Quality circles as a means for achieving worker satisfaction - or just a healthy managerial climate? A South African sample

Robinson, Robe J. A icle Quali y ci cles as a means o achie ing wo ke sa is ac ion - o jus a heal hy manage ial clima e? A Sou h A ican sample Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Robinson, Robe J. (1993) : Quali y ci cles as a means o achie ing wo ke sa is ac ion - o jus a heal hy manage ial clima e? A Sou h A ican sample, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 24, Iss. 4, pp. 134-141, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 24i4.1736 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/218111 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ 134 S.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1993,24(4) Quali y ci cles as a means o achie ing wo ke sa is ac ion - o jus a heal hy manage ial clima e? A Sou h A ican sample Robe J. Robinson G adua e School o Business Adminis a ion, Ha a d Uni e si y, Soldie s Field, Bos on, Massachuse es 02163 Uni ed S a es o Ame ica Recei ed Feb ua y 1993, accep ed Augus 1993 The e is e y li le e idence ha pa icipa i e wo k p og ammes such as quali y ci cles (QCs) imp o e he subjec i e expe ience o wo ke s, ei he on he job, o in hei li es gene ally. Pa o he eason o such limi ed success is o e - ed by li e a u e sugges ing ha in e en ions such as QCs should e lec a gene al o ganiza ional philosophy o pa ici- pa ion, a he han being he means o en o ce o ganiza ional change. This s udy was unde aken in a la ge Sou h A ican elec ical u ili y, and consis ed o 187 QC membe s and 63 non-QC membe s. Manage ial clima e was measu ed using a sho o m o Like 's o ganiza ional clima e ques ionnai e, while wo ke sa is ac ion was measu ed using i e di e en measu es. Resul s e ealed QC membe s sco ed highe on li e sa is ac ion, sel -es eem and pu pose-in-li e han non-QC membe s. Signi ican posi i e co ela ion was ound be ween manage ial clima e and sa is ac ion indices. Reg ession analysis indica ed ha manage ial clima e a iables accoun ed o he majo sha e o he o al a iance in sa is ac ion indices, while pa icipa ion in he QC p og amme accoun ed o ela i ely li le: he implica ion is ha QC pa icipa ion may b ing abou inc eased wo ke sa is ac ion, bu a c i ical p e equisi e appea s o be a sui ably pa icipa i e clima e in he o ganiza ion. Daa bes aan baie min bewyse da deelnemende bes uu sp og amme, soos gehal ek inge, we kneme s se subjek iewe e a inge by die we k o in hul gewone Iewens e be e . Die bepe k e sukses an sulke p og amme wo d in die li e a- uu deels daa aan oegesk y da ing epe soos gehal ek inge 'n algemene o ganisa o iese iloso ie an deelname be- hoo e e lek ee , ee de as om die ins umen e wees wa o ganisa o iese e ande ing a dwing. Die s udie is gedoen by 'n g oo Suid-A ikaanse elek isi ei s oo siene en he 187 gehal ek inglede en 63 nie-Iede ingeslui . Die bes uu s- /climaa is gemee deu 'n e ko e o maa an Like se o ganisasie-k1imaa s aelys e geb uik. We kneme - e edenheid is deu middel an y e skillende me ings gee aluee . Die esul a e oon da gehal ek inglede hoe el- lings behaal en opsig e an lewens e edenheid en seljbeeld as nie-gehal ek inglede. P ak ies be ekenis olle posi iewe ko elasies is asges el ussen bes uu sklimaa en e edenheidsindekse. Reg essie-on ledings dui daa op da bes uu s- k1imaa e ande likes e al e an woo delik is i die a iasie in e edenheidsindekse, e wyl deelname aan die gehal- ek ingp og am i baie min a iasie e an woo delik was. Die implikasie is da gehal ek ingp og amme mag lei o e hoogde we kneme e edenheid maa da die belang iks e oo e eis e 'n oepaslike deelnemende klimaa in die ondememing blyk e wees. In oduc ion The e ec i eness o pa icipa i e wo k designs: an ongoing deba e The ques ion o wo ke pa icipa ion and he ole o employ- ee sa is ac ion in inc eased p oduc i i y is a ecu en one bo h in business and psychological li e a u e. Decades o esea ch ha e gi en us ce ain well-g ounded conclusions: a. echnology, pa icula ly au oma ion and he p oduc ion- line sys em, is o en a signi ican con ibu o o aliena ion (e.g. Shepa d, 1970; Co g o e, 1972; Susman, 1972); b. jobs can be edesigned o coun e aliena ion (e.g. Scheips, 1972; Wal on, 1972; F ank, 