Black managers in a white world: Strategy formulation

Human, Linda; Ho mey , Ka l A icle Black manage s in a whi e wo ld: S a egy o mula ion Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Human, Linda; Ho mey , Ka l (1984) : Black manage s in a whi e wo ld: S a egy o mula ion, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 96-104, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 15i2.1111 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217856 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Black manage s in a whi e wo ld : S a egy o mula ion Linda Human and Ka l Ho mey School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, P e o ia This a icle akes a look no only a he s a egies which could be employed owa ds he solu ion o he p oblems aced by bo h he black manage and his employing o ganiza ion, bu also a he possibili y o p o iding a en a i e o mula o decisions ela ing o he amoun o ime. money and e o which should be expended on e o s o amelio a e p oblems o his kind. I is a gued ha a emp s o suc- cess ully in oduce black manage s in o an e s while 'whi e' wo ld will equi e a combined socio-economic me hod o decision-making. In o he wo ds. i would appea ha . in he majo i y o o ganiza ions which a e a emp ing o in eg a e black manage s in o hei manage ial s uc u es, i is necessa y o de o e esou ces o he pa ial esolu ion o con lic whils a he same ime no de ac ing om goal achie emen aims. I is u he a gued ha sho - un esou ce alloca ion wi h ega d o social e sus economic ends should be based on a compa ison o he ela i e equilib ium o g ow h condi ions in he economic and social sys ems wi hin he o ganiza ion. In he long- un, a second p inciple -which in- ol es wo king owa ds a educ ion o he con lic be ween e iciency and psychological well-being and which gene ally in ol es he adap a- ion o he social sys em o he equi emen s o e iciency -has also o be in oduced. Wi h espec o he black manage in a whi e wo ld, a numbe o s a egies ela ing o manpowe planning. he iden i ica ion o managemen po en ial and aining needs, he job i sel , educa ion and aining. he o ganiza ion and he o al en i onmen a e pu o - wa d. All o hese s a egies could assis in alle ia ing he s ains and p essu es aced by bo h he black manage and he employing o ganiza ion whils a he same ime leading in he di ec ion o g ea e e iciency and possibly inc eased p o i abili y. S.A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15: 96-104 Hie die a ikel kyk nie ne na die s a egi!H! wa aangewend kan wo d om 'n oplossing e ind i die p obleme wa beide die swa bes uu de en sy diensgewende o ganisasie onde ind nie, maa ook na die moon likheid i die e ska ing an 'n en a iewe o mule i beslui e akende die hoe eelheid yd, geld en pogings wa aangewend behoo e wo d om diesulke p obleme e e lig. Daa wo d bewee da pogings om swa bes uu de s sukses ol aan 'n eens 'wi ' we eld oo e s el 'n gekombinee de sosio-ekonomiese me ode an beslui neming benodig sal wo d. Me ande woo de, di wil oo kom o in die mee de heid an o ganisasies wa poog om swa bes uu de s in hulle bes uu s uk u e e in eg ee . di nodig is om hulpb onne oe e se aan die gedeel elike oplossing an kon lik maa e sel de yd nie a b euk doen aan doelbe- eikingsdoelwl e nie. Daa wo d e de bewee da ko e myn hulpb on- oekenning me be ekking o sosiaie e sus ekonomiese ui eindes op 'n e gelyking an die ela iewe ekwillb ium o g oei oes ande in die ekonomiese en sosiale sis eme binne die o ganisasie gebasee behoo e wees. Op die lange duu moa 'n weede beginsel -wa we k na 'n e minde ing an die kon lik ussen doel e endheid en sieikundlge wels and en wa gewooniik die aanpasslng an die soslale sls eem me die e eis es an doel e endheld e g -ook inges el wo d. Be e - ende die swa bes uu de In 'n wi we eld wo d 'n aan al s a eglee akende mannek agbeplanning, die lden i lse lng an bes uu spo enslaal en opieldlngsbehoe es, die we k sel , op oedlng en opleidlng, die o ganisasie en die o ale omgewlng oo ges ei. Al hle die s a eglee kan byd a o die e llg ing an s emmlnge en d uk wa deu beide die swa bes uu de en die diensgewende o ganlsasle onde lnd wo d e - wyl dl e sel de yd In die ig ing an g o e doel e endheld en moon llke e hoogde wlnsgewendheld kan lei. S.·A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15: 96-104 Linda Human* and Ka l Ho mey School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, P .0. Box 392, P e o ia 0001, Republic o Sou h A ica *To whom co espondence should be add essed Accep ed Feb ua y 1984 In oduc ion Much o he esea ch unde aken in bo h he USA and Sou h A ica on he p oblems aced by black manage s employed by essen ially 'whi e' o ganiza ions has ