Human, Linda; Ho mey , Ka l
A icle
Black manage s in a whi e wo ld: S a egy o mula ion
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Human, Linda; Ho mey , Ka l (1984) : Black manage s in a whi e wo ld: S a egy
o mula ion, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online
Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 96-104,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 15i2.1111
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217856
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Black
manage s
in
a
whi e
wo ld
:
S a egy
o mula ion
Linda
Human
and
Ka l
Ho mey
School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, P e o ia
This a icle akes a look no only a he s a egies which could
be
employed owa ds he solu ion o he p oblems aced
by
bo h he black
manage and his employing o ganiza ion, bu also a he possibili y
o
p o iding a en a i e o mula o decisions ela ing
o
he amoun o
ime. money and e o which should
be
expended
on
e o s
o
amelio a e p oblems o his kind.
I
is a gued ha a emp s
o
suc-
cess ully in oduce black manage s in o
an
e s while 'whi e' wo ld will
equi e a combined socio-economic me hod o decision-making.
In
o he
wo ds. i would appea ha . in he majo i y o o ganiza ions which a e
a emp ing o in eg a e black manage s in o hei manage ial s uc u es,
i is necessa y o de o e esou ces o he pa ial esolu ion
o
con lic
whils a he same ime no de ac ing om goal achie emen aims. I
is u he a gued ha sho - un esou ce alloca ion wi h ega d o social
e sus economic ends should
be
based
on
a compa ison o he ela i e
equilib ium o g ow h condi ions in he economic and social sys ems
wi hin he o ganiza ion.
In
he long- un, a second p inciple -which in-
ol es wo king owa ds a educ ion
o
he con lic be ween e iciency
and psychological well-being and which gene ally in ol es he adap a-
ion
o
he social sys em o he equi emen s o e iciency -has also
o be in oduced. Wi h espec o he black manage
in
a whi e wo ld, a
numbe
o
s a egies ela ing o manpowe planning. he iden i ica ion
o managemen po en ial and aining needs, he job i sel , educa ion
and aining. he o ganiza ion and he o al en i onmen a e pu o -
wa d. All o hese s a egies could assis in alle ia ing he s ains and
p essu es aced by bo h he black manage and he employing
o ganiza ion whils a he same ime leading in he di ec ion o g ea e
e iciency and possibly inc eased p o i abili y.
S.A .
J.
Bus.
Mgm .
1984,
15:
96-104
Hie die a ikel kyk nie ne na die s a egi!H! wa aangewend kan wo d
om
'n
oplossing e ind i die p obleme wa beide die swa bes uu de
en
sy diensgewende o ganisasie onde ind nie, maa ook na die
moon likheid i die e ska ing
an
'n
en a iewe o mule i beslui e
akende die hoe eelheid yd, geld
en
pogings wa aangewend behoo e
wo d
om
diesulke p obleme e e lig. Daa wo d bewee da pogings om
swa bes uu de s sukses ol aan 'n eens 'wi ' we eld oo e s el
'n
gekombinee de sosio-ekonomiese me ode
an
beslui neming benodig
sal wo d. Me ande woo de, di wil oo kom o in die mee de heid
an
o ganisasies wa poog
om
swa bes uu de s in hulle bes uu s uk u e
e
in eg ee . di nodig is
om
hulpb onne oe e
se
aan die gedeel elike
oplossing
an
kon lik maa e sel de yd nie a b euk doen
aan
doelbe-
eikingsdoelwl e nie. Daa wo d e de bewee da ko e myn hulpb on-
oekenning me be ekking o sosiaie e sus ekonomiese ui eindes op
'n
e gelyking
an
die ela iewe ekwillb ium o g oei oes ande
in
die
ekonomiese
en
sosiale sis eme binne die o ganisasie gebasee behoo
e
wees.
Op
die lange duu moa
'n
weede beginsel -wa we k
na
'n
e minde ing
an
die kon lik ussen doel e endheid
en
sieikundlge
wels and
en
wa gewooniik die aanpasslng
an
die soslale sls eem me
die e eis es
an
doel e endheld
e g
-ook inges el wo d. Be e -
ende die swa bes uu de
In
'n
wi we eld wo d
'n
aan al s a eglee
akende mannek agbeplanning, die lden i lse lng
an
bes uu spo enslaal
en
opieldlngsbehoe es, die we k sel , op oedlng
en
opleidlng, die
o ganisasie
en
die o ale omgewlng oo ges ei.
Al
hle die s a eglee kan
byd a o die e llg ing
an
s emmlnge
en
d uk wa deu beide die
swa bes uu de
en
die diensgewende o ganlsasle onde lnd wo d e -
wyl dl e sel de yd
In
die ig ing
an
g o e doel e endheld
en
moon llke e hoogde wlnsgewendheld kan lei.
S.·A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1984,
15:
96-104
Linda
Human*
and
Ka l
Ho mey
School
o
Business Leade ship, Uni e si y
o
Sou h A ica,
P
.0.
Box
392, P e o ia 0001, Republic
o
Sou h A ica
*To whom co espondence should
be
add essed
Accep ed
Feb ua y
1984
In oduc ion
Much
o
he esea ch unde aken in bo h he USA and Sou h
A ica on he p oblems aced by black manage s employed
by essen ially 'whi e' o ganiza ions has ended o a ibu e an
almos pe asi e unde pe o mance amongs black manage s
o cul u al ac o s, a lack
o
educa ional quali ica ions and
acial disc imina ion (see Ho mey , 1981a). Resea ch unde -
aken ecen ly a he School
o
Business Leade ship, Uni e -
si y
o
Sou h A ica (Ho mey ,
1982;
Human,
1982)
has sub-
s an ia ed he e idence ela ing o he ob iously disad an ag-
ed posi ion
o
he black Sou h A ican manage in e ms
o
hese h ee se s
o
ac o s whils a he same ime highligh ing
he expe iences and needs
o
he black manage wi hin he
essen ially 'whi e' o ganiza ion. Fo example,
Human's
(1982)
p o ile
o
he black manage highligh s his need o adequa e
and meaning ul ela ionships
in
he wo k si ua ion; his need
o eedback and he accessibili y
o
supe io s; his need o
espec , app ecia ion and encou agemen ; his need
o
know
whe e he s ands and his need o suppo . These needs,
i
was
disco e ed h ough u he quali a i e esea ch, a ise as much
om he ambigui ies, inconsis encies and con lic s wi h which
he black manage
is
aced as om cul u al and educa ional
disc epancies and acial disc imina ion. The black manage
is
a 'ma ginal
man'
who mus unc ion
in
a se ies
o
di e se,
con lic ing and o en ambiguous en i onmen s and whose pe -
o mance
in
he wo k si ua ion e lec s he ole con lic
and
ole ambigui y wi h which he
is
aced (Human,
1981a;
Human,
1981b; see also Jones,
1973
on he USA). Thus, apa om
solu ions
o
p oblems associa ed wi h bla an cul u al di -
e ences, apa om hose o p oblems associa ed wi h
disc imina ion and apa om hose o p oblems associa ed
wi h an educa ional sys em g ossly in e io o ha
o
Whi es,
solu ions
also
ha e o
be
ound o he p oblems
o
ma ginali y
expe ienced by he black manage . Ha ing ob ained consen-
sus on his poin , decisions hen ha e o be made wi h espec
o:
(a)
how
he p oblems aced
by
he black manage and
how
he p oblems expe ienced by he employing o ganiza ion
a e o
be
ackled; and
(b)
how
much
ime,
money
and
e o a e going o
be
in es ed
in
e o s o amelio a e he p oblems wi h which bo h he
black manage and he employing o ganiza ion a e aced.
This pape akes a b ie look a bo h
o
hese ques ions.
The
decision-making
p ocess
Wi hin many o ganiza ions, economic a ionali y has o en
cons i u ed he sole co e
o
he decision-making p ocess. These
S.
A .
.I.
Bus. Mgm . 1984,
1S(2)
o ganiza ions ha e el
ha
he only way
o
make
decisions
is
o
e alua e ends in e ms
o
al e na i e cos s
and
o alloca e
means in e ms
o
ma ginal
(o
compa a i e) u ili y.
The
assump ion
is
made
ha
he
ul ima e objec i e
o
all decisions
and
ac ions mus be he maximiza ion
o
some measu able en-
i y.