1973); and c. wo ke pa icipa ion is one o he bes ways o achie e his coun e ing e ec (e.g. Fulle & Bonjean, 1970; Denha d , 1971; S auss, 1974). Such s udies ga e legi imacy o he 'job edesign' mo e- men , a b oad-based and eclec ic a emp o ind al e na i e wo k o ms which would elimina e aliena ion and maximize p oduc i i y and pa icipa ion. Fine summa ies o his wo k is a ailable in such e iews as Hackman & Lee (1979), and Guzzo (1983). In e en ions all in o ca ego ies such as socio echnical sys ems, job en ichmen , job enla gemen , w~ schedules, en i onmen al i , e gonomic design, au o- mallon, obo ics, and compu e iza ion. The only common basis o inclusion in he ca ego y o job edesign is an unde lying philosophy aiming a ' he design o e ec i e and sa is ying jobs, which m~ !'<> h. he o ganiza ion's needs o e ec i ely ach1e mg i s goals h ough he use o i s human e- sou ces and he indi idual's needs, expec a ions and goals' (Da is & Wacke , 1982: 2.5.1). The e ec i eness o pa icipa i e wo k designs has been he opic o con o e sy o decades now, wi h li le sign o esolu ion. Recen ly, he deba e has again become pa i- cula ly ac imonious. Al hough esea che s such as Clemme & McNeil (1988) and La son (1989) con inue o indica e bene i s om pa icipa ion, mos a gumen s cen e a ound wha is being measu ed, and wha would cons i u e an e - ec i e in e en ion. In analyzing he esul s om a numbe o US mili a y bases, S eel & Men o (1987) ound li le link be ween pa icipa ion and p oduc i i y. Wagne & Gooding (1987) c i icize inconsis en esea ch me hodologies wi hin his a ea, and sugges ha esea che s a e being swayed by socie al ends. Locke, Schweige & La ham (1986) ound ha pa icipa ion is jus as likely o lowe p oduc i i y as i is o aise i , i employees do no ha e expe ise o b ing o he decision-making p ocess. Co on, Voll a 'l & F ogga (1988) a gue ha 'pa icipa ion' is oo b oad a e m, and a emp o classi y in e en ions in o a ious ypes, ci ing ma kedly di e en ou comes o he di e en kinds o echniques, hus explaining he wildly inconsis en and un- eliable esul s in he li e a u e. C i iquing his s udy, Leana, Locke & Schweige (1990) sugges ha he indings o Co on, e al. we e la gely he esul o hei own classi ica ion sys em, and showed ha by classi ying s udies di e en ly, a conside ably di e en S.A J .Bus.Mgm .1993,24( 4) ou come could be ob ained. In hei ebu al, Co on, Voll- a h, Legnick-Hall & F oggau (1990) e use o acknowledge me hodological p oblems, and asse ha he basic success o pa icipa i e wo k designs depends on he na u e and o m o he in e en ion. This deba e is ob iously complex and dynamic: i is no in ended o o e a solu ion he e. Howe e , by way o con- side ing a speci ic in e en ion a he han making gene al- iza ions, and as an in oduc ion o he p esen s udy, he issue o quali y ci cles is o e ed. O igins o qual y ci cles The his o y o quali y ci cles (QCs) begins in 1948, when in an a emp o ebuild he Japanese economy a e he Second Wo ld Wa , quali y con ol was in oduced om he Uni ed S a es, ia wo ld-expe s, Demming and Ju an. Despi e i s lack o popula i y in he USA, be ween 1948 and 1960 quali y con ol became an ex emely popula and well- e- sea ched subjec in Japanese indus y, and he majo i y o wo ke s we e exposed o he concep As pa o in ol ing all le els o wo ke s, I.he i s QCs we e de eloped and s a ed in 1962 a IBM, bu we e no success ul in he USA and had mo e o less died ou a he ime hey became popula in Japan. The e a na ional QC body was o med in 1964, and soon had chap e s h oughou Japan. The g ow h o QCs was explosi e, and by 1984 he e we e o e 180.000 egis e ed ci cles in Japan. A simila mo emen has been s aJ ed in bo h Taiwan and Sou h Ko ea wi h g ea success and QCs ha e 'come home' o he USA. In e na ionally, QCs a e addi ionally cu en ly o be ound in such di e se coun ies as Aus alia, Belgium, B azil, Denma k, Egyp , Is ael, I aly, Ko ea, much o La in Ame ica, Malaysia, he Ne he lands, Sou h A ica, Taiwan, Thailand, and he Uni ed Kingdom. The impe us o pa icula ly he Wes e n in e es in QCs (and Japanese managemen ) came om he spec acula success o Japanese companies in he Wes 's adi ional ma ke s. Success o quali y ci cles n he wes Wi h he success o Japanese indus y, Wes e n na ions ha