon da gehal ek inglede hoe el-
lings behaal
en
opsig e
an
lewens e edenheid
en
seljbeeld
as
nie-gehal ek inglede. P ak ies be ekenis olle posi iewe
ko elasies
is
asges el ussen bes uu sklimaa
en
e edenheidsindekse. Reg essie-on ledings dui daa op da bes uu s-
k1imaa e ande likes e al e an woo delik
is
i die a iasie
in
e edenheidsindekse, e wyl deelname aan die gehal-
ek ingp og am i baie
min
a iasie e an woo delik was. Die implikasie
is
da gehal ek ingp og amme mag lei o
e hoogde we kneme e edenheid maa da die belang iks e oo e eis e
'n
oepaslike deelnemende klimaa
in
die
ondememing blyk
e
wees.
In oduc ion
The
e ec i eness
o
pa icipa i e
wo k
designs:
an
ongoing
deba e
The ques ion
o
wo ke pa icipa ion and he ole
o
employ-
ee sa is ac ion
in
inc eased p oduc i i y is a ecu en one
bo h
in
business and psychological li e a u e. Decades
o
esea ch ha e gi en
us
ce ain well-g ounded conclusions:
a. echnology, pa icula ly au oma ion and he p oduc ion-
line sys em, is o en a signi ican con ibu o o aliena ion
(e.g. Shepa d, 1970; Co g o e, 1972; Susman, 1972);
b.
jobs
can be edesigned o coun e aliena ion (e.g. Scheips, 1972;
Wal on, 1972; F ank, 1973); and c. wo ke pa icipa ion
is
one
o
he bes ways o achie e his coun e ing e ec (e.g.
Fulle &
Bonjean, 1970; Denha d , 1971; S auss, 1974).
Such s udies ga e legi imacy o he 'job edesign' mo e-
men , a b oad-based and eclec ic a emp o ind al e na i e
wo k o ms which would elimina e aliena ion and maximize
p oduc i i y and pa icipa ion. Fine summa ies
o
his wo k
is
a ailable
in
such e iews as Hackman &
Lee
(1979), and
Guzzo (1983). In e en ions all in o ca ego ies such as
socio echnical sys ems, job en ichmen , job enla gemen ,
w~
schedules, en i onmen al
i ,
e gonomic design, au o-
mallon, obo ics, and compu e iza ion. The only common
basis
o inclusion
in
he ca ego y
o
job edesign
is
an
unde lying philosophy aiming a
' he
design
o
e ec i e and sa is ying jobs, which
m~
!'<> h.
he o ganiza ion's needs o e ec i ely
ach1e mg i s goals h ough he use
o
i s human e-
sou ces and he indi idual's needs, expec a ions and
goals'
(Da is & Wacke , 1982: 2.5.1).
The e ec i eness
o
pa icipa i e wo k designs has been
he
opic
o
con o e sy o decades now, wi h li le sign o
esolu ion. Recen ly, he deba e has again become pa i-
cula ly ac imonious. Al hough esea che s such as Clemme
& McNeil (1988) and La son (1989) con inue o indica e
bene i s om pa icipa ion, mos a gumen s cen e a ound
wha is being measu ed, and wha would cons i u e an e -
ec i e in e en ion.
In
analyzing he esul s om a numbe
o
US mili a y bases, S eel & Men o (1987) ound li le link
be ween pa icipa ion and p oduc i i y. Wagne & Gooding
(1987) c i icize inconsis en esea ch me hodologies wi hin
his a ea, and sugges ha esea che s a e being swayed
by
socie al ends. Locke, Schweige & La ham (1986)
ound
ha pa icipa ion
is
jus
as likely o lowe p oduc i i y as
i
is o aise i ,
i
employees do no ha e expe ise o b ing o
he decision-making p ocess. Co on, Voll a 'l & F ogga
(1988) a gue ha 'pa icipa ion' is oo b oad a e m,
and
a emp o classi y in e en ions in o a ious ypes, ci ing
ma kedly di e en ou comes o he di e en kinds o
echniques, hus explaining he wildly inconsis en and
un-
eliable esul s
in
he li e a u e.
C i iquing his s udy, Leana, Locke & Schweige (1990)
sugges ha he indings
o
Co on,
e
al. we e la gely he
esul
o
hei own classi ica ion sys em, and showed ha
by
classi ying s udies di e en ly, a conside ably di e en
S.A
J .Bus.Mgm .1993,24(
4)
ou come could be ob ained.
In
hei ebu al, Co on,
Voll-
a h, Legnick-Hall & F oggau (1990) e use
o
acknowledge
me hodological p oblems, and asse ha
he
basic
success
o pa icipa i e wo k designs depends
on
he
na u e and
o m
o
he in e en ion.
This deba e
is
ob iously complex and dynamic:
i
is
no
in ended o o e a solu ion he e. Howe e ,
by
way
o con-
side ing a speci ic in e en ion a he han making gene al-
iza ions, and as an in oduc ion
o
he
p esen s udy,
he
issue
o
quali y ci cles is o e ed.
O igins
o
qual y
ci cles
The his o y
o
quali y ci cles (QCs) begins
in
1948,
when
in
an
a emp o ebuild he Japanese economy a e
he
Second
Wo ld Wa , quali y con ol
was
in oduced
om
he
Uni ed
S a es, ia wo ld-expe s, Demming and Ju an. Despi e i s
lack
o
popula i y in he
USA,
be ween
1948
and
1960
quali y con ol became an ex emely
popula
and well- e-
sea ched subjec
in
Japanese indus y, and
he
majo i y
o
wo ke s we e exposed
o
he concep
As
pa
o
in ol ing
all le els
o
wo ke s,
I.he
i s QCs we e de eloped
and
s a ed
in
1962 a IBM, bu we e no success ul
in
he
USA
and had mo e o less died ou a
he
ime hey became
popula
in
Japan. The e a na ional
QC
body
was
o med in
1964, and soon had chap e s h oughou Japan. The g ow h
o QCs was explosi e, and
by
1984
he e
we e
o e 180.000
egis e ed ci cles in Japan. A simila mo emen
has
been
s aJ ed in bo h Taiwan and Sou h Ko ea
wi h
g ea success
and QCs ha e 'come home' o he
USA.
In e na ionally,
QCs a e addi ionally cu en ly
o
be
ound
in
such di e se
coun ies as Aus alia, Belgium, B azil, Denma k, Egyp ,
Is ael, I aly, Ko ea, much
o
La in Ame ica, Malaysia,
he
Ne he lands, Sou h A ica, Taiwan, Thailand, and
he
Uni ed Kingdom. The impe us o pa icula ly he Wes e n
in e es in QCs (and Japanese managemen ) came
om
he
spec acula success
o
Japanese companies
in
he Wes 's
adi ional ma ke s.