The
p inciples
and
ules
o
his iewpoin ha e, o e
he
yea s,
no
only been de eloped by a ious economis s
and
jus i ied
by
ce ain u ili a ian philosophe s bu also cons i u ed
he
ounda ions
o
innume able policy p oposals
and
business
s a egies (Diesing, 1955:
18).
In ecen yea s,
he
limi a ions
o
economic a ionali y ha e
become inc easingly mo e appa en
and
a wide pe spec i e
on
he gene al
na u e
o
decision-making has been p o e ed
(see, o example, Diesing, 1955; 1958; 1962). Indeed,
many
o ganiza ions ha e, p obably,
on
many
occasions, in eg a ed
economic
and
social decision-making p ocesses
bu
on
an
un-
conscious
o
ad
hoc basis.
I
is
submi ed, howe e , ha , in
o de
o
begin
o
sol e
he
p oblems aced by he black
manage
in a whi e wo ld:
(i)
a blend
o
bo h
economic
and
social a ionali y has o be
employed,
he
blend a ying acco ding
o
he cu en p o-
i abili y
and
ma ke posi ion
o
he o ganiza ion; and
(ii)
he
p ocess
o
decision-making
and
he
subsequen im-
plemen a ion
o
s a egy ha e always
o
be bo h conscious
and
' a ional'
(in he b oades sense
o
he e m).
Le us b ie ly ollow his a gumen h ough:
'Economic
decisions
a emp
o
maximize he achie e-
men
o
gi en
ends
(goals, desi es, in e es s, needs)
h ough
he
ca e ul use
o
a ailable means, in a si ua-
ion whe e no all ends can be ully achie ed. The means
can
be
used in a
numbe
o
al e na i e ways,
and
deci-
sion consis s
o
a selec ion
o
one
o
hese al e -
na i es'(Diesing, 1958: I).
Acco ding
o
Diesing ( 1958: 1), a decision is eached by:
(a) E alua ion
o
wha he p obable e ec s
o
each al e na i e
on
he
ends
a e going
o
be.
(b) Es ima ion
o
he deg ee
o
p obabili y
o
each e ec .
(c) Es ima ion
and
compa ison
o
he
alue
o
each e ec
on
a single scale (such as dolla s).
(d) Choice
o
he
al e na i e which
has
he
g ea es p obabili-
y
o
p oducing
he
g ea es alue.
This ype
o
decision
is
a 'maximizing' decision in he sense
ha
i consis s
o
inding
he
al e na i e which will p o e i sel
as possessing
he
maximum
alue
(o
minimum loss) acco -
ding
o
a chosen scale.
Al hough
many
complex a ia ions in economic decision-
making exis , all
o
hese a ia ions in ol e a emp s
o
max-
imize
he achie emen
o
p ede e mined
goals.
Social
decisions,
on
he o he
hand,
a emp
o
adap pe sonali ies
and/o
social
ela ions in
he
di ec ion
o
g ea e essen ial
ha mony
and
s abili y (Diesing, 1958: 2). Acco ding
o
Diesing (1958: 2), his
ype
o
decision
is
eached by:
(a) De ini ion
o
a easonably independen p oblem
a ea
and
disco e y
o
he
con lic s
ha
exis in i as well as he ac-
o s esponsible
o
hei main enance.
(b) Es ima ion
o
he
changes
ha
a e possible in each p o-
blema ic ac o , oge he wi h
he
deg ee
o
s ain such
changes
would
b ing.
(c) Disco e y
o
s ain- educing suppo s o each change.
(cl)
P edic ion
o
u u e
con lic s, s ains
and
s esses which
a e ei he likely
o
accompany
each di ec ion
o
change
o
which will
occu
i espec i e
o
he change.
97
(
e)
The
sea ch o a change
a
a manageable le el
o
s ain
which will educe con lic , inc ease lexibili y
o
p epa e
o
u u e s esses (Diesing, 1955; Diesing, 1958).
This ype
o
decision
is
essen ially
'in eg a i e'
inasmuch as
i
equen ly leads
o
some so
o
in eg a ion. As in
he
case
o
maximizing decisions,
many
complex a ia ions exis .
F om
his ex emely b ie
bu
hope ully no
oo
simplis ic
summa y, i can
be
seen
ha
in eg a i e
and
maximizing deci-
sions a e opposi es in se e al
wa~---
(a) A maximizing decision-p ocess begins wi h gi en ends
which a e ne e ques ioned
and
which
an
a emp
is
made
o achie e;
an
in eg a i e p ocess ega ds gi en ends as
poin e s
o
hidden belie s, ea s, s ains, alues
and
he
like. Such ends may
no
necessa ily be sa is ied in he
cou se
o
being changed.
(b) In a maximizing decision, ends
a e
ea ed as quan i iable
(measu able), compa able en i ies; in
an
in eg a i e deci-
sion, ac o s a e aken in con ex s
ha
make
each ac o
a unique se
o
ela ions, no eadily subjec
o
measu e-
men
o
compa ison. In
an
in eg a i e decision, in
o he
wo ds, ends
a e
no
'measu able' in e ms
o
some
basic
uni
o
measu emen
bu
a e, a he , si ua ional; o ex-
ample, a speci ic educ ion in a ce ain ype
o
ension in
a speci ic con ex
a
a gi en ime.
Al hough maximizing
and
in eg a i e me hods a e, in
many
ways, opposi es,
and
al hough
some
si ua ions
may
demand
one so
o
me hod as opposed
o
he o he , o complex p ac-
ical si ua ions a combined
me hod
is
o en
equi ed. Indeed,
acco ding
o
Diesing (1958: 6):
'A
basically in eg a i e me hod
is
called o
i
a p o-
blem
is
basically
one
o
diso ganiza ion
and
con lic ,
while supplemen a y maximizing conside a ions a e
necessa y
i
he
solu ion
o
a diso ganiza ion p oblem
equi es
he
use
o
sca ce esou ces. A basically max-
imizing
me hod
is
called o
i
a p oblem
is
basically
goal-o ien ed, while supplemen a y in eg a i e con-
side a ions a e necessa y i inciden al elemen s
o
diso ganiza ion
o
po en ial diso ganiza ion a e also in-
ol ed. A blend
o
bo h
me hods is called
o
i
a p o-
blem includes bo h impo an goals
and
impo an
elemen s
o
in e nal con lic .'
Fo
Diesing ( 1958), ques ions
o
indi idual
and
g oup
con-
lic a e di icul
o
deal wi h by a maximizing
me hod
in iew
o
he
ac ha ension- educ ion
and
he
like a e
no
de ini e,
homogeneous en i ies
and
canno be a ionally compa ed wi h
'economic' goals. When such ques ions occu in
an
o he wise
economic p oblem, a combined socio-economic
me hod
o
making decisions
is
equi ed.
Thus, ollowing Diesing (1955; 1958; 1962), i would
ap-
pea ha , in o de
o
con on he p oblems aced by he black
manage in a whi e wo ld, a
conscious,
combined socio-
economic
me hod
o
making decisions
is
a p e equisi e.
Bu
wha does his me hod en ail?
And
why
no
employ a basical-
ly maximizing
me hod
wi h supplemen a y in eg a i e con-
side a ions? A e all, he p ima y goal
o
business o ganiza-
ions in capi alis socie y
is
p o i ;
so
why place such
an
em-
phasis
on
ha mony
and
s abili y?
To
answe he las ques ion i s , a basically maximizing
me hod
wi h supplemen a y in eg a i e conside a ions is ele-
an only
o
si ua ions in which a p oblem
is
basically goal-~
o ien ed
and
any (po en ial) diso ganiza ion
is
me ely inciden-
al.