e eage ly aken up he echniques o Japanese managemen , including he quali y ci cle which has been implemen ed in an imp essi e ange o a eas. Apa om he p oduc ion en- i onmen s which hey we e o iginally designed o , quali y ci cles ha e been pu o wo k in such whi e-colla a eas as uni e si ies, accoun ing i ms, banks, and he mili a y. A ques ion which a ises pe ennially is ha o he adap abili y o such echniques o Wes e n socie ies. A ypical a gumen is ha o Yamamo o (1986) who o e s an almos o ally cul u al explana ion, ci ing psychological ac o s s emming om eudal Japan o he p esen o m and success o in- dus y he e. By way o con as , Ga in sugges s ' ... such a gumen s a e easily o e s a ed. They bo de on cul u al de e minism, con using habi s o asks ha suppo a pa icula end wi h mo e comple e explana- ions' (1988: 198). In Japan, QCs a e judged o be a huge success by i ue o hei longe i y and he g ow h o he Japanese economy. In compa ing he p og ess o coun ies which ha e used QCs wi h hose which ha e no , Bocke & O e gaa d (1982) llS a e unequi ocal in lhei p aise o he posi i e e ec o QCs on na ional p oduc i i y. In he USA. Mille (1984) ound ha 63% o all esponden s in a su ey el ha hei QC p og am was 'mode a ely' o ·exuemely' success ul, wilh only 6% epo ing ' ailu es' o 'poo ' esul s. She wood. Gue ie & Dale ( 1985) ound ha mos inns Cllpn!SS sa is- ac ion wi h he use ulness o he QC concep . Ne e heless.. i ha dly seems an app op ia e o scien i ic o m o measu e- men o ask manage s (who in many insaances, ha e been e- sponsible o he implemcma ioo o cos ly p og ams), whe - he o no hey belie e he p og ams wo . While inancial igu es seem o be plucked ou o hin ai -'Lodhecd claims o ha e sa ed 2.844.<XX> dolla s wilh only 15 quali y ci cles ope a ing in he i s wo yea s' (Wayne, G i in, & Ba eman, 1986: 80) -i is he e ec on he pu icjpanls (i.e. a i udes, alues, and moli a ion) which is mo e di - icul o measu e. In B i ain, Cox & Dale (1985) ound lll&l 83% o e- · sponden s (QC membe s) el ha QCs had p o ided lhem wilh eal bene i s. Ma ies, Hadccu, Mi is & Gnldy (1986) epo ed ha QC membe s showed enhanced quali y o wodc li e pe cep ions ela i e o non-membe s. Ra acli (1985) ound ha QC membe s had a signi ican ly highe pe cep .ion o hei own in luence and job a ie y lhan non- QC membe s, while El ins (1985) ound ha QC membe - ship was associa ed wi h a highe deg ee o pe cei ed powe o in luence. In Sou h A ica, Daniel & Huss (1986) con- cluded ha quali y ci cles a e a posi i e in luence o poli ical change, and Nicholls (1985) ound signi ican ly im- p o ed employee pe cep ions o managemen and be e em- ployee-managemen ela ions a e a pa icipa i e QC- ype in e en ion. The p oblem wi h many o hese s udies is he lack o a eal con ol g oup, gi en he olun a y na u e o QCs, and a possible halo e ec when he measu es a e link- ed o QC pa icipa ion. Impe ec hough hese da a a e, e idence sugges s ha QCs a e associa ed wi h a posi i e e ec on p oduc i i y and quali y, and on wo ke s' pe cep ions o hei subjec i e wo king condi ions, a leas as a as hei abili y o in- luence hose condi ions is in ol ed. QCs a c also seen o be a posi i e o ce o sol ing p oblems, and in enhancing communica ions. On a na ional le el howe e , i is ha d o escape he conclusion o Bea dsley (1987), ha like many o he pa icipa i e p og ams in ecen his o y, QCs ha e no been se measu able goals, and his inabili y o assess hei esul s h ea ens hei u u e exis ence. A c i ical ques ion mus be, do QCs ac ually con ibu e any hing mo e o o ganiza ions and hei employees han halo (Haw ho ne) e - ec s? This ques ion is especially oubling in he ligh o ecen s udies. Thus Ba ick & Alexande (1987) ound ha epo ed success o QC p og ams was due o he unique cha ac e is ics o olun a y pa icipan s. In acking QC pa icipan s o a h ee-yea pe iod (G i in, 1988), measu ing a i udes, beha iou , and e ec i eness, ini ial imp o emen s we e ound, bu we e subsequen ly ollowed by a e u n o p e ious le els. Simila ly, Lawle & Moh - man (1987) ci e a 'honeymoon' e ec wi h QCs. S eel & Lloyd (1988) ound some suppo o an imp o ed sense o compe ence and us , bu only ma ginal suppo o QC e ec i eness. Summa izing he indings, S eel & Shane (1986) igh ly conclude ha he cha ac