Success
o
quali y ci cles n he wes
Wi h he success o Japanese indus y, Wes e n na ions ha e
eage ly aken up he echniques o Japanese managemen ,
including he quali y ci cle which
has
been
implemen ed
in
an
imp essi e ange
o
a eas. Apa
om
he
p oduc ion en-
i onmen s which hey we e o iginally designed o , quali y
ci cles ha e been pu
o
wo k
in
such whi e-colla a eas
as
uni e si ies, accoun ing i ms, banks,
and
he
mili a y. A
ques ion which a ises pe ennially
is
ha o he adap abili y
o such echniques
o
Wes e n socie ies. A ypical a gumen
is
ha
o
Yamamo o (1986)
who
o e s
an
almos o ally
cul u al explana ion, ci ing psychological ac o s s emming
om
eudal Japan
o
he p esen
o m
and success o
in-
dus y he e.
By
way
o con as , Ga in sugges s
'
...
such a gumen s a e easily o e s a ed.
They
bo de
on cul u al de e minism, con using habi s o asks ha
suppo a pa icula end
wi h
mo e comple e explana-
ions' (1988: 198).
In
Japan, QCs a e judged o
be
a huge success
by
i ue
o
hei longe i y and he g ow h o he Japanese economy.
In
compa ing he p og ess o coun ies which ha e used
QCs wi h hose which ha e no , Bocke & O e gaa d (1982)
llS
a e
unequi ocal
in
lhei
p aise
o
he
posi i e e ec o
QCs
on na ional p oduc i i y.
In
he
USA.
Mille
(1984) ound
ha
63%
o
all esponden s
in
a su ey el ha hei
QC
p og am
was
'mode a ely' o ·exuemely' success ul, wilh
only
6%
epo ing ' ailu es'
o
'poo '
esul s.
She wood.
Gue ie & Dale ( 1985) ound ha mos inns
Cllpn!SS
sa is-
ac ion
wi h
he use ulness
o
he
QC concep . Ne e heless..
i
ha dly seems
an
app op ia e o scien i ic o m
o
measu e-
men
o
ask manage s (who
in
many insaances, ha e
been
e-
sponsible
o
he
implemcma ioo
o
cos ly p og ams), whe -
he
o no hey belie e
he
p og ams wo . While
inancial
igu es seem
o
be
plucked ou
o
hin ai -'Lodhecd
claims o ha e sa ed
2.844.<XX>
dolla s wilh only
15
quali y
ci cles ope a ing
in
he i s wo yea s'
(Wayne,
G i in, &
Ba eman,
1986:
80) -i is he e ec on he pu icjpanls
(i.e. a i udes, alues, and moli a ion)
which
is
mo e
di -
icul o
measu e.
In
B i ain, Cox & Dale (1985) ound lll&l
83%
o
e- ·
sponden s (QC membe s) el ha QCs
had
p o ided
lhem
wilh eal bene i s.
Ma ies,
Hadccu, Mi is & Gnldy (1986)
epo ed ha
QC
membe s
showed
enhanced quali y
o
wodc
li e pe cep ions ela i e o non-membe s. Ra acli
(1985) ound ha QC membe s had a signi ican ly highe
pe cep .ion
o
hei own in luence and job a ie y
lhan
non-
QC
membe s, while El ins (1985) ound ha
QC
membe -
ship
was
associa ed wi h a highe deg ee
o
pe cei ed powe
o in luence.
In
Sou h A ica, Daniel & Huss (1986) con-
cluded ha quali y ci cles a e a posi i e in luence o
poli ical change, and Nicholls (1985) ound signi ican ly im-
p o ed employee pe cep ions
o
managemen and be e em-
ployee-managemen ela ions a e a pa icipa i e
QC- ype
in e en ion. The p oblem wi h many o hese s udies
is
he
lack
o a
eal
con ol g oup, gi en he olun a y na u e o
QCs, and a possible halo e ec
when
he
measu es a e link-
ed
o
QC
pa icipa ion.
Impe ec hough hese da a a e, e idence sugges s ha
QCs a e associa ed wi h a posi i e e ec on p oduc i i y
and quali y, and
on
wo ke s' pe cep ions o hei subjec i e
wo king condi ions, a leas as a
as
hei abili y
o
in-
luence hose condi ions
is
in ol ed. QCs a c also seen
o
be
a posi i e
o ce
o sol ing p oblems, and
in
enhancing
communica ions.
On
a na ional le el howe e , i
is
ha d
o
escape he conclusion o Bea dsley (1987), ha like many
o he pa icipa i e p og ams
in
ecen his o y, QCs ha e no
been
se measu able goals, and his inabili y
o
assess hei
esul s h ea ens hei u u e exis ence. A c i ical ques ion
mus
be,
do QCs ac ually con ibu e any hing mo e
o
o ganiza ions and hei employees han halo (Haw ho ne) e -
ec s? This ques ion
is
especially oubling
in
he ligh
o
ecen s udies. Thus Ba ick & Alexande (1987) ound ha
epo ed success o QC p og ams
was
due
o
he
unique
cha ac e is ics o olun a y pa icipan s.
In
acking
QC
pa icipan s
o
a h ee-yea pe iod (G i in,
1988),
measu ing a i udes, beha iou , and e ec i eness,
ini ial
imp o emen s we e ound, bu we e subsequen ly
ollowed
by
a e u n
o
p e ious le els. Simila ly, Lawle &
Moh -
man
(1987) ci e a 'honeymoon' e ec wi h QCs. S eel &
Lloyd (1988) ound some suppo
o
an imp o ed sense
o
compe ence and us , bu only ma ginal suppo
o
QC
e ec i eness. Summa izing he indings, S eel &
Shane
(1986) igh ly conclude ha he cha ac e is ics
o
136
o ganiu ions
which
may
bes
bene i
om
QC
in e en ions
a e
s ill
poo ly
unde s ood,
and
wi h
his
in
mind
he e
mus
be
some
ques ion
as
o
he
desi abili y o
QCs
in
o gani-
m ional
con ex s.
C l lcal success and allu e c i e ia o cl cle p o-
g ams
As
QC
p og ams
go
unde way
in
he
Wes ,
pain ul
ex-
pe iences
wi h
ailed
p og ams
showed
ha
he e
we e
ce -
ain
hings
which
should
o
should
no
be
done
i
QCs
we e
o
be
success ul.
Dale
&
Haywa d
(e.g.
1984:
12)
ha e
iden i ied
he
main
causes
o
ci cle
ailu e.
One
o
he
mos
signi ican
ega ds
managemen
s yle:
•
..
.in
a clima e
whe e
managemen
is
oo
na ow-minded
and
au oc a ic, quali y
ci cles
a e
unlikely
o
su i e'.