In eg a i e aspec s
a e
o
mino impo ance
and
pose
no
eal h ea
o
he e ec i eness
o
ei he he o ganiza ion
o
98
o
he indi idual. Howe e , when a p oblem con ains bo h
impo an alid goals and impo an elemen s
o
(po en ial)
diso ganiza ion, a mo e complex me hod
is
necessa y. In a
coun y such as Sou h A ica,
which
aces
no only acu e sho -
ages
o
skilled manpowe bu also a poli ical and economic
need o acial in eg a ion and o ganiza ional s abili y,
diso ganiza ion and ins abili y
in
human ela ions wi hin
o ganiza ions would appea o cons i u e a he mo e han p o-
blems
o
an inciden al na u e. Mo eo e , he esea ch
o
bo h
Ho mey
(1982)
and Human
(1981a;
1981b;
1982)
indica es he
ex en o which he in oduc ion
o
black manage s in o essen-
ially whi e o ganiza ions c ea es p oblems
o
bo h an
in-
di idual and
collec i e
na u e; he p oblems con on ed by bo h
he black manage and
his
employing o ganiza ion a e ex eme-
ly
eal and po en ially dis up i e. Thus,
i
would appea ha ,
in he majo i y
o
o ganiza ions which a e a emp ing o
in-
eg a e black manage s in o hei manage ial s uc u es,
i
is
necessa y o de o e esou ces o he pa ial esolu ion
o
con-
lic whils a he same ime no de ac ing om goal-
achie emen aims. When he e ec i eness
o
he indi idual,
he o ganiza ion (and possibly also he coun y) a e a s ake,
hen a combined socio-economic me hod
o
making decisions
would appea o be a necessi y.
Bu wha does his me hod en ail?
In
one onn o ano he , he con lic be ween in eg a ion and
e iciency occu s
in
all
o ganiza ions, hus making a com-
pa ison be ween he wo, in enns
o
impo ance, necessa y.
Thus, he i s s ep
is
o ind a common elemen ha
will
se e
as a uni
o
compa ison
o
measu emen . Tha elemen can-
no be u ili y, o money, o p e e ence, as in economic a-
ionali y, because none
o
hese economic s anda ds can be
applied o in eg a i e p oblems. Ins ead, a common elemen
has o
be
ound a a a he mo e abs ac
le el
-namely, in
he ac ha bo h social and economic sys ems cons i u e
'sys ems
o
equilib ium' (Diesing,
1958:
15).
'Tha
is,
bo h ypes
o
sys em
will,
in a o able ci -
cums ances, main ain a s eady s a e by coun e ac ing
andom o ces
o
change, ei he h ough expulsion,
o
by neu aliza ion wi h opposing o ces,
o
by assimila-
ion, o
by
a walling-o p ocess. Fu he , i ci cums an-
ces make p ese a ion
o
equilib ium impossible, bo h
ypes
o
sys em
will
change in a cyclical
o
spi al
ashion. In un a o able ci cums ances, his
will
be a
icious ci cle mo ing owa d degene a ion, sh inking,
simpli ica ion, and ul ima ely o des uc ion; in
a o able ci cums ances, i
will
be a " i uous" o
"bene olen " ci cle
o
g ow h, expansion, inc eased
powe and complexi y. All hese e ms can be applied
in analogous ashion o bo h economic and social
sys ems', (Diesing,
1958,
15).
In sys ems
o
social ela ions, g ow h consis s
o
inc eased
unde s anding, inc eased communica ion, inc eased us ,
secu i y, ole a ion and he like. Since each
o
hese ac o s
leads o he o he s, a sel -sus aining posi i e g ow h spi al
is
p oduced. Equilib ium occu s when he o ces
o
con lic and
hos ili y a e balanced by he posi i e o ces
o
unde s anding
and accep ance whils a icious spi al downwa ds consis s
o
inc eased and inc easing misunde s anding, ea and in-
ole ance wi hin social sys ems and inc eased neu osis
o
psychosis amongs indi iduals.
An
equilib ium
is,
mo eo e ,
ne e s a ic al hough he deg ee
o
s abili y o ension wi hin
i may a y g ea ly om si ua ion o si ua ion.
An
economic sys em can be said o be in equilib ium when
i s p oduc
is
jus su icien o main ain and eplace ac o s
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984,
15(2)
o
p oduc ion. Economic g ow h, on he o he hand, in ol es
capi al onna ion which
is
employed o inance echnical
im-
p o emen s, leading o g ea e e iciency and hence o g ea e
p o i and capi al o ma ion and so on. Economic decline
is
cha ac e ized by a spi al in he opposi e di ec ion; capi al
loss
leads o echnological s agna ion and o he g adual disap-
pea ance
o
p oduc i e ac o s (Diesing,
1958:
15-16).
Thus, bo h economic and social sys ems display equilib ium
cha ac e is ics which in u n implies ha esou ces di e im-
mense(
in
impo ance in di e en s a es
o
he sy em. Fo
example, a sys em in equilib ium has he capaci y o lose o
abso b conside able esou ces wi hou any no iceable change;
o a sys em which
is
close o he c i ical bounda ies
o
equilib ium,
on
he o he hand, a compa a i ely small addi-
ional loss
will
cause a icious spi al downwa ds whils a
ela i ely small gain
will
ini ia e a posi i e g ow h spi al. A
sys em in decline
will
equi e immense esou ces o e a long
pe iod
o
ime
i
equilib ium
is
o be e-es ablished whe eas
a sys em in a g ow h spi al can, up
o
a c i ical poin ,
gi e
esou ces away. Such esou ces gene ally cons i u e econo-
mic esou ces in he case
o
economic sys ems and socio-
psychological esou ces in he case
o
social sys ems (Diesing,
1958:
16).
Resou ce alloca ion should be based on a compa ison o
he ela i e equilib ium
o
g ow h condi ions in economic and
social sys ems. As Diesing (1958:
16)
s a es:
'The
a ia ion in impo ance
o
esou ces in di e en
s a es
o
a sys em p o ides he key
o
p oblems
o
e-
sou ce allo men .
I
ei he sys em
is
nea one
o
he wo
c i ical poin s, i should be allo ed su icien esou ces,
bo h economic and noneconomic, o mo e i ou
o
dange
o
o p oduce a shi o he nex highe s a e
o
he sys em. Bu i a sys em
is
in equilib ium
o
in
decline, i should ei he be allo ed massi e esou ces
o e a long pe iod
o
ime, so ha a shi o he nex
highe s a e can be s abilized,
o
i should ecei e no
ou side esou ces a all. A small sho - un alloca ion
would simply be was ed. Con e sely, a sys em ha
is
g owing can spa e conside able esou ces o
an
in-
de ini e pe iod
o
ime, and a sys em in equilib ium can
yield esou ces o a sho e ime; bu a sys em ha
is
nea a c i ical poin canno spa e any esou ces a all'.
Thus, an o ganiza ion ha
is
making a easonable
p o i1
and
is
no aced wi h o eseeable economic di icul ies can
spa e
esou ces,
o
pos pone inc eases in e iciency, o a easonable
ime.
I
hese spa e esou ces a e su icien o es ablish a
equilib ium in a p oblema ic social sys em, hey should
be
alloca ed;
i
no , some o he solu ion has
o
be sough . Dies
ing (1958) goes so a as o say ha
an
o ganiza ion ha
i:
jus main aining a su icien ope a ing ma gin should
no
sac i ice e iciency o social ela ions aspec s a all.
Fo Diesing (1958), his me hod
o
esou ce alloca ion
ap
plies no only o he b oad, undamen al decisions
o
h4
s a egy o mula ion p ocess bu also o mo e speci ic de ails
A e a decision conce ning he gene al di ec ion
o
esou a
alloca ion has been aken, pa icula poin s
o
s ain -
bod
economic and social -ha e o be e adica ed and elie ed
Howe e , he p inciple
o
basing esou ce alloca ion deci
sions on compa a i e equilib ium condi ions can only
se l1
sho - un alloca ion ques ions.
Fo
long- un de elopmen , :
second p inciple has o be in oduced. This p inciple in ol e
wo king
owa ds a educ ion
o
he con lic be ween e icien
cy and men al heal h equi emen s and gene ally in ol es
h1
S. A .
i.
Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2)
adap a ion
o
he social sys em
o
he equi emen s
o
e i-
ciency (Diesing, 1958: 17). Wi h espec
o
he black manage
in
a whi e wo ld, his may in ol e s a egies
o
educe
ma ginali y, b idging aining and language ui ion -
o
name
bu some
o
he sugges ions men ioned
in
g ea e de ail below.