e is ics o 136 o ganiu ions which may bes bene i om QC in e en ions a e s ill poo ly unde s ood, and wi h his in mind he e mus be some ques ion as o he desi abili y o QCs in o gani- m ional con ex s. C l lcal success and allu e c i e ia o cl cle p o- g ams As QC p og ams go unde way in he Wes , pain ul ex- pe iences wi h ailed p og ams showed ha he e we e ce - ain hings which should o should no be done i QCs we e o be success ul. Dale & Haywa d (e.g. 1984: 12) ha e iden i ied he main causes o ci cle ailu e. One o he mos signi ican ega ds managemen s yle: • .. .in a clima e whe e managemen is oo na ow-minded and au oc a ic, quali y ci cles a e unlikely o su i e'. In a simila ein, Ingle (1982) and Tang, Tollison, & Whi eside (1989) sugges ha poo middle-managemen suppo is a p ime indica o ha a QC p og am will be in ouble i implemen ed. S eel, Men- o, Dilla, O alle, & Lloyd (1985) ound ha one o se e al ac o s dis inguishing a success ul om an unsuccess ul QC p og am was managemen suppo , and in ano he s udy (S eel, Men o, & Reha, 1985) no ed imp o ed a i ude and mo ale, bu only i managemen suppo was eal and ang- · ible. Cas o ina & Wood (1988) disco e ed ha in Fo une 500 companies, QCs succeeded o he ex en ha hey did no come in o opposi ion wi h he exis ing bu eauc acy, · while D ago (1988) has no ed ha one o he ac o s which enhanced QC su i al is deg ee o pa icipa i e manage- men In a me a-analysis o pa icipa i e p og ams, Mille & Monge (1986) ound eliable links be ween pa icipa ion and wo ke sa is ac ion, as well as he cons aining ole o o gani7.a ional ac o s. Gene ally, managemen suppo and commi men o a pa icipa i e managemen clima e has eme ged as p obably he majo success p edic o o QC ac - i i ies. Quali y cl cles and wo ke sa is ac ion The e iew o he li e a u e hus a has e ealed ha he pu pose o job edesign was p ima ily o enhance p oduc - i i y by encou aging pa icipa ion and inc easing wo ke sa is ac ion. While i may be somewha g andiose and p e- en ious o assume ha any measu able pe sonali y 'de el- opmen ' will go on in adul s exposed o a QC p og am, a mo e modes and a ainable objec i e migh be o inc ease wo ke sa is ac ion, and he eby educe aliena ion. Al hough some in e es ing da a conce ning p oduc i i y imp o emen s ha e been e iewed he e, he ield emains somewha de oid o e idence linking pa icipa ion wi h wo ke sa is ac ion. The pu pose o he p esen s udy is o a emp o assess he e ec o QC pa icipa ion on employee sa is ac ion, and o pay pa icula a en ion o he c i ical ole o he o ganiza ional, o manage ial clima e. O e iew A ma ched g oup o QC membe s and non-membe s was used. Subjec s we e asked o a e hemsel es on i e di e - en measu es, namely, li e sa is ac ion, sel -es eem, powe - lessness, locus-o -con ol, and pu pose-in-li e. They also a ed he o ganiu ion on i s managemen s yle, bo h 'now' and o 12 mon hs p e iously on a ques ionnai e which was S.-A .Tydslc .Bed y sl.1993,24(4) designed o his s udy, and which measu ed i e di e en aspec s o manage ial s yle. The e ec o manage ial clima e and QC pa icipa ion on he sa is ac ion indices was asses- sed. Me hod Subjec s Al oge he 300 ques ionnai es we e dis ibu ed. Comple ed ques ionnai es om 187 QC membe s and 63 non-QC mem- be s we e ob ained, o an o e all esponse a e o 83.3%.1 O hese, 168 o he QC g oup and 48 o he non-QC g oup had been in he company 12 mon hs p e iously, and we e hus able o a e he manage ial clima e bo h a he p esen ime and 12 mon hs p e iously. The e we e 103 and 37 men in he wo espec i e g oups, he balance being women. 192 subjec s we e A ikaans-speaking Sou h A icans, and 139 English-speaking. Pos -hoc analysis e ealed no di e ences be ween men and women, o A ikaans and English speak- e s on any measu es (all p's >. 05). All subjec s' jobs we e ca ego ized as semi-skilled, a isan-assis an , o cle ical. Measu ing Ins umen s Manage ial clima e A numbe o ins umen s ha e been de eloped o e he yea s o measu e he concep o he manage ial s yle o clima e. The p ogeni o and mos success ul o all hese measu es is he Like O ganiza ional Clima e Ques ionnai e (Like , 1967). This 51-i em ques ionnai e sco es esponses on a unidimensional con inuum anging om 1.00 o 4.00. Each s a ion on he con inuum is iden i ied wi h a pa icula managemen s yle. (1 = exploi a i e au oc a ic, 2 = bene- olen au oc a ic, 3 = pa icipa i e, 4 = laissez ai e). Sub- jec s a e he o ganiza ion 'now' (i.e. 