In
a simila
ein,
Ingle
(1982)
and
Tang,
Tollison,
&
Whi eside
(1989)
sugges ha
poo
middle-managemen
suppo
is
a
p ime
indica o
ha
a
QC
p og am
will
be
in
ouble
i
implemen ed.
S eel,
Men-
o,
Dilla,
O alle,
&
Lloyd
(1985)
ound
ha one o se e al
ac o s
dis inguishing
a success ul
om
an
unsuccess ul
QC
p og am
was
managemen
suppo ,
and
in
ano he
s udy
(S eel,
Men o,
&
Reha,
1985)
no ed
imp o ed
a i ude
and
mo ale,
bu
only
i
managemen
suppo
was
eal
and
ang-
·
ible.
Cas o ina
&
Wood
(1988)
disco e ed
ha
in
Fo une
500
companies,
QCs
succeeded o
he
ex en ha
hey
did
no
come
in o
opposi ion
wi h
he
exis ing
bu eauc acy,
·
while
D ago
(1988)
has
no ed
ha
one
o
he
ac o s
which
enhanced
QC
su i al
is
deg ee
o pa icipa i e
manage-
men
In
a
me a-analysis
o pa icipa i e
p og ams,
Mille
&
Monge
(1986)
ound
eliable
links
be ween
pa icipa ion
and
wo ke
sa is ac ion,
as
well
as
he
cons aining ole o
o gani7.a ional
ac o s.
Gene ally,
managemen
suppo
and
commi men
o
a pa icipa i e
managemen
clima e
has
eme ged
as
p obably
he
majo
success
p edic o o
QC
ac -
i i ies.
Quali y
cl cles
and
wo ke
sa is ac ion
The
e iew
o he li e a u e hus a
has
e ealed ha
he
pu pose
o job
edesign
was
p ima ily
o
enhance
p oduc -
i i y
by
encou aging pa icipa ion
and
inc easing
wo ke
sa is ac ion.
While
i
may
be
somewha
g andiose
and
p e-
en ious
o assume ha
any
measu able
pe sonali y 'de el-
opmen '
will
go
on
in
adul s
exposed
o
a
QC
p og am,
a
mo e
modes
and
a ainable objec i e migh
be
o inc ease
wo ke
sa is ac ion,
and
he eby
educe
aliena ion.
Al hough
some
in e es ing
da a
conce ning p oduc i i y
imp o emen s
ha e
been
e iewed
he e,
he
ield
emains
somewha
de oid
o e idence
linking
pa icipa ion
wi h
wo ke
sa is ac ion. The
pu pose
o
he
p esen
s udy
is
o
a emp o assess
he
e ec o
QC
pa icipa ion
on
employee
sa is ac ion,
and
o
pay pa icula a en ion
o
he
c i ical
ole o
he
o ganiza ional, o
manage ial
clima e.
O e iew
A
ma ched
g oup
o
QC
membe s
and
non-membe s
was
used.
Subjec s
we e
asked
o
a e
hemsel es
on
i e
di e -
en
measu es,
namely,
li e sa is ac ion,
sel -es eem,
powe -
lessness, locus-o -con ol,
and
pu pose-in-li e.
They
also
a ed he o ganiu ion
on
i s
managemen
s yle,
bo h
'now'
and
o
12
mon hs
p e iously
on
a ques ionnai e
which
was
S.-A .Tydslc .Bed y sl.1993,24(4)
designed
o
his s udy, and which measu ed
i e
di e en
aspec s o manage ial s yle. The e ec
o
manage ial
clima e
and
QC
pa icipa ion
on
he sa is ac ion indices
was
asses-
sed.
Me hod
Subjec s
Al oge he
300
ques ionnai es we e dis ibu ed.
Comple ed
ques ionnai es
om
187
QC
membe s and
63
non-QC
mem-
be s
we e
ob ained,
o
an
o e all esponse a e o
83.3%.1
O
hese,
168
o
he
QC
g oup and 48 o
he
non-QC
g oup
had
been
in
he
company
12
mon hs
p e iously,
and
we e
hus
able
o
a e
he
manage ial clima e
bo h
a
he
p esen
ime
and
12
mon hs
p e iously. The e we e
103
and
37
men
in
he
wo
espec i e g oups,
he
balance being
women.
192
subjec s
we e
A ikaans-speaking Sou h A icans,
and
139
English-speaking.
Pos -hoc
analysis e ealed no
di e ences
be ween
men
and
women,
o A ikaans
and
English
speak-
e s
on
any
measu es (all p's
>.
05).
All
subjec s' jobs
we e
ca ego ized
as
semi-skilled, a isan-assis an , o cle ical.
Measu ing
Ins umen s
Manage ial
clima e
A
numbe
o ins umen s ha e been de eloped o e
he
yea s
o
measu e
he
concep
o
he manage ial
s yle
o
clima e.
The
p ogeni o and mos success ul o all
hese
measu es
is
he Like O ganiza ional Clima e
Ques ionnai e
(Like ,
1967).
This 51-i em ques ionnai e sco es
esponses
on
a unidimensional con inuum anging
om
1.00
o
4.00.
Each
s a ion
on
he
con inuum
is
iden i ied
wi h
a
pa icula
managemen s yle.
(1
= exploi a i e au oc a ic, 2 =
bene-
olen au oc a ic, 3 = pa icipa i e, 4 = laissez
ai e).
Sub-
jec s a e
he
o ganiza ion 'now' (i.e. 'a
he
p esen ime'),
and
as
hey
emembe i
12
mon hs
p e iously.
The co ela ion able o all i ems p o ided
by
Like
(1967:
194-195) poin s ou
14
c i ical i ems di ided
inlO
i e
basic
ac o s.
These
i e
ac o s
a e:
1.
us
and
in ol emen ,
which
add esses he
issue
o
he
ela ionship and us be ween subo dina es
and
supe -
io s;
2.
mo i a o s,
which
ela es o
he
way
in
which
man-
agemen a emp s
o
mo i a e he employees;
3.
communica ions,
which
looks
a
a ious
aspec s
o
o ganiza ional communica ion such
as
i s
e ec i eness,
di ec ion, and cla i y;
4.
decision
making,
which
examines he a ailabili y
and
u iliza ion o in o ma ion a ailable
in
he
o ganiza ion
when
decisions a e
aken;
and
5.
con ol
da a,
which
ques ions
he
use
o
which
pe -
o mance
da a (cos s, p oduc ion epo s, e c.) a e
puL
The
sum
o he
i e
ac o s p o ides
an
o e all
manage ial
clima e
sco e.
Wo ke
sa is ac ion,
con ol
and
pu pose
I
was
decided o b oadly measu e he no ion
o
wo lce
sa is ac ion,
and
o inco po a e measu es
o
gene al
li e
sa is ac ion. Fi e
well-known
measu es we e employed,
e-
p esen ing
bo h
ele an a i ude and pe sonali y
a iables,
S.A
J .Bus.Mgm .1993,24( 4)
anging om measu es
o
aliena ion, o measu es
o
a sense
o
con ol and pu pose.
The i s a iable chosen o his s udy
was
ha
o
li e
sa is ac ion. Li e sa is ac ion has been ound o
be
ela ed o
he job en i onmen (Sp ei ze , Snyde & La son, 1981),
and signi ican ly, o pa icipa ion on he job (Pa o &
Hewi , 1978). The i ems chosen
o
his s udy we e he
h ee c i ical i ems iden i ied
by
Bachman, Kahn, Da idson
& Johns on (1967). The nex a iable
was
sel -es eem.
The
i ems chosen o his s udy we e he six c i ical i ems
iden i ied by Bachman,
e
al. (1967). The hi d a iable
was
powe lessness, which
is
a c ucial indica o
o
a sense
o
aliena ion. The i ems chosen we e six epo ed
by
Neal &
Seeman (1964). Fou h, a high in e nal
locus-o -con ol
is
qui e unlike a sense
o
powe lessness.2 A sho ened e sion
o
Ro e 's (1966) 23-i em scale, namely, Valecha's (1972)
11-i em e sion was used
in
his s udy. The inal a iable
is
ha
o
pu pose-in-li e. Designed
by
C umbaugh (1968), his
20-i em es was educed o
10
i ems (Chang & Dodde ,
1983).
P ocedu e
The i ems desc ibed
in
he p e ious sec ion we e combined
in o a single ques ionnai e. This s udy ook place
in
a la ge
Sou h A ican enginee ing
i m
which
has
one
o
he mos
igo ous QC p og ams
in
ha coun y
.3
The sample used
was ob ained by eques ing pe sonnel o ice s (wi h consul -
a ion wi h on-si e acili a o s)
in
he a ious egional o ices
o
he o ganiza ion o dis ibu e he ques ionnai es
o
hei
QCs.4
In
o de o ob ain a compa able con ol g oup
in
each
a ea, QCs which we e abou o s a had ques ionnai es ap-
plied o he membe s be o e any ci cle mee ings ook place.
This eques was made only
o
a eas which al eady
had
QCs
in
ope a ion, hus ma ching he
QC
and non-QC membe s
on en i onmen al condi ions, and o he ac ha
QC
membe s, being olun ee s, cons i u e a highly selec g oup.
Since he ac ual o ma ion
o
QCs was dic a ed
by
a co -
po a e ime- able (which was based on budge cons ain s,
no eadiness o he QC p og am), he e we e
no
di e -
ences
in
he wo g oups due
o,
o
example, he quali y
ci cle membe s ha ing olun ee ed ea lie . Bo h QC and
non-QC membe s olun ee ed a he same ime, bu he non-
QC membe s had been wai ing o hei ci cle o s a -
in
ac , i was his wai ing pe iod which made he p esen
design possible. The ques ionnai es we e dis ibu ed
indi idually ou side
o
he egula QC mee ing-place,
by
he
pe sonnel o ice , no he acili a o ,
who
was ins uc ed no
o ell ~ubjec s ha hey had been selec ed due o hei
a ilia ions wi h QCs.
Hypo heses
The li e a u e e iewed has emphasized he necessi y
o
a
eal, a he han a dec eed pa icipa i e s yle
on
he pa
o
managemen
i
p og ams such
as
QCs a e
o
succeed. The e
has o be a genuine commiunen o wo ke pa icipa ion
be o e such p og ams· will p oduce he equi ed esul s.
Based on hese poin s, he ollowing hypo heses a e o e ed:
-Hypo hesis
1:
wo ke sa is ac ion
will
be
g ea e amongs
QC membe s han non-QC membe s.
137
-Hypo hesis
2:
In
bo h QC and non-QC membe s, wo ke
sa is ac ion will co ela e posi i ely wi h manage ial
clima e sco es.
Resul s
Compa isons be ween he wo g oups we e pe onned
using
T- es s.
In
he non-QC g oup, he subjec s pe cei ed a signi-
ican ly mo e pa icipa i e manage ial clima e a he p esen
ime
as
compa ed o
12
mon hs p e iously, on all manage -
ial clima e a iables. This was also he case o quali y
ci cle membe s, wi h he excep ion
o
con ol da a (see
Table 1 o p-le els). Mo e simply,
bo h
g oups el ha
hey we e
in
a mo e democ a ic and pa icipa i e en i on-
men han a yea p e iously. This
in
i sel
is
no su p ising
-due
o
such halo e ec e ospec i e e alua ions a e use-
ul
as expe imen al ools only i , as in his case, he e o-
spec i e ecollec ions
o
wo di e en g oups may
be
com-
pa ed. The ques ion
is
no whe he
o
no he subjec s pe -
cei ed
an
imp o emen
in
clima e, bu whe he
o
no QC
membe s pe cei ed a
g ea e
imp o emen
in
clima e o e
he yea , as compa ed o non-QC membe s (see Table
1).
In
compa ing he wo g oups on hei manage ial clima e
a ings o
12
mon hs p e iously, and o he p esen ime,
no signi ican di e ence be ween he wo g oups was ob-
se ed
on
any
o
he a iables (all
p's>
.05).
Fo he wo ke sa is ac ion a iables, compa isons
be-
ween he g oups e ealed ha he quali y ci cle membe s
Table
1
Manage ial
clima e,
mean
sco es
1
Va iable
T us & In ol emen
Mo i a o s
Communica ions
Decision making
Con ol da a
Manage ialclima e2
• p
<.
OS
**P<.01
G oup
QC
non-QC
Di .
QC
non-QC
Di .
QC
non-QC
Di .
QC
non-QC
Di .
QC
non-QC
Di .
QC
non-QC
Di .
Be o e A e
2.02
2.34
1.93 2.52
+.10
-.17
2.15 2.44
2.02 2.46
+.14
-.02
1.97 2.28
1.90 2.43
+.en
-.14
1.92 2.32
1.74
2.30
+.18 +.01
1.89 2.38
2.16 2.25
-.27
+.13
1.99 2.35
l.9S
2.39
+.04 -.08
Di .
-.32
..
-.59
..
-.29•
-.44
..
-.32
..
-.53
..
--~·
-.56
..
-.4~·
-.09
-.36
..
-.44
..
1.
'Be o e'
sco es a e subjec s' e ospec i e a ings o he o ganil.alion
12 mon hs p e iously.
'A e '
is hei a ings o he p esen ime.