S a egy
onnula ion
Now, wha
abou
he o ganiza ion which
is
making a p o i
bu
is
expe iencing no only acu e sho ages
o
skilled man-
powe bu also p oblems -bo h indi idual and collec i e -
wi h hose black manage s i has appoin ed? This o ganiza-
ion can spa e esou ces
o
es ablish equilib ium in i s social
sys em
and
has isola ed he main con lic s which exis wi hin
he o ganiza ion as well as he ac o s esponsible o he
main enance
o
such ac o s.
Fo
example, he o ganiza ion
may eel
ha
i s
majo
p oblem wi h ega d
o
a de e io a ing
social sys em conce ns no only he p oblems indi idual black
manage s a e acing (because
o
a ela i e lack
o
con idence
wi hin he business wo ld)
bu
also p oblems wi h some whi e
manage s who eel ha hei jobs a e h ea ened. This
o ganiza ion
is
looking o changes in each p oblema ic ac-
o
oge he wi h s ain- educing suppo s o each change;
i
is, mo eo e , looking o manageable changes
in
he o m
o
de elopmen s a egies which will educe con lic , inc ease
lex-
ibili y
and
p epa e o u u e s ess.
Wha
op ions a e open
o
i
and
wha kind
o
success can
i
expec ?
Al hough needs will a y om o ganiza ion
o
o ganiza-
ion and al hough
no
single p og amme o in eg a i e decision-
making wi h ega d
o
black manage s can be nea ly de ined,
a ious s a egies a e a ailable
and
can be employed as and
whe e app op ia e. Some
o
hese s a egies a e discussed
below:
Manpowe planning
Despi e manpowe
and
economic indica o s which epea edly
s ess
he
c i ical sho age
o
skilled
and
managemen pe son-
nel, e y ew black employees a e mo ing in o senio posi-
ions
in
companies and e y
ew
will be p omo ed
in
he u u e,
unless companies delibe a ely es ablish a ge s and plans o
black ad ancemen . Ho mey (1982) sugges s ha an app o-
p ia e basis o de e mining hese a ge s
and
plans
is
he man-
powe planning amewo k: he company's s a egic plans a e
ansla ed in o a o ecas
o
he employees needed in each
job
ca ego y in
he
u u e; his demand o ecas
is
compa ed wi h
he likely supply
o
manpowe , aking in o accoun likely
ans e s, p omo ions,
and
was age; managemen
is
hen
in
a posi ion
o
decide how
many
o
he acancies e ealed by
he gap be ween u u e demand and supply should be illed
wi h black pe sonnel. Ho mey (1982) a gues ha wi hou a
o mal plan o he appoin men
o
black employees
o
senio
pos s, ad ancemen
o
black manage s would no ake place
o
any signi ican
ex e11 .
Iden i ica ion o managemen po en ial
Once i has been es ablished how many managemen posi ions
should be occupied by black employees
in
he u u e, can-
dida es should
be
iden i ied by means
o
assessmen cen es,
in e iews
and
he like so
ha
ca ee
and
de elopmen p o-
g ammes can
be
o mula ed. Candida es can ei he
be
selec ed
om wi hin he
company
o
be
ec ui ed.
Iden i ica ion o aining needs
One
o
he
majo
asks
Ho mey
(1982)
se
himsel in his
esea ch conce ned he iden i ica ion
o
aining needs. A sam-
99
pie
o
manage s
and
po en ial black manage s e alua ed he
ela i e impo ance
o
a lis
o
manage ial dimensions; hey
also a ed he cu en pe o mance
o
he po en ial manage s
-and hese wo se s
o
a ings, impo ance and pe o mance,
we e combined
o
es ablish he mos impo an aining needs.
The e ec s on he a ings
o
manage and subo dina e a iables
such as age, unc ion,
and
educa ional le el we e measu ed
o
explain and e ine he indings.
The
mos impo an gene al
aining needs we e clea ly es ablished
o
be he 'managemen
unc ions'
o
decision-making, planning, o ganizing, p oblem-
sol ing, and con ol. The indings esul ing om a quan i a i e
s udy we e employed by Ho mey (
1982)
as a basis o discus-
sions wi h a sample
o
black manage s who p o ided some
easons o he indings and made ecommenda ions o
de eloping po en ial black manage s
in
hese a eas.
Ho mey (1982) sugges s ha while his indings p o ide
use ul in o ma ion
in
hemsel es and could o m he basis o
managemen aining p og ammes o po en ial black mana-
ge s, indi idual de elopmen and ad ancemen p og ammes
should be based on he iden i ica ion
o
indi idual aining
needs.
Fo
example, manage s
and
hei subo dina es could
assess he cu en pe o mance
o
he subo dina e agains a
lis
o
job
dimensions which a e necessa y o e ec i e pe -
o mance. This app oach was e alua ed by Ho mey (1982)
who claims ha
i
a manage
and
his subo dina e ollow he
same p ocess, hen meaning ul aining needs should be iden-
i ied. The need o join consul a ion
and
a commi men
o
de elopmen plans was also s essed.
The
job
The esea ch
o
Ho mey
(1982)
highligh s he ac ha
i
black
employees a e o be de eloped and p omo ed in o managemen
posi ions,
i
is
essen ial ha , i s ly, hei jobs be clea ly de ined
and, secondly, hey be gi en jobs and assignmen s which allow
hem o de elop he manage ial compe encies.
F om
~he
'ma ginal' posi ion
o
he black employee
in
he business
wdd
(Human, 1981a; 1981b)
o
he o e whelming consensus
amongs he black manage s ha po en ial black manage s a e
no gi en he oppo uni y o de elop managemen skills
(Ho mey , 1982), he poin has been made epea edly
ha
managemen de elopmen o senio black employees should
s a wi h he wo k i sel . As pa
o
his s a egy, Ho mey
(1982) ecommends ha he black manage ial ad ancemen
be made pa
o
he o ganiza ional manpowe plan. Such a
plan would gi e ocus
o
he company's ad ancemen plans
and would enable ca ee pa hs and p og ess a ge s
o
be
d awn
up.
Nume ous w i e s, o example Humble (1968), D ucke
(1974) and Schu e (1981), ha e emphasized he need o
job
desc ip ions,
job
objec i es, and s anda ds
o
pe o mance.
These cla i y o he indi idual: wha
is
expec ed om him;
he limi s
o
his au ho i y and esponsibili y;
and
how his pe -
o mance
will
be
measu ed. Humble (1968) sugges s a p o-
cess
o
es ablishing he objec i es o a
job
by:
(a) de e mining wha he pu pose
o
he
job
is;
(b) iden i ying he unc ions
o
he job;
(c)
deciding wha he main unc ions
o
he
job
a e;
(d) compa ing he p esen si ua ion wi h he desi ed si ua ion
in
each
o
he main unc ions
o
de e mine in which a eas
speci ic objec i es o imp o emen should
be
se ;
(e) se ing s anda ds
o
pe o mance
o
ensu e ha pe o -
mance
in
he o he unc ions
is
main ained;
( ) ensu ing ha a p ocess
o
p og ess
e iew
and pe o mance
app aisal akes place
o
moni o p og ess
and
assess he

100
employee's s eng hs and
weaknesses
on a egula
basis.
Wha e e
p ~
is
p e e ed,
i
would
appea ha
manage-
men
de elopmen
has o s a
wi h
he de ini ion
o
he
employee's
job. I he po en ial
manage
is
o plan,
m~e
d~-
sions, o
sol e
p oblems, hen
he
mus
know
wha
h1~
~bJec-
i es
a e,
wha
his
esponsibili ies a e and
wha
he
hm1 s
o
his
au ho i y a e.
These
issues
a e pa icula ly impo an
in
he
case
o
he
black
employee
because,
i s ly,
he
is
likely
o
be
somewha
less
su e
o himsel han
his
whi e
coun e pa
and,
secondly,
in o mal communica ion on pe o mance and
job equi emen s
is
less
likely
o ake
place
be ween
a whi e
manage and a
black
subo dina e han
would
be
he
case
i
bo h pa ies
we e
whi e.
I
goes
wi hou
saying
ha
as
a
as
possible
he job
which
is
being
de ined o he po en ial
black
manage should
be
as
meaning ul
as
possible.
Fe nandez
(1975),
o
example,
desc ibes
job en ichmen
as
one
o
he
key
elemen s
in
an
e ec i e
ad ancemen p og amme.
AU
o
he
black
manage s
in e iewed
by
Ho
mey
(1982)
emphasized
he
ac
ha
Blacks,
gene ally,
a e no
exposed
o si ua ions
in
which
hey
a e equi ed o ca y ou he
managemen unc ions. One
black
manage said
simply
ha
'wha
is
lacking
is
he
exposu e ha ansla es i sel in o
managemen
skills;
planning, o ganizing, and con olling
can
only
be
lea ned
on
he job'.
Simila ly,
ano he manage
ex-
p essed
he
iew
ha
'i
you
don'
know
wha
you
a e
sup-
posed
o
do,
i
you
esponsibili ies
a e
no
dea ,
i
is
impossible
o make
decisions
o
de elop
he o he managemen skills'.
A
pessimis ic
iew
was
ha 'mos
Blacks
don' ha e " eal
jobs"
because
unc ions
like
planning
and
decision-making
a e
ypically
ese ed
o
whi es.
Blacks
a e
usually
gi en
a po -
ion
o
an assignmen , no a comple e job;
bosses
end o
delega e
"li le" jobs'.
In
conjunc ion
wi h
he cla i ica ion
o
he job and
i s
e-
qui emen s
and app op ia e aining, manage s
who
a e
com-
mi ed
o
de eloping
hei subo dina es should ensu e ha he
job
allows
he
employee
o
gain
he
p ac ice and
expe ience
which
is
necessa y
o
de elop
hose
skills
which
ha e
been
iden-
i ied
as
aining
needs.
I
is
wo h no ing ha he 'manage-
men
unc ions'
which
we e
iden i ied
by
Ho mey
(1982)
as
he
mos
impo an aining
needs
comp ise cogni i e
skills
which
a e
somewha
easie
o lea n and de elop han, say,
quali ies
such
as
independence,
lexibili y,
o isk- aking p o-
pensi y.
Fu he mo e,
he
de elopmen
s a egy
being
ecom-
mended
he e,
namely
job cla i ica ion and exposu e o mean-
ing ul
wo k,
seems
o
be
pa icula ly ele an o he de elop-
men
o
hese
'p ac ical'
skills.
A
logical
ou come
o
he
p ocess
which
has
been
ecom-
mended
abo e
is
an e alua ion
o
p og ess and pe o mance.
Wi hou his,
i
is
unlikely
ha signi ican imp o emen s
will
be
made.
Me ely
p ac ising
a
new
skill
does
no gua an ee ha
lea ning
will ake
place.
Byham
(1977:
3)
commen s ha ,
'Wi hou
eedback
ela i e
o he
success
o quali y
o
pe o mance, a
pe son
canno imp o e
...
The supe -
iso
s a s ou doing a poo job and
keeps
on epea ing
he mis akes,
because
no-one
ells
him o he any hing
di e en ly.'
Educa ion and aining
Rele an
expe ience
has
o
be
supplemen ed
wi h
app op ia e
educa ion and aining. Whe eas educa ion
in
he con ex
o
managemen de elopmen e e s o he a emp s o b oaden
an indi idual in ellec ually
wi h
li le a en ion o immedia e
job applica ion
o
he p og amme con en , aining
in ol es
he
sys ema ic
imp o emen
o
he
speci ic
skills,
knowledge,
s
..
A .
Tydsk .
Bed y sl. 1984.
15(2)
o a i udes needed
by
an indi idual o do
his
cu en
job.
The disad an ages expe ienced
by
mos Blacks
in
e ms o
hei educa ion a e many. A black manage who
was
in e -
iewed
commen ed ha ,
in
his
opinion, he damage done
by
he
black
educa ion
sys em
could
ne e
be
ecouped.
Nume ous
Sou h A ican companies ha e a emp ed o deal di ec ly
wi h
he p oblems ela ing om he inadequa e o insu icien
educa ion
ecei ed
by
hei black employees. One app oach
has
been
o employ compe en eache s o o ganize and o
e
educa ion o employees a e hou s, hus a o ding hem a
'se-
cond chance' o ob ain a S anda d 8
o
ma icula ion
ce -
i ica e.
In
iew
o
he emphasis placed on educa ion
by
black
people, and he in luence
which
his educa ion can ha e on
an employee's oppo uni ies, quali y
o
li e, and job
com-
pe ence, hese e o s should
be
encou aged. Howe e ,
while
such
an
app oach may suppo he gene al de elopmen o
employees,
i
canno
be
desc ibed as a speci ic, managemen
de elopmen s a egy.
Ano he app oach
which
has been adop ed
by
some Sou h
A ican companies has been o design so-called 'b idging
cou ses' o
close
he gap be ween he educa ion
ecei ed
and
some
o
he
basic
demands
o
he employee's job.
While
un-
doub edly he e may
be
some me i
in
hese p og ammes, o
aspec s
o
hem,
i
should be no ed ha some
o
he
black
manage s
who
we e
in e iewed
by
Ho mey
(1982)
exp essed
doub s abou hei ole
in
black ad ancemen . The
iew
o
one manage
was
ha he b idging cou ses and o he 'Blacks
only' p og ammes encou age wha
he
e e ed o
as
a 'nega i e
sel - ul illing p ophecy'; i po en ial black manage s
we e
con-
sis en ly
old ha hey
we e
'disad an aged' and
needed
'special
aining',
hey
would
begin o accep his and pe o m
less
well
han
hey
migh . Ano he manage exp essed he opinion ha
b idging
cou ses
can
become
an
end
in
hemsel es
i
companies
concen a e on he cou ses and no on de eloping
black
employees
h ough meaning ul esponsibili y and job
ex-
pe ience.
This
was
pa icula ly he
case
i he b idging p o-
g amme ook place o e , say, a
ew
mon hs p io o he
employee aking up
his
job, and was no in eg a ed in o he
pe o mance
o
his
job.
Ye
ano he manage wa ned
o
he
us a ion
which
may esul om such a p og amme
which
was
likely
o be 'all heo y and no p ac ice'.
In
addi ion o he expe ience and on- he-job oppo uni ies
which
should
be
p o ided o po en ial manage s, aining
which
supplemen s wha
is
being lea ned on he job should
also be p o ided. In he i s place, any job knowledge
which
is
needed
o he employee o ca y ou he echnical aspec s
o
his
wo k mus
be
p o ided. (Al hough
job
knowledge
was
iden i ied
as
he mos impo an manage ial dimension, mos
po en ial
black
manage s
in
Ho mey 's,
1982,
s udy a ed
well
on his a ibu e and
i
was
he e o e no iden i ied
as
an
im-
po an aining need.) Indeed, he 'managemen unc ions'
we e
highligh ed
as
he mos impo an aining
needs.
Wi h
ega d o hese, Ho mey
(1982)
makes he ollowing
ecom-
menda ions:
(a) aining in he managemen unc ions should be designed
o suppo he employee's on- he-job expe ience
in
hese
unc ions;
(b)
o acili a e a ans e
o
lea ning om he aining en-
i onmen o he wo k si ua ion, aining should
be
in-
eg a ed
wi h
on- he-job applica ion;
(c)
as
a
as
possible,
aining should
be
expe ien ial
in
na u e;
(d) an
eclec ic
app oach o he
use
o
di e en aining ap-
p oaches should
be
encou aged: Ho mey
(1982)
e e s o
he
use
o
case
s udies, c i e ion- e e enced ins uc ion and
S.
A .
J.
Bus.
Mgm .
1984, 15(2)
ole-plays as
well
as o o he adi ional me hods
o
aining.
In addi ion o aining
in
he managemen skills, a en ion
also needs o be paid o he adjus men
o
he black employee
o he wo ld
o
wo k, his a i ude owa ds business and suc-
cess
in
ha en i onmen , and he a i udes
o
his
whi e col-
leagues
and
supe io s owa ds him. The mo emen
o
black
people om u al o u ban a eas and he di icul ies expe ienc-
ed
in
adap ing o,
and
eeling com o able in, he business
wo ld ha e been discussed elsewhe e
(see
o example, Human,
1981a). Nume ous o he w i e s ha e deal wi h he p oblems
o
accul u a ion: Bu ack, S aszak, and Pa i (1972:269), o
ex-
ample, desc ibe he p ocess as
'a
majo challenge which
is
no
eadily accomplished . . . '.
Clea ly, bo h skills
and
a i udes need o be add essed.
Whe e aining can be used o assis
in
he adjus men
o
employees o hei wo k
and
he no ms which domina e
business,
i
should be encou aged. A he same ime,
i
should
complemen he o he ac i i ies sugges ed he e o he de elop-
men
o
po en ial black manage s: ac i i ies which ange om
manpowe planning, o managemen aining, o suppo
which
has o be gi en by he o ganiza ion. These ac i i ies a e pa ly
aimed a upg ading compe ence, bu
in
hemsel es also aim
o b ing abou changes
in
he a i udes
o
employees and
employe s owa ds black ad ancemen .
The o ganiza ion
The all-impo an ela ionship be ween he po en ial manage
and his supe io has been e e ed o b ie ly abo e. The black
manage s who we e in e iewed by Ho mey (1982) and
Human (1981b;
1982)
s essed ha po en ial manage s need en-
cou agemen
and
suppo i hey a e o de elop. A numbe
o
hese manage s no ed ha he adi ional ela ionship
be-
ween whi e manage
and
black subo dina e was one
o
pa e -
nalism.
One
manage commen ed ha :
'The e
is
a lo
o
pa e nalism . . . you can
eel
i . You
ge he imp ession ha you manage
is
no alking
openly o you
and
ha he
is
saying o himsel ,
"I
mus
no hu his
pe son".'
Wi h he emphasis which has been placed on oppo uni ies
and expe ience as he majo de elopmen al p ocesses,
i
is
clea
ha , o he ex en ha hese elemen s do no exis , po en ial
black manage de elopmen and ad ancemen a e no likely
o ake place. So how can his p oblem be handled?
A black aining manage , who was in e iewed by Ho mey
(1982), commen ed ha he always insis s ha black and whi e
employees a e ained oge he because his allows hem o mix
wi h, and lea n abou , each o he
in
addi ion o wha
is
lea ned
in
he aining i sel . Fu he mo e, he had a anged ' aining'
sessions o delibe a ely add ess he issues which we e causing
ba ie s
and
p oblems be ween whi e and black employees so
ha hese could be esol ed.
As
he aining manage , he had
o ensu e a clima e
and
s uc u e du ing hese sessions which
would encou age candou and objec i i y. His expe ience had
been
ha in eg a ed aining
and
sessions designed o deal wi h
black/whi e ba ie s had led o g ea e unde s anding
o
he
s eng hs
and
weaknesses
o
each o he
and
a disco e y on
he pa
o
black pa icipan s ha hey we e 'jus as good as
anyone else'.
Clawson (1980),
in
his a emp o iden i y he cha ac e is ics
o
an e ec i e coach, d aws a en ion o he ac ha he ela-
ionship be ween many whi e manage s and hei black subo -
dina es
is
unlikely
o
con ain a 'coaching' componen .
He
has
sugges ed aining p og ammes designed o ' each' manage s
JOI
how o be good coaches. In addi ion o he
skills
aining which
Clawson includes
in
his aining, he issue
o
black-whi e a -
i udes and unde s anding
o
each o he would also ha e o
be
add essed
in
a Sou h A ican p og amme. Clawson's (1982)
aining co e s he ollowing opics:
(a) on- he-job aining
in
co po a e li e oday;
(b) coaching: a 'mac o- iew'
o
on- he-job aining
(i)
coaching de ined,
(ii) lea ning implica ions
in
coaching;
(c)
unde s anding he adul lea ning p ocess: he c i ical ac-
o o any manage who in ends o coach his people;
(d) de elopmen
o
he coaching model
(i)
assessing,
(ii)
planning,
(iii)
in e iewing;
(e)
p oblem-cen ed cases
in
coaching.
Some companies ha e adop ed a 'men o sys em' whe eby
selec ed black employees ha e been assigned o a 'men o '
whose ole
i
is
o assis
in
he de elopmen
o
he employee
and,
in
pa icula ,
his
in eg a ion in o he non- o mal sys ems
and s uc u e
in
he company. Speci ic unc ions ou lined o
men o s
in
one company
(Reese,
1978)
included he ollowing:
(a) es ablish a p og amme
o
p ojec s o acili a e he
employees' in e ac ion
in
and
unde s anding
o
he
company;
(b) es ablish a ela ionship wi h he employee whe eby he has
egula discussions wi h
his
men o ;
(c)
es ablish a p ocedu e wi hin he men o 's depa men (o
a leas an a i ude
in
he men o 's depa men ) which
will
acili a e he lowe ing
o
any ensions and s imula e he
in eg a ion
o
he employee in o he depa men ;
(d) de elop, oge he wi h he pe sonnel depa men , p o-
cedu es which
will
moni o he employee's p og ess
in
e ms
o
his
pe o mance, mo i a ion,
and
mo ale.
The ecommenda ion made ea lie ha manage and subo -
dina e de ine he po en ial manage 's job, iden i y his ain-
ing needs, and e iew
his
p og ess, imp o es he unde s an-
ding which exis s be ween he wo indi iduals. This s uc u e
p o ides a amewo k o egula discussion
o
pe o mance
and p og ess.
The o al en i onmen
The en i onmen
in
which he black employee li es and wo ks
will ha e an impac on
his
a i udes and beha iou
in
he wo k-
place. An a i ude may
be
seen as a p edisposi ion o espond
in
a a ou able
o
un a ou able way o objec s, pe sons
o
concep s. Based upon
his
a i udes owa ds some hing, a pe -
son
is
p edisposed o beha e
in
a pa icula way. A i udes a e
acqui ed om pa en s, eache s and o he people who play
an impo an pa
in
a pe son's li e. Thus a i udes a e lea n-
ed: an indi idual acqui es a i udes h ough expe ience and in-
e ac ion wi h he wo ld a ound him (Robbins, I 979).
Some esea ch in o he a i udes
o
black employees owa ds
wo k, o example, esea ch unde aken
by
Bhaga
(1979),
sug-
ges s ha ,
in
gene al, Ame ican blacks do no iden i y closely
wi h he wes e n wo k e hic. And isani (
1976)
ound ha young
and middle-aged black men
in
Ame ica we e consis en ly
less
'in e nal' han whi es
in
hei ou look; hey pe cei ed li le pay-
o
o ini ia i e as hey
el
ha e en s and pe o mance we e
de e mined la gely by e en s ou side
o
hei con ol. In Sou h
A ica, Temple
(1980)
a gues ha , amongs black employees
in
gene al, he e
is
e idence
o
a lowe
le el
o
iden i ica ion
han whi e employees wi h he alues
o
he adi ional wo k
e hic. He belie es ha ' his non-iden i ica ion wi h he wo k
102
e hic
means ha black
employees
a e unable o pe o m as
well
as
hei
whi e
colleagues,
o o
espond
o
challenging
jobs'
(I
980:
3).
To he
ex en
ha
hese
a i udes and
belie s
exis
among.g
po en ial
black
manage s, he e
may
be
a
lack
o
com-
mi men
owa ds
ad ancemen
and
managemen
de elopmen .
In
Ho mey 's
(1982)
in e iews
wi h
senio
black
employees,
he
ound a conside able
deg ee
o
commi men and mo i a-
ion owa ds
success
and
achie emen
in
managemen .
Howe e ,
in
Sou h A ica, he e
is
a undamen al di e ence
in
he
expe ience
o
whi es
and
blacks
and
in
he
oppo uni ies
a ailable o hem, and
hese
di e ences
will,
o a g ea e o
lesse
ex en , in luence he
black
employee's a i ude owa ds
his
wo k. One
o
he
black
manage s e e ed o
'a
need
o
consis ency
in
he o al en i onmen
o
a manage '. The ' o al
en i onmen '
included
he
legal
en i onmen , he
social
en-
i onmen and he poli ical en i onmen , and
he
a gued ha
o he
black
pe son he e
was
an inconsis ency and unce -
ain y
associa ed
wi h
each
o
hese
en i onmen s
which
would
always
p e en
him
om
becoming pa
o
he 'whi e man's
wo ld'.
His
iew
was
ha
un il
he e
was
a g ea e measu e
o
consis ency,
black
managemen
de elopmen
would
be
se e ely
hampe ed
(see
also
Human,
1981a;
1981b;
and
1982).
One
black
manage commen ed
on
a
need
o 'p epa e he
en i onmen ' o
black
ad ancemen .
Managemen
should alk
o he people
who
would
be
dealing
wi h
he
black
manage-
men candida es and
ad ise
hem
as
o he a ionale behind,
and p og ammes o ,
black
ad ancemen . This manage
el
he e
was
no
enough
communica ion
in
companies
abou
wha
hei plans and
ac i i ies
we e
in
e ms
o
black
manage
de elopmen .
He
also
sugges ed
ha
managemen
should
com-
munica e o o he companies
wha
hey
we e
doing
o
de elop
manage s and,
in
pa icula , wha
success
hey
we e
ha ing.
Th ough
hese
measu es,
companies
would
c ea e a heal hie
clima e o
black
ad ancemen , bo h
in
hei
own
o ganim-
ion and
in
he
business
communi y
in
gene al.
A numbe
o
black
manage s e e ed o he es ic ions
placed on blacks bo h
in
he pas and a p esen
which
p e en ed a ' ee en e p ise sys em':
hey
a e no
ee
o
li e
and
wo k
whe e
hey
please,
o
es ablish
businesses
whe e
hey
see
oppo uni ies, o o ob ain he same bene i s and ad an-
ages
as
whi es
in
business.
These
ac o s
wiU
con inue
o
se e
as
ba ie s o he
ull
inco po a ion
o
Blacks
in o he
business
sys em
and will a ec ,
di ec ly
o
indi ec ly,
hei pe o mance
and de elopmen
(see
also
Human,
1981a;
1981b;
1982).
All
o
hese poin s ela ing o he social, poli ical and
economic en i onmen
in
which
he
black
Sou h A ican
manage
mus
unc ion
lend
especial
suppo o Human's
(1981a;
1981b)
indings
wi h
ega d o he ma ginal posi ion
o
he
black
manage
wi hin
a
whi e
wo ld.
Essen ially,
Human
(1981a;
1981b)
a gues ha he
black
Sou h A ican manage
is
expec ed
o unc ion
in
possibly
h ee
di e en
wo lds.
Fi s -
ly,
he
is
expec ed
o
unc ion
in
he
wo ld
o
he
black
ownship
and
black
u ban cul u e. Secondly,
he
is
expec ed
o unc ion
as
a 'Non-Whi e'
in
apa heid
socie y.
Thi dly,
he
has
o
con-
end
wi h
he
wo k
si ua ion
whe e
he
may
be
expec ed
o
unc.
ion as an equal
wi h
his
whi e
colleagues.
As
he
black
manage 's posi ion
in
he
wo k
si ua ion
(whe e
he
is
ega ded
as
an equal
o
his
whi e
colleague)
is
inconsis en
wi h
his
posi-
ion
in
apa heid
socie y,
he e
is
small
wonde ha
he
is
con-
used
and ha
his
pe onnance
in
he
wo k
si ua ion
may
su e
as a esul . Indeed,
in
iew
o
he
inconsis encies,
con lic s and
ambigui ies h own
up
by
in ol emen
in
hese h ee
di e se
and con lic ing en i onmen s, i
is
ha dly su p ising ha
all
o
he
black
manage s
in e iewed
by
Human
(1981a;
1981b)
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984,
15(2)
desc ibed wha could
be
called an inne s ain
o
malaise
wi h
espec
o hei wo k si ua ion. Many said ha
in
he
wo k
si ua ion,
hey
eel
as
hough
hey
'do no belong'. The
gene al
eeling
was
ha black manage s a e
li ing
a schizoph enic
ex-
is ence:
hey
a e
li ing
in
a
no
man's land
be ween
wo
cul u al
g oups; hey a e pa ially accep ed and pa ially ejec ed
by
he whi e wo ld
in
which
hey a e expec ed o pe o m;
hey
ace
he psychological bu den
o
no knowing 'whe e
hey
s and'; hey canno ake he knowledge hey equi e o p ac-
ical
compe ence
in
ou ine pe o mance o g an ed. The
wo ld
o
he
black
manage
is
i e
wi h
inconsis encies on he
socio-poli ical and cul u al
le el
which
in
u n a e exace ba ed
by
an a emp a in eg a ion
in
he wo k se ing. Thus, on op
o
cul u al inconsis encies, con lic s and ambigui ies and
on
op
o
being
classi ied
as
a 'Non-Whi e' o he g ea e pa
o
he ime, he
black
manage
is
expec ed o unc ion
as
a
Whi e
in
a whi e wo ld du ing
his
wo king day. This
is
in
spi e
o
he
ac
ha
he
may ha e had li le p e ious exposu e o
whi e
in o mal ne wo ks,
in
spi e
o
he ac ha he
may
con on okenism
in
he wo k se ing;
in
spi e
o
he
ac
ha
he
may
ecei e
inadequa e exposu e and consul a ion;
unequal
emune a ion;
hos ili y
om
he shop- loo ; a op-managemen
policy
o
non-disc imina ion bu disc imina ion a
lowe -
managemen
le els;
unwilling sec e a ies; poo e p omo ion
oppo uni ies;
li le
o wa d ca ee planning; disc imina ion
on
a
social
le el
and encou agemen o
be
indi idualis ic
while
a he same ime being cons an ly eminded
o
his
e hnic
backg ound.
The
expe iences
o
he
black
manage
in
a
whi e
wo ld
e ade
adequa e desc ip ion unlike beha iou o pe o mance
which
can
be
bo h quan i ied and
assessed.
Lack
o
cla i y and quan-
i ica ion should no , howe e ,
be
ega ded
as
an
excuse
o
dismissal.
The ma ginal expe ience
o
he black manage
is
eal and,
in
some ins ances, acu e. Thus Jones
(1973)
desc ib-
ing
his
expe iences
o
'Wha i 's
like
o be a black manage '
in
he
USA,
which
p o esses a philosophy
o
acial in eg a-
ion
in
all
sphe es
o
li e,
pu s o wa d an a gumen
e y
simila
o hose pu o wa d
by
he black manage s in e iewed
in
Sou h A ica. Jones's
(1973)
expe iences highligh a
phenomenon - he ma ginal si ua ion -
which
he himsel
admi s
he
did no unde s and a he ime. Jones
(1973)
was
a black man
in
a unique posi ion
in
a whi e company;
he
was
anxious because
o
in e nal con lic s and con used because
o
ex e nal
inconsis encies.
His
lack
o
p e ious exposu e o
whi e
in o mal ne wo ks,
his
own
need
o 'p o e' himsel , o ganiza-
ional inconsis encies, cul u al di e ences and abo e, and
in-
cluding
all,
his
ma ginal posi ion a ec ed
his
pe o mance.
Ac-
co ding o Jones
(1973:
116),
he ne e ec
o
his
expe iences
is,
mo eo e , simila o ha
o
o he
black
people
wi h
whom
he has discussed he ma e .
F om
hese
indings,
i
would
appea ha he p oblems
aced
by he black manage a e no unique o Sou h A ica bu a e
a he gene alimble o anyone
wi h
a black skin
who
a emp s
o unc ion
in
an
e s while whi e wo ld.
Such
p oblems esul
mo eo e no only om cul u al, educa ional and disc imi-
na o y ac o s, bu also om he peculia si ua ion - he
ma ginal
si ua ion -in
which
he
black
manage
inds
himsel .
The black manage who
is
aced wi h a wholly disc imina o y
sys em
is
no ma ginal;
he
knows
p ecisely
'whe e
he
s ands'.
I
is
he black manage who
is
in
ce ain
ways
ejec ed o
disc imina ed
agains
and a he
same
ime and
in
ce ain o he
sphe es accep ed as an equal who con on s p oblems
o
a
ma ginal na u e. Thus,
e en
in
he USA, a his o y
o
acial
disc imina ion and he eac ion
o
ce ain indi iduals owa ds
S.
A .
J. Bus. Mgml. 1984, 15(2)
a black skin, oge he
wi h
a
lack
o p e ious exposu e o a
speci ically
whi e in o mal ne wo k, pu Jones
(1973)
in
a
posi-
ion
in
which
he
could no ake
his
wo k-wo ld o g an ed;
he
was
ne e qui e su e
o
how pa icula indi iduals
we e
go-
ing
o eac o
him
and
he
could ne e qui e
dismiss
he
ac
ha
he
was
black om
his
mind. The implica ions
o
he
ma ginal si ua ion could
be
cons ued
as
sugges ing
ha
black
people should
be
employed
by
companies
which
employ only
black people and
which
a e owned and
un
by
Blacks.
This
is
undoub edly one solu ion. Howe e , humaneness and
economic eali y sugges he diame ically opposed solu ion.
In
o de o Sou h A ica o unc ion iably and peace ully,
we
mus
examine he e ec s he ma ginal si ua ion
has
on
black
manage s and a emp o
ind
solu ions o hei dilemma. Ou
ask
is
o educe he con lic s, inconsis encies and ambigui ies
wi h
which
black manage s a e aced
in
o de ha hei pe -
o mance
in
he
wo k
si ua ion migh no only imp o e, bu
also
be
meaning ul o hem. Ini ially, howe e ,
le
us
examine
he e ec s he ma ginal si ua ion may ha e on he pe o mance
o
he black manage .
The inconsis encies, ambigui ies and con lic s con on ed
by
he black manage would appea o
lea e
him
doub ul
o
whe e
his
loyal ies
lie.
They also c ea e a
le el
o
s ain and
sensi i i y
which,
i
is
acknowledged, may
a y
om
indi idual
o indi idual. The cumula i e e ec s
o
he ma ginal si ua-
ion
may,
howe e , a ec he pe o mance o he
black
mana-
ge
in
he wo k si ua ion.
In
o he wo ds, unde pe o mance,
a
lack
o
asse i eness o sel -asse ion, a ilia i e endencies,
ension, dissa is ac ion and he like,
may
no on( esul om
cul u al ac o s, an in e io educa ion
sys em
and disc imina-
ion, bu also om he inconsis encies, ambigui ies and con-
lic
wi h
which
black manage s a e aced. Al hough
esea ch
in
his a ea
is
nee<;led,
li e a u e pe aining o ole con lic and
ole
ambigui y, concep s which may
well
be
ela ed
in
some
way
o ma ginali y, sugges ha ambigui y and con lic may
well
cause lowe p oduc i i y, ension, dissa is ac ion and
psychological wi hd awal om he wo k g oup
(see,
o
ex-
ample,
Van
Sell
e
al,
1981).
I
would hus appea ha he
ma ginal
si ua ion may
be
a pa ial cause
o
p oblems
p e ious-
ly
associa ed
wi h
cul u e, educa ion and disc imina ion and
ha ou ailu e o ecognize i s impo ance may go some
way
owa ds explaining a pe sis en ly unsa is ac o y
le el
o
pe -
o mance amongs some black manage s. I his
is
he case,
hen
we
mus commence he sea ch o
ways
in
which
incon-
sis encies,
ambigui ies and con lic s can
be
educed. Many
o
he
s a egies discussed ea lie
will
ob iously ha e spin-o s
in
e ms
o
a educ ion
in
ma ginali y. Fo mo e sensi i e
in-
di iduals,
howe e ,
such
s a egies may
ha e
o
be
exagge a ed
in
o de o p oduce a ou able
esul s.
Fo
example,
he
de ini-
ion
o
Key
Pe o mance A eas would
gi e
he
black
manage
a clea idea
o
his oles and esponsibili ies
is-a- is
hose
o
o he manage s, and cha ges
o
disc imina ion o
window
d essing
could hus
be
dismissed. Mo eo e , a s anda d
e alua-
ion
p ocedu e could
be
de eloped
wi h
espec
o he
Key
Pe -
o mance
A eas
o
all
manage s. E alua ions would,
howe e ,
ha e
o
be
discussed wi h he pa icula manage s conce ned
in
o de ha hey migh
be
seen as easonable and objec i e
and
as
oid
o
any disc imina o y o e ones.
Black
manage s
could
also,
as
s a ed ea lie ,
be
placed
in
he ca e
o
sympa he ic
men o s who would a emp o sha e he bu den o he
machina ions
o
he in o mal o ganiza ion. In his ega d,
Jones
(1973:
115)
sugges s an app aisal
o
manage s on hei
con ibu ions o he company's equal oppo uni y objec i es.
Acco ding
o Jones
(1973:
115),
'The en i e managemen eam mus
be
mo i a ed o
change any deep belie s abou who does and doesn'
i
wi h
ega d o colo . Acco dingly, companies should
use
he app aisal
sys em
o make he wel a e
o
he
black
ainee coinciden
wi h
he well-being
o
his
supe io . Such ac ion,
o
cou se,
will
p obably
ecei e
conside able esis ance om middle -and lowe -le el
managemen .
Bu
manage s a e app aised on hei
abili-
y
o
each
o he impo an objec i es; and, mo e
signi ican ly, he inclusion
o
his a ea
in
app aisals
signals
o e e yone
in ol ed
ha a company
is
se ious.
Failu e o ake his s ep signals business as usual and
adds o any c edibili y gap
be ween
he company and
black
employees'.
I03
Mo eo e ,
his
kind
o
app aisal
sys em
mo i a es he
men-
o o school he black ainee
in
he eali ies
o
he poli ical
p ocess
in
he o ganiza ion. Acco ding o Jones
(1973)
no one
can
su i e
in
an
o ganiza ion
wi hou
his
kind
o
in o ma-
ion. Jones
(1973:
115)
also
sugges s
unques ionable op
managemen
in ol emen
in
and
commi men
o
well
hough -
ou
plans
o equal oppo uni y and
di ec
wo-way
channels
o
communica ion
be ween
op managemen and ainee black
manage s.
Wi h
ega d
o
he
la e ,
i
would
appea ha Jones
(1973)
is
aci ly
ecognizing
a
p oblem
pa icula ly
pe inen
o he Sou h A ican con ex , namely, ha
o
esis ance on
he
pa
o
i s
line
whi e
manage s
who
may
eel
ha
hei
jobs a e h ea ened. Jones
(1973)
a gues ha open channels
o
communica ion acili a e he in e cession
o
a disin e es ed
pa y i he black ainee
inds
a pa icula si ua ion p o-
blema ic. Mo eo e , Jones
(1973:
ll5)
eels
ha ,
'Clea channels
o
communica ion
will
also enable op
managemen o p o ide empa he ic sou ces
o
counsel
o
help
he
new
black ainee comba he po en ially
c ippling pa anoia ha I encoun e ed. I didn' know
whom
o us ; consequen ly, I us ed no one. The
counsel
o ma u e and
p o en
black
execu i es
will
also
help
mi iga e his pa anoia.'
In
he
inal
analysis,
i
would
appea ha a mo al commi -
men
by
o ganiza ions o equal oppo uni y
is
no enough. In
o de o su moun he
inconsis encies
in
he o al en i onmen
o
he
black
manage , op managemen mus no only
be
com-
mi ed o
black
ad ancemen bu mus
also
be
seen
as com-
mi ed
by
i s
en i e wo k o ce.
Conclusions
and
discussion
In
his
a icle
we
ha e
a emp ed o ake a b ie look no only
a he s a egies
which
could
be
employed owa ds he solu-
ion o he p oblems
aced
by
bo h he black manage and
his
employing o ganiza ion, bu also a he possibili y
o
p o-
iding
a en a i e o mula
o
decisions
ela ing o he amoun
o
ime,
money
and e o
which
should
be
expended
on e o s
o amelio a e p oblems
o
his
kind.
I
has
been
a gued ha
a emp s o
success ully
in oduce black manage s in o an
e s while
'whi e'
wo ld
will
equi e
a combined
socio-economic
me hod
o
decision-making.
In
o he wo ds,
i
would appea
ha ,
in
he majo i y o o ganiza ions
which
a e a emp ing
o in eg a e black manage s in o hei manage ial s uc u es,
i
is
necessa y
o de o e
esou ces
o he pa ial esolu ion
o
con lic
whils
a he same ime no de ac ing om goal
achie emen
aims.
I
has u he
been
a gued ha sho - un
esou ce alloca ion
wi h
ega d o
social
e sus
economic ends
should
be
based on a compa ison
o
he
ela i e
equilib ium
o
g ow h
condi ions
in
he
economic
and
social
sys ems
wi hin
he
o ganiza ion.
In
he
long- un, a
second
p inciple -
which