'a he p esen ime'), and as hey emembe i 12 mon hs p e iously. The co ela ion able o all i ems p o ided by Like (1967: 194-195) poin s ou 14 c i ical i ems di ided inlO i e basic ac o s. These i e ac o s a e: 1. us and in ol emen , which add esses he issue o he ela ionship and us be ween subo dina es and supe - io s; 2. mo i a o s, which ela es o he way in which man- agemen a emp s o mo i a e he employees; 3. communica ions, which looks a a ious aspec s o o ganiza ional communica ion such as i s e ec i eness, di ec ion, and cla i y; 4. decision making, which examines he a ailabili y and u iliza ion o in o ma ion a ailable in he o ganiza ion when decisions a e aken; and 5. con ol da a, which ques ions he use o which pe - o mance da a (cos s, p oduc ion epo s, e c.) a e puL The sum o he i e ac o s p o ides an o e all manage ial clima e sco e. Wo ke sa is ac ion, con ol and pu pose I was decided o b oadly measu e he no ion o wo lce sa is ac ion, and o inco po a e measu es o gene al li e sa is ac ion. Fi e well-known measu es we e employed, e- p esen ing bo h ele an a i ude and pe sonali y a iables, S.A J .Bus.Mgm .1993,24( 4) anging om measu es o aliena ion, o measu es o a sense o con ol and pu pose. The i s a iable chosen o his s udy was ha o li e sa is ac ion. Li e sa is ac ion has been ound o be ela ed o he job en i onmen (Sp ei ze , Snyde & La son, 1981), and signi ican ly, o pa icipa ion on he job (Pa o & Hewi , 1978). The i ems chosen o his s udy we e he h ee c i ical i ems iden i ied by Bachman, Kahn, Da idson & Johns on (1967). The nex a iable was sel -es eem. The i ems chosen o his s udy we e he six c i ical i ems iden i ied by Bachman, e al. (1967). The hi d a iable was powe lessness, which is a c ucial indica o o a sense o aliena ion. The i ems chosen we e six epo ed by Neal & Seeman (1964). Fou h, a high in e nal locus-o -con ol is qui e unlike a sense o powe lessness.2 A sho ened e sion o Ro e 's (1966) 23-i em scale, namely, Valecha's (1972) 11-i em e sion was used in his s udy. The inal a iable is ha o pu pose-in-li e. Designed by C umbaugh (1968), his 20-i em es was educed o 10 i ems (Chang & Dodde , 1983). P ocedu e The i ems desc ibed in he p e ious sec ion we e combined in o a single ques ionnai e. This s udy ook place in a la ge Sou h A ican enginee ing i m which has one o he mos igo ous QC p og ams in ha coun y .3 The sample used was ob ained by eques ing pe sonnel o ice s (wi h consul - a ion wi h on-si e acili a o s) in he a ious egional o ices o he o ganiza ion o dis ibu e he ques ionnai es o hei QCs.4 In o de o ob ain a compa able con ol g oup in each a ea, QCs which we e abou o s a had ques ionnai es ap- plied o he membe s be o e any ci cle mee ings ook place. This eques was made only o a eas which al eady had QCs in ope a ion, hus ma ching he QC and non-QC membe s on en i onmen al condi ions, and o he ac ha QC membe s, being olun ee s, cons i u e a highly selec g oup. Since he ac ual o ma ion o QCs was dic a ed by a co - po a e ime- able (which was based on budge cons ain s, no eadiness o he QC p og am), he e we e no di e - ences in he wo g oups due o, o example, he quali y ci cle membe s ha ing olun ee ed ea lie . Bo h QC and non-QC membe s olun ee ed a he same ime, bu he non- QC membe s had been wai ing o hei ci cle o s a - in ac , i was his wai ing pe iod which made he p esen design possible. The ques ionnai es we e dis ibu ed indi idually ou side o he egula QC mee ing-place, by he pe sonnel o ice , no he acili a o , who was ins uc ed no o ell ~ubjec s ha hey had been selec ed due o hei a ilia ions wi h QCs. Hypo heses The li e a u e e iewed has emphasized he necessi y o a eal, a he han a dec eed pa icipa i e s yle on he pa o managemen i p og ams such as QCs a e o succeed. The e has o be a genuine commiunen o wo ke pa icipa ion be o e such p og ams· will p oduce he equi ed esul s. Based on hese poin s, he ollowing hypo heses a e o e ed: -Hypo hesis 1: wo ke sa is ac ion will be g ea e amongs QC membe s han non-QC membe s. 137 -Hypo hesis 2: In bo h QC and non-QC membe s, wo ke sa is ac ion will co ela e posi i ely wi h manage ial clima e sco es. Resul s Compa isons be ween he wo g oups we e pe onned using T- es s. In he non-QC g oup, he subjec s pe cei ed a signi- ican ly mo e pa icipa i e manage ial clima e a he p esen ime as compa ed o 12 mon hs p e iously, on all manage - ial clima e a iables. This was also he case o quali y ci cle membe s, wi h he excep ion o con ol da a (see Table 1 o p-le els). Mo e simply, bo h g oups el ha hey we e in a mo e democ a ic and pa icipa i e en i on- men han a yea p e iously. This in i sel is no su p ising -due o such halo e ec e ospec i e e alua ions a e use- ul as expe imen al ools only i , as in his case, he e o- spec i e ecollec ions o wo di e en g oups may be com- pa ed. The ques ion is no whe he o no he subjec s pe - cei ed an imp o emen in clima e, bu whe he o no QC membe s pe cei ed a g ea e imp o emen in clima e o e he yea , as compa ed o non-QC membe s (see Table 1). In compa ing he wo g oups on hei manage ial clima e a ings o 12 mon hs p e iously, and o he p esen ime, no signi ican di e ence be ween he wo g oups was ob- se ed on any o he a iables (all p's> .05). Fo he wo ke sa is ac ion a iables, compa isons be- ween he g oups e ealed ha he quali y ci cle membe s Table 1 Manage ial clima e, mean sco es 1 Va iable T us & In ol emen Mo i a o s Communica ions Decision making Con ol da a Manage ialclima e2 • p <. OS **P<.01 G oup QC non-QC Di . QC non-QC Di . QC non-QC Di . QC non-QC Di . QC non-QC Di . QC non-QC Di . Be o e A e 2.02 2.34 1.93 2.52 +.10 -.17 2.15 2.44 2.02 2.46 +.14 -.02 1.97 2.28 1.90 2.43 +.en -.14 1.92 2.32 1.74 2.30 +.18 +.01 1.89 2.38 2.16 2.25 -.27 +.13 1.99 2.35 l.9S 2.39 +.04 -.08 Di . -.32 .. -.59 .. -.29• -.44 .. -.32 .. -.53 .. --~· -.56 .. -.4~· -.09 -.36 .. -.44 .. 1. 'Be o e' sco es a e subjec s' e ospec i e a ings o he o ganil.alion 12 mon hs p e iously. 'A e ' is hei a ings o he p esen ime. 2. 'Manage ial clima e' is an a e age o he i e ac o s abo e iL 138 Table 2 Sa is ac ion a iables, mean sco es S .-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1993,24(4) Table 3 Sa is ac ion co ela ions wi h manage ial clima e Sa is ac ion a iable Li e sa is ac ion Sel -es eem Powe lessness L.O.C. P.I.L. • p < .OS SIILP-- U>CV8-0P-coaTIIOL POaPOA-DI-Lin • • 158 .. 0 non-QC g oupQC g oup Di e ence (N::43) (N=158) 28.53 31.96 -3.42* 31.09 33.69 -2.60* 20.31 20.42 --0.11 22.88 22.96 --0.08 28.82 30.22 -1.4* Pe aonal O ow b sco •• .. UI ... 0 ... UI - ~ COIITIOL -.ncTS .. 0 Va iable Li e sa is ac ion Sel -es eem Powe lessness L.O.C. P.I.L. • p <. 05 •• p < .01 Non-QC g oup (N=55) R .245* -.129 .177 .375•• .254* QC g oup (N=l71) R .299•• .289•• .258•• .363*• .411•• sco ed signi ican ly highe on li e sa is ac ion, sel -es eem and pu pose-in-li e han did he non-QC membe s (p < .05). Fo all o he wo ke sa is ac ion a iables, he e was no signi ican di e ence be ween he wo g oups (see Table 2 and Figu e I). In co ela ing he independen a iables and dependen a iables in bo h g oups, se e al posi i e signi ican ela ionships we e ob ained. B ie ly, o he non-QC g oup manage ial clima e was signi ican ly co ela ed wi h li e sa is ac ion, locus-o -con ol, and pu pose-in-li e. In lhe QC g oup, signi ican posi i e co ela ions we e ound be ween manage ial clima e and all i e wo ke sa is ac ion indices. These esul s a e shown in Table 3. Figu e 1 Sa is ac ion sco es o QC and non-QC membe s Finally, a mul iple s epwise eg ession analysis was pe - o med o es he ollowing basic model: ( his is lhe gene al model, no a speci ic equa ion): Sa is ac ion = QC pa ici- pa ion + Communica ions + Leade ship + Mo i a o s + Decision making + Con ol da a + QC membe ship.5 The e- sul s show lha o all wo ke sa is ac ion indices, a leas one manage ial clima e a iable accoun s o a signi ican po ion o lhe a iance, while QC pa icipa ion only ac- coun s o an addi ionally signi ican ac ion o lhe a iance in lhe case o li e sa is ac ion and sel -es eem, suppo ing he esul s o he T- es s epo ed abo e. These esul s a e summa ized in Table 4. Table4 Reg ession - o al amoun o a iance explained (R 2) Sa is ac ion a iables (N=2 I 6) P edic o s Li e Sel - Powe - Locus-o Pu pose- sa is ac ion es eem lessness con ol in-li e QC panicipa ion .02 (.16) .02 (. II) • (*) • (*) • (*) Communica ion .13 (.13) .08 (.08) • (.05) .03 (.13) .21 (.21) T us & in ol . • (.09) .06 (.05) • (.06) • (.15) • (*) Mo i a o s • (.06) • (.03) • (.03) .11 (.11) • (.10) Decision making • (.05) • (*) .07 (.07) • (.08) • (.08) Con ol da a • (*) • (*) • (*) • (•) • (*) • less han 0.01 (I%) o a iance explained. Numbe in pa en hesis indica es he o al amoun o a iance which ha a iable explains, i all o he a iables we e excluded om he ana- lysis. The numbe ou side he pa en hesis is he addi ional o unique amoun o a iance ex- plained by ha a iable, and no sha ed wilh any o he a iable. ! S.A J .Bus.Mgm .1993,24( 4) Discussion Hypo hesis 1 Wo ke sa is ac ion will be g ea e amongs QC membe s han non-QC membe s. This hypo hesis appea s o ha e been pa ially suppo ed, as illus a ed in Table 2 and Figu e 1. The QC membe s showed signi ican ly highe li e sa is- ac ion and sel -es eem han he non-QC g oup, a inding consis en wi h he idea ha exposu e lO QC ac i i ies o e ime can enhance sel - ega d due lO an imp o ed sense o compe ence. In addi ion, as shown in Table 2, he o he (non-signi ican ) mean di e ences ended in he expec ed di ec ion. QC membe s hus exp ess mo e subjec i e enjoy- men o li e in gene al, and a e mo e posi i e in hei own sel -e alua ions, han is he case o non-QC membe s. Hypo hesis 1 is hus pa ially suppo ed. Tha pa ici- pa i e p og ams such as QCs do no enhance he o he dimensions, especially measu es such as locus-o -con ol which is a co e pe sonali y cons uc , is disappoin ing, bu no ha su p ising. Acco ding o hese esul s, QCs do no impac mo e global ques ions such as making he wo ke s eel mo e in con ol o hei en i onmen o li e ci cum- s ances. In gene al he e o e, i seems ha QC membe ship is posi i ely ela ed o some, bu de ini ely no all, o he a iables used he e. Indi idual, social, and en i onmen al ac o s also play an ex emely powe ul mode a ing ole in his ela ionship. Hypo hesis 2 In bo h QC and non-QC membe s, wo ke sa is ac ion will co ela e posi i ely wi h manage ial clima e. The esul s shown in Table 3 suppo his hypo hesis, pa icula ly in he case o quali y ci cle membe s. O all manage ial clima e in- dices, communica ions eme ged as mos consis en ly posi- i ely co ela ed o wo ke sa is ac ion. The eg ession ana- lysis (Table 4) e eals ha all i e o he wo ke sa is ac ion a iables a e la gely explained by manage ial clima e a i- ables, in pa icula communica ions in he cases o li e sa is- ac ion, sel -es eem, locus-o -con ol, and pu pose-in-li e. This is unde s andable, since he pu pose o pa icipa ion is la gely o achie e pe sonal g ow h by imp o ing communi- ca ions be ween wo ke s and managemen , and by en- cou aging wo ke s o come o wa d wi h hei own iews and sugges ions. The esul s o he s epwise eg ession shows ha he e is an in e ac ion be ween clima e, QCs, and wo ke sa is ac ion. Howe e , manage ial clima e a iables accoun o a g ea e p opo ion o he a iance in wo ke sa is ac ion sco es han does pa icipa ion in a QC p og am alone. Thus Hypo heses 2 has been suppo ed. Toge he wi h he discussion on Hypo hesis 1, i seems ha he ac ual manage ial clima e in he o ganiza ion, pa i- cula ly he communica ion s yle, a he han he p esence o p og ams such as QCs, is a i al de e mining ac o in en- cou aging employee sa is ac ion, sel -es eem, and a sense o con ol and pu pose. This esul is consis en wi h he li e a u e al eady e iewed, which poin ed ou he impo - ance o eal manage ial commi men , beha iou ally and no he o icaJJy, in he success o pa icipa i e sys ems. QCs may hus be mo e a esul han a cause o he so o en i onmen whe e employee sa is ac ion and g ow h is mo e likely o occu . 139 I was noled lha on all manage ial clima e indices bolb g oups epo ed a signi ican ly mo e pa icipa i e climlle han o 12 mon hs p e iously. As discussed. his pheno- menon is mos likely due o he 'halo' e ec ., wi h a sa ong endency owa d he socially desi able esponse o in- dica ing an imp o ed clima e compa ed o he p e ious yea . Howe e , a mo e in e es ing (bu specula i e) possibili y also exis s. I p og ams such as QCs ha e any alue. i may be ha hey p o ide angible e idence o manage ial com- mi men o a mo e panicipa i e wo l en i onmen ., and hus send ipples h oughou he o ganiz.a ion, speeding up he p ocess o achie ing a mo e democ a ic manage ial clima e, and hus b inging abou he desi ed change in mo e indi i- duals han hose physically in ol ed wi h QCs. The ac ha he non-QC membe s we e all d awn om co po a e di i- sions whe e QCs we e ac ually ope a ing means ha hese esponden s had aJJ been ' ubbing shoulde s' wi h QC mem- be s o he pas se e al mon hs. I is possible ha manage- men s yle changed in hese sec ions o accommoda e he e- qui emen s o QCs o in esponse o he inc eased ma u i y o he QC membe s, and ha his changed s yle was applied equally o non-QC membe s as employees in he same sec ion. I is hus possible ha QC membe s and non-QC membe s in he same sec ion will bo h expe ience inc eased sa is ac ion. This s udy hus con inns he endency epo ed in he li e a u e owa ds mo e posi i e wo ke a i udes, pe cep ion o managemen s yle, and wo ke sa is ac ion, in he gene al a ea whe e a quali y ci cle p og am has been in ope a ion. Rega ding manage ial clima e and managemen s yle. Gel and has ound ha while ' ... he g ouping o people in o p oblem-sol ing uni s ... will esul in an inc ease in human c ea i i y ... he de elopmen al s a egy which de e mines his in- c ease, howe e , is linked o he p e ailing clima e' (1975: 111). This conclusion is echoed by Biesheu el (1984: 125): ' ... he success ul ope a ion o QCs is dependen on a uly coope a i e managemen clima e h oughou he en e p ise', and Gibson, who no es ha ' ... quali y ci cles a e people wi h poin s o iew abou becoming in ol ed in a pa icipa i e p oblem-sol ing p ocess. These iewpoin s can make o b eak he p o- cess' (I 982: 5). Ba ick & Alexande (1987) e iewed he success and ail- u e o QC p og ams in he USA, and epo ed ha ailu e was mos consis en and comple e in he mili a y, a inding consis en wi h he heme o his a icle, namely ha pa icipa i e p og ams do no lou ish in an au oc a ic en i onmen These esul s ha e impo an implica ions o he e ec i e aining o managemen in he coming yea s. D ago s a es ha pa icipa i e p og ams end lO come and go in cycles, bu ha QCs a e mo e b oad-based han any o he ea lie sys ems, hence ' ... he u u e o he ci cles mo emen will p obably depend mo e han any hing else upon manage ial a i- udes and commi men o pa icipa ion' (1985: 16). This s udy has p o ided an in e es ing con i ma ion IO wha insigh ul manage s ha e known o many yea s - ac ions speak a loude han wo ds. Wo ke s can achie e g ea e sa is ac ion in he wo kplace, and p oduc i i y can 140 be inc eased lh ough pa icipa i e wo k sys ems, bu man- agemen commi men mus be he e in he angible o m o a pa icipa i e supe iso y s yle. A g ea need exis s o make managemen compe en in implemen ing and ope a ing such a s yle, and o sell he idea ha manage s alone canno ca y he p oduc i i y bu den o o ganiza ions. In ol ing wo ke s in decision-making should no imply abdica ion by manage- men ; i is a he pa o a basic es uc u ing o he way businesses a e un. No es 1. This high esponse a e was made possible by he ine co- ope a ion o he acili a o s. 2. Locus-o -con ol is adi ionally hough o as a pe son- ali y dimension. I was included because i seemed an ap- p op ia e global measu e. 3. Fo social scien is s conce ned wi h acili a ing he ans- i ion om he apa heid sys em in Sou h A ica, pa ici- pa i e wo k p og ams o e one possible a enue whe eby a disen anchized segmen o he popula ion is a o ded an a enue o exp ession. Fu he , such in e en ions begin o accul u a e employees and employe s, accus omed o au o- c acy, o he bene i s o a mo e democ a ic wo kplace. 4. Since some subjec s we e A ikaans-speake s, he ques - ionnai e was also ansla ed in o A ikaans, and ansla ed back in o English o ensu e s anda diza ion o he i ems. S. 'QC pa icipa ion' is a dicho omous a iable indica ing membe ship in ei he g oup. 'QC membe ship' deno es which quali y ci cle he subjec s we e d awn om, in o de o es o be ween-ci cle e ec s. The o de o in o- duc ion o a iables in o he equa ion was o a ed in o de o es all possible pe mu a ions. The esul s in Table 4 p esen he da a om he bes i . Re e ences Bachman, J., Kahn, R., Da idson, R. & Johns on, L. 1967. You h in ansi ion- olWM 1. 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