2. 'Manage ial clima e' is an a e age
o
he i e ac o s abo e
iL

138
Table 2
Sa is ac ion
a iables,
mean
sco es
S
.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1993,24(4)
Table 3 Sa is ac ion co ela ions
wi h
manage ial
clima e
Sa is ac ion
a iable
Li e sa is ac ion
Sel -es eem
Powe lessness
L.O.C.
P.I.L.
• p <
.OS
SIILP--
U>CV8-0P-coaTIIOL
POaPOA-DI-Lin
• •
158
..
0
non-QC g oupQC g oup Di e ence
(N::43) (N=158)
28.53 31.96 -3.42*
31.09 33.69 -2.60*
20.31
20.42
--0.11
22.88 22.96
--0.08
28.82 30.22 -1.4*
Pe aonal
O ow b
sco ••
..
UI
...
0
...
UI
-
~
COIITIOL
-.ncTS
..
0
Va iable
Li e sa is ac ion
Sel -es eem
Powe lessness
L.O.C.
P.I.L.
• p
<.
05
••
p <
.01
Non-QC g oup
(N=55)
R
.245*
-.129
.177
.375••
.254*
QC g oup
(N=l71)
R
.299••
.289••
.258••
.363*•
.411••
sco ed signi ican ly highe on li e sa is ac ion,
sel -es eem
and
pu pose-in-li e han did he non-QC membe s
(p
<
.05).
Fo all o he wo ke sa is ac ion a iables, he e
was
no
signi ican di e ence be ween he wo g oups (see
Table
2
and
Figu e I).
In
co ela ing he independen a iables and
dependen
a iables
in
bo h
g oups, se e al posi i e signi ican
ela ionships we e ob ained. B ie ly, o
he
non-QC
g oup
manage ial clima e
was
signi ican ly co ela ed
wi h
li e
sa is ac ion, locus-o -con ol, and pu pose-in-li e.
In
lhe
QC
g oup, signi ican posi i e co ela ions we e ound
be ween
manage ial clima e
and
all i e wo ke sa is ac ion
indices.
These esul s a e shown
in
Table
3.
Figu e
1 Sa is ac ion sco es o QC and non-QC membe s
Finally, a mul iple s epwise eg ession analysis
was
pe -
o med
o
es
he
ollowing basic model: ( his
is
lhe
gene al
model,
no
a speci ic equa ion): Sa is ac ion =
QC
pa ici-
pa ion + Communica ions + Leade ship + Mo i a o s +
Decision making + Con ol da a + QC membe ship.5
The
e-
sul s show lha
o
all
wo ke sa is ac ion indices, a
leas
one manage ial clima e a iable accoun s
o
a signi ican
po ion o
lhe
a iance, while QC pa icipa ion only
ac-
coun s
o
an
addi ionally signi ican ac ion o
lhe
a iance
in
lhe
case o li e sa is ac ion and sel -es eem, suppo ing
he
esul s o he T- es s epo ed abo e. These esul s
a e
summa ized
in
Table 4.
Table4
Reg ession
-
o al
amoun
o
a iance
explained
(R
2)
Sa is ac ion a iables (N=2 I
6)
P edic o s Li e Sel - Powe - Locus-o Pu pose-
sa is ac ion es eem lessness con ol in-li e
QC panicipa ion .02 (.16) .02
(.
II)
•
(*)
• (*) • (*)
Communica ion
.13
(.13) .08 (.08) • (.05) .03 (.13)
.21
(.21)
T us & in ol . • (.09)
.06
(.05) • (.06) • (.15) • (*)
Mo i a o s • (.06) • (.03) • (.03)
.11
(.11) • (.10)
Decision making • (.05) •
(*)
.07 (.07) • (.08) • (.08)
Con ol da a • (*) •
(*)
•
(*)
•
(•)
• (*)
• less
han
0.01
(I%) o a iance explained. Numbe
in
pa en hesis indica es
he
o al amoun
o
a iance
which
ha a iable explains,
i
all
o he a iables we e excluded
om
he ana-
lysis. The numbe ou side
he
pa en hesis
is
he
addi ional o unique amoun o a iance ex-
plained
by
ha a iable, and
no
sha ed
wilh
any
o he a iable. !
S.A
J .Bus.Mgm .1993,24(
4)
Discussion
Hypo hesis 1
Wo ke sa is ac ion will be g ea e amongs QC membe s
han non-QC membe s. This hypo hesis appea s o
ha e
been pa ially suppo ed, as illus a ed in Table 2 and Figu e
1.
The
QC
membe s showed signi ican ly highe li e sa is-
ac ion and sel -es eem han he non-QC g oup, a inding
consis en wi h he idea ha exposu e
lO
QC ac i i ies o e
ime can enhance sel - ega d due lO an imp o ed sense
o
compe ence. In addi ion, as shown
in
Table
2,
he o he
(non-signi ican ) mean di e ences ended in he expec ed
di ec ion. QC membe s hus exp ess mo e subjec i e enjoy-
men
o
li e in gene al, and a e mo e posi i e in
hei
own
sel -e alua ions, han
is
he case o non-QC membe s.
Hypo hesis 1
is
hus pa ially suppo ed. Tha pa ici-
pa i e p og ams such as QCs do no enhance he o he
dimensions, especially measu es such as locus-o -con ol
which
is
a co e pe sonali y cons uc ,
is
disappoin ing, bu
no ha su p ising. Acco ding o hese esul s, QCs do no
impac mo e global ques ions such as making he wo ke s
eel mo e in con ol
o
hei en i onmen
o
li e ci cum-
s ances. In gene al he e o e, i seems ha QC membe ship
is
posi i ely ela ed o some, bu de ini ely no all,
o
he
a iables used he e. Indi idual, social, and en i onmen al
ac o s also play an ex emely powe ul mode a ing ole
in
his ela ionship.
Hypo hesis 2
In
bo h QC and non-QC membe s, wo ke sa is ac ion will
co ela e posi i ely wi h manage ial clima e. The esul s
shown
in
Table 3 suppo his hypo hesis, pa icula ly
in
he
case
o
quali y ci cle membe s.
O
all manage ial clima e in-
dices, communica ions eme ged as mos consis en ly
posi-
i ely co ela ed o wo ke sa is ac ion. The eg ession ana-
lysis (Table 4) e eals ha all i e
o
he wo ke sa is ac ion
a iables a e la gely explained by manage ial clima e a i-
ables,
in
pa icula communica ions
in
he cases
o
li e sa is-
ac ion, sel -es eem, locus-o -con ol, and pu pose-in-li e.
This
is
unde s andable, since he pu pose
o
pa icipa ion
is
la gely o achie e pe sonal g ow h by imp o ing communi-
ca ions be ween wo ke s and managemen , and
by
en-
cou aging wo ke s o come o wa d wi h hei own iews
and sugges ions. The esul s
o
he s epwise eg ession
shows ha he e is an in e ac ion be ween clima e, QCs, and
wo ke sa is ac ion. Howe e , manage ial clima e a iables
accoun o a g ea e p opo ion
o
he a iance in wo ke
sa is ac ion sco es han does pa icipa ion
in
a QC p og am
alone. Thus Hypo heses 2 has been suppo ed.
Toge he wi h he discussion on Hypo hesis
1,
i seems
ha he ac ual manage ial clima e
in
he o ganiza ion, pa i-
cula ly he communica ion s yle, a he han he p esence
o
p og ams such as QCs,
is
a i al de e mining ac o
in
en-
cou aging employee sa is ac ion, sel -es eem, and a sense
o
con ol and pu pose. This esul is consis en wi h he
li e a u e al eady e iewed, which poin ed ou he impo -
ance
o
eal manage ial commi men , beha iou ally and no
he o icaJJy, in he success
o
pa icipa i e sys ems. QCs
may hus be mo e a esul han a cause
o
he so
o
en i onmen whe e employee sa is ac ion and g ow h
is
mo e likely o occu .
139
I
was
noled
lha
on
all
manage ial
clima e
indices
bolb
g oups
epo ed
a
signi ican ly
mo e
pa icipa i e
climlle
han
o
12
mon hs
p e iously.
As
discussed.
his
pheno-
menon
is mos likely due
o
he
'halo'
e ec ., wi h a
sa ong
endency owa d he socially desi able esponse
o
in-
dica ing an imp o ed clima e compa ed
o
he
p e ious
yea .
Howe e , a mo e in e es ing (bu specula i e) possibili y
also exis s. I
p og ams
such as QCs ha e any alue. i may
be ha hey p o ide angible e idence
o
manage ial com-
mi men o a mo e panicipa i e wo l en i onmen ., and hus
send ipples h oughou he o ganiz.a ion, speeding up
he
p ocess
o
achie ing a mo e democ a ic manage ial clima e,
and hus b inging abou he desi ed change in mo e
indi i-
duals han hose physically in ol ed wi h QCs. The ac ha
he non-QC membe s we e all d awn om co po a e di i-
sions whe e QCs we e ac ually ope a ing means ha hese
esponden s had
aJJ
been ' ubbing shoulde s' wi h
QC
mem-
be s o he pas se e al mon hs. I is possible ha
manage-
men s yle changed in hese sec ions o accommoda e he e-
qui emen s
o
QCs
o
in esponse o he inc eased ma u i y
o
he QC membe s, and ha his changed s yle
was
applied
equally o non-QC membe s as employees
in
he same
sec ion. I is hus possible ha QC membe s and non-QC
membe s in he same sec ion will bo h expe ience inc eased
sa is ac ion.
This s udy hus con inns he endency epo ed in
he
li e a u e owa ds mo e posi i e wo ke a i udes, pe cep ion
o
managemen s yle, and wo ke sa is ac ion, in he gene al
a ea whe e a quali y ci cle p og am has been in ope a ion.
Rega ding manage ial clima e and managemen s yle.
Gel and has ound ha while
'
...
he
g ouping
o
people in o p oblem-sol ing uni s
...
will
esul
in
an inc ease in human c ea i i y ... he
de elopmen al s a egy which de e mines his in-
c ease, howe e , is linked o
he
p e ailing clima e'
(1975: 111).
This conclusion is echoed by Biesheu el (1984: 125):
' ... he success ul ope a ion
o
QCs is dependen on a uly
coope a i e managemen clima e h oughou he en e p ise',
and Gibson, who no es ha
' ... quali y ci cles a e people wi h poin s
o
iew
abou
becoming in ol ed
in
a pa icipa i e p oblem-sol ing
p ocess. These iewpoin s can make
o
b eak he
p o-
cess' (I 982: 5).
Ba ick & Alexande (1987) e iewed he success
and
ail-
u e
o
QC p og ams in he USA, and epo ed ha ailu e
was mos consis en and comple e
in
he mili a y, a inding
consis en wi h he heme
o
his a icle, namely ha
pa icipa i e p og ams do no lou ish in an au oc a ic
en i onmen These esul s ha e impo an implica ions o
he e ec i e aining
o
managemen
in
he coming yea s.
D ago s a es ha pa icipa i e p og ams end
lO
come and
go
in
cycles, bu ha QCs a e mo e b oad-based han any
o
he ea lie sys ems, hence
' ... he u u e
o
he ci cles mo emen will p obably
depend mo e han any hing else upon manage ial a i-
udes and commi men o pa icipa ion' (1985: 16).
This s udy has p o ided an in e es ing con i ma ion
IO
wha insigh ul manage s ha e known o many yea s -
ac ions speak a loude han wo ds. Wo ke s can achie e
g ea e sa is ac ion
in
he wo kplace, and p oduc i i y can
140
be
inc eased
lh ough
pa icipa i e
wo k
sys ems,
bu
man-
agemen
commi men
mus
be
he e
in
he
angible
o m
o a
pa icipa i e
supe iso y
s yle.
A
g ea
need
exis s
o
make
managemen
compe en
in
implemen ing
and
ope a ing
such
a
s yle,
and
o
sell
he
idea
ha
manage s
alone
canno
ca y
he
p oduc i i y
bu den
o
o ganiza ions.
In ol ing
wo ke s
in
decision-making
should
no
imply
abdica ion
by
manage-
men ;
i
is
a he
pa
o a
basic
es uc u ing
o
he
way
businesses
a e
un.
No es
1.
This high esponse a e was
made
possible
by
he
ine co-
ope a ion
o
he acili a o s.
2.
Locus-o -con ol is adi ionally hough
o
as a
pe son-
ali y dimension. I was included because i seemed
an
ap-
p op ia e global measu e.
3.
Fo
social scien is s conce ned wi h acili a ing he ans-
i ion om he apa heid sys em in Sou h A ica, pa ici-
pa i e wo k p og ams o e
one
possible a enue whe eby
a disen anchized segmen
o
he
popula ion is a o ded
an
a enue
o
exp ession. Fu he ,
such
in e en ions
begin
o
accul u a e employees and employe s, accus omed
o
au o-
c acy, o
he
bene i s
o
a
mo e
democ a ic wo kplace.
4. Since
some
subjec s we e A ikaans-speake s,
he
ques -
ionnai e was also ansla ed in o A ikaans, and ansla ed
back
in o English
o
ensu e s anda diza ion
o
he i ems.
S.
'QC
pa icipa ion'
is
a dicho omous a iable indica ing
membe ship
in
ei he
g oup. 'QC
membe ship'
deno es
which quali y ci cle
he
subjec s
we e
d awn
om,
in
o de
o es o be ween-ci cle e ec s.
The
o de
o
in o-
duc ion
o
a iables in o he equa ion was o a ed in
o de
o
es all possible pe mu a ions.
The
esul s
in
Table 4
p esen
he
da a
om he bes i .
Re e ences
Bachman, J., Kahn, R., Da idson, R. & Johns on, L. 1967.
You h
in ansi ion- olWM
1.
Ann A bo , Michigan: Ins i u e o
Social Resea ch.
Ba ick, M.R. & Alexande , R.A. 1987.
'A
e iew
o
quali y
ci cle e icacy and he exis ence
o
posi i e- indings bias',
Pe sonnel
Psychology,
Vol. 40: 579-592.
Bea dsley, J. 1987. 'Beyond wha e e
is
le ', Jou nal/o
Qualily
and
Pa icipa ion, Vol. 10: 28-30.
Biesheu el, S. 1984.
Wo k
mo i a ion
and
compensa ion.
Volume
1:
Mo i a1ional
aspec s.
Johannesbu g: McG aw-Hill.
Bocke ,
H.J. & O e gaa d,
H.0.
1982. 'S uc u ing quali y
ci cles: A managemen challenge o comba ailing p oduc -
i i y', Leade ship and
O ganiza1ional
De elopmen
Jou nal,
Vol. 3: 17-29.
Cu o ina,
P. &
Wood,
B.
1988. 'Ci cles in he Fo une 500:
Why ci cles ail', Jou nal o
Qlllllily
and
Pa icipa ion,
Vol.
11:
40-41.
Chang, R.H., & Dodde , R.A. 1983.
'The
modi ied pu pose-in-
li e scale: A c oss-na ional alida ion s udy',
In e na ional
Jou nal
o
Aging
and
Human
De elopmen ,
Vol.
18:
207-217.
Clemme , J. & McNeil, A. 1988. 'Team leade ship: Two plus
wo
can equal
six',
Canadian
Manage ,
Vol.
13:
11-13.
Co g o e. S. 1972. 'Aliena ion: I s meaning and measu emen ',
The
B ilish
Jou nal
o
Sociology,
Vol. 23: 437-451.
Co on, J:L., Voll a h, D.A. & F ogga ,
K.L
1988. 'Employee
pa icipa ion: di e se o ms and di e en ou comes',
Academy
o
Managemen
Re iew, Vol. 13: 8-22.
S.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1993,24(4)
Co on, J.L., Voll a h, D.A., Legnick-Hall, M.L. & F ogga ,
K.L.
1990. 'Fac : he onn
o
pa icipa ion does ma e - a ebu -
al o Leana, Locke, and Schweige ', Academy
o
Manage-
men Re iew, Vol. 15: 137-159.
Cox,
I.
& Dale, B.G. 1985.
'Quali y
ci cles membe s' iews
on
quali y ci cles',
Lea<k ship
and
O ganiza ional
De elopmen
Jou nal,
Vol.
6:
20-23.
C umbaugh, J. 1968. 'C oss- alida ion
o
pu pose-in-li e es
based on F ankl's concep s',Jou nal
o
Indi idual
Psycho-
logy,
Vol. 24:
74-81.
Dale, B.G. & Haywa d, S.G. 1984.
'Some
o
he easons o
quali y ci cle ailu e: Pa
3',
Leade ship, Vol.
5:
27-32.
Daniel,
R.
& Huss, A. 1986.
'Add
o you quali y ci cles',
P oduc i i y, Vol. 12:
32-33.
Da is, L.E. & Wacke ,
GJ.
1982.
'Job
design'.
In
Sal endy, G.
(Ed.).
Handbook
o
indus ial enginee ing. (pp. 131). New
Yo k, NY: John Wiley.
Denha d ,
R.B.
1971. 'Aliena ion and he challenge
o
pa ici-
pa ion', Pe sonnel Adminis a ion, Vol. 34:
25-32.
D ago, R. 1985.
'A e
quali y ci cles a
ad?
A look a some new
e idence',
The
Quali y Ci cles Jou nal, Vol. 81: 12-17.
D ago,
R.
1988. 'Quali y ci cle su i al: an explo a o y analysis.
Indus ial Rela ions, Vol. 27:
33~351.
El ins,
J.P.
1985. 'Communica ion in quali y ci cles: membe s'
pe cep ions
o
hei pa icipa ion
and
i s e ec s on ela ed
o ganiza ional communica ion a iables',
G oup
and
O gani-
za ional
S udies, Vol. 10: 479-507.
F ank, J.P. 1973.
'Can
wo ke s s ill eel a sense
o
accom-
plishmen ?',
Managemen
Re iew, Vol. 62:
56-58.
Fulle , M.M. & Bonjean, C.M. 1970. 'Sel - ul illing wo k and
social in eg a ion: a compa a i e s udy.
In
Sociological
Ab-
s ac s, abs ac no. E2686.
Ga in, D.A. 1988.
Managing
quali y. New Yo k, NY: F ee
P ess.
Gel and, J.S. 1975.
The
e ec
o
an
in e en ion p ocess
on
o ganiza ional clima e. Uni e si y
o
he Wi wa e s and,
Johannesbu g. Unpublished Ph.D. hesis.
Gibson,
P.
1982.
Wo k
in
Ame ica ins i u e s udies
in
p oduc -
i i y,
No. 26: Quali y ci cles: An app oach o p oduc i i y
im-
p o emen . New Yo k, NY: Pe gammon P ess.
G i in, R.W. 1988. 'Consequences
o
quali y ci cles in an in-
dus ial se ing: a longi udinal assessmen ', Academy
o
Man-
agemen
Jou nal,
Vol. 31:
338-358.
Guzzo, R.A. 1983.
Wo k
in
Ame ica ins ilu e s udies
in
p o-
duc i i y,
No.
32:
P og ams/o p oduc i i y and quali y
o
wo A:li e.
New
Yo lc,
NY: Pe gammon P ess.
Hackman, R.J. &
Lee,
M.D. 1979.
Wo k
in
Ame ica
ins i u e
s udies
in
p oduc i i y, No. 9: Redesigning Wo k: A
Sl a egy
o Change. Sca sdale, NY: Wo k in Ame ica Ins i u e.
Ingle, S. 1982.
'How
o a oid quali y ci cle ailu e in you com-
pany', T aining and De elopmen Jou nal,
54-59.
JUSE. 1985.
How
lo
ope a e
QC
ac i i ies. Tokyo: Japanese
Union
o
Scien is s and Enginee s.
La son, J.S. 1989. 'Employee pa icipa ion in ede al manage-
men ', Public Pe sonnel
Managemen ,
Vol. 18: 404-414.
Lawle , E.E.
ID
& Moh man, S.A. 1987. 'Quali y ci cles: a e
he honeymoon', O ganizalionalDynamics, Vol. 15: 42-54.
Leana,
C.A., Locke, E.A. & Schweige , D.M. 1990. 'Fac and
ic ion in analyzing esea ch
on
pa icipa i e decision making:
A c i ique
o
Co on, Voll a h, and F ogga ',
Aca<kmy
o
Managemen
Re iew, Vol. 15: 137-146.
Like ,
R.
1967.
The
human
o ganiza ion. New Y
o lc,
NY:
McG aw-Hill.
Locke, E.A., Schweige , D.M. & La ham, G.P. 1986. 'Pa ici-
pa ion in decision-making: should i
be
used?', O ganizalional
Dynamics,
Vol. 14:
65-79.
S.A J.Bus.Mgm .1993.24(4)
Ma ks, M.L., Hacke .
EJ.,
Mi is., P.H. & G ady, J.F., J .
1986.
'Employee
pa icipa ion in a quali y ci cle p og am:
impac
on
quali y
o
wo k li e. p oduc i i y, and
abscn eeism',Joll MI
o
Applied P: yclwlogy, Vol.
7:
61-69.
Mille . K.I. & Monge, P.R. 1986. 'Pa icipa ion, sa is ac ion
and
p oduc i i y: a me a-analy ic e iew', AcQ llmy
o
M lNlge-
Mnl
Joiu al, Vol. 29:
727-753.
Mille ,
MJ.
1984.
'Quali y
ci cles oday: a esea ch no e',
QlllJiily Ci cle Diges , Vol. 11:
28-30.
Neal, A. & Seeman, M. 1964. 'O ganiza ions and powe lessness:
a es
o
he media ion hypo hesis',
Ame ica,a
Sociological
Re-
iew, Vol. 24:
216-225.
Nicholls, A.O. 1985. Fo d
S.A.
Employee
in olw:menl
sww:y
n-
po . Po Elizabe h: SAMCOR.
Pa o , R. & Hewi ,
J.
1978. 'Inc easing sel -es eem h ough
pa icipa ion in a goal-a ainmen
p og am',
JowNll
o
Cluuc-
al Psyclwlogy, Vol. 34:
955-957.
Ra aeli, A. 1985. 'Quali y ci cles and employee ela ions', Pe -
sonnel Psyclwlogy, Vol. 38: 603-615.
Ro e , J.B. 1966. 'Gene alized expec ancies o in e nal e sus
ex e nal con ol
o
ein o cemen ', Psyclwlogical
Mono-
g aphs, Vol. 80, (1, whole no. 609).
Scheips,
C.D.
1972.
'The
humaniza ion
o
wo k',
Pe sonMl,
Vol. 49:
38-44.
Shepa d,
J.M.
1970. 'Func ional specializa ion, aliena ion,
and
job
sa is ac ion', Indus ial and Labo Rela ions Re iew,
Vol. 23:
207-219.
She wood, K.F., Gue ie , Y. & Dale, B.G. 1985. 'Quali y ci cles
-can
we
e alua e
hem?',
Pe sonnel Re iew, Vol. 14:
26-31.
Sp ei ze , E.A., Snyde , E.E. & La son, D.L. 1981. Occupa ioNll
a iables as p edic o s
o
li e sa is ac ion: some malejemale
di e ences. Addi ional abs ac s
o
pape s p esen ed a he
1981 annual mee ing
o
he 95 Eas e n Sociological Socie y.
S eel,
R.P.
& Lloyd, R.F. 1988. 'Cogni i e, a ec i e, and be-
ha io al ou comes
o
pa icipa ion in quali y ci cles: concep -
ual and empi ical indings', Jou nal
o
Applied Beha io al
Science, Vol. 24:
1-17.
·~·
Sled.
R.P.
&
Mcalo..
AJ.
1987.
"The
p111icipa1iaa
peno mance
COIQO'Va'SY
Je(lOOSi,k ed:
saba diw
o lF
e11
noc
as
a mi ip-
ling
ac o '.
G o l J
-'
O J-u•ioi
SI.bu.
Vol.
12.:
411-123.
Sleel.
R.P
_ Mam. AJ_
Dalla..
BJ_
O alle,
N.IC
.
.l
~
l F.
1985.
' lldols
in luencing
lhc S900CSS
and
ai~
o
wo
quali y
ci cle
p og ams',Joa lldl
o
Al~.
Vol
11:
99-119.
Sleel.
R.P
.•
Men o,
AJ
.
.l
Reha. V .R.
m.
'Panicipan
e-
ac ions
o
a quali y ci cle p og am', Qw,lily
Ci k
J~
Vol.
8:
14-20.
Sleel. R.P. & Shane., G.S. 1986. 'E alua ion ese.-ch on cpalily
ci cles: ledUlical
and
analy ical implic:alions',
H..,,..
RR
io,u,
Vol. 39: 449-465.
S auss. G. 1974. • Wo ke dissa is ac ion: a look
al
lhc
coses'.
MO lll ly Labo Re"NW, Vol. 97: 57-58..
Susman, G.I. 1972. 'Au omalion, aliena ion.
and
wo -g oup
au onomy', Hlll illl Relaliolu, Vol. 25: 171-180.
Tang,
T.LP
.•
Tollison. P.S. & Whiiesidc. H.D. 1989. 'Quali y
ci cle p oduc i i y as ela ed
o
uppe
managemen a endance.
ci cle ini ia ion.
and
coll•
colOI"',
}O#UJUM
o
Al~ 1.
Vol. 15: 101-113.
Valecha.. G.K.
19n.
Co1 s1Tlld
alid«iol
o
UIIUMI
e.xu"'°'
loc,u
o
cOlll ol
as
,.as.nd
by
a11
abb W41 1d
J J
.-,..
IE
scale. Ohio: Ohio S a e Uni e si y. Unpublished doc o al dis-
se a ion.
Wagne , J.A. ID & Gooding. R.Z. 1987. 'E ec s
o
socie al
ends
on
panicipa ion esea ch', Admu is a iw
S~
Qua e ly, Vol. 32.
241-262.
Wal on, R.E. 1972.
'How
o coun e aliena ion in he
plan ',
Ha a d 8,ui ess Re iew, Vol. 50:
70-81.
Wayne.
SJ.,
G i in,
R.W.
&
Ba eman,
T.S.
1986. 'Imp o ing
he e ec i eness
o
quali y ci cles·. Pe soNMl
Admws olo ,
Vol. 931:
79-88.
Yamamo o, S. 1986. 'T adi ion and managemen ',
/,ue l'lllliONll
S lUi~s
o
M~me,u
a,ad
O g01U a i011,
Vol. 15:
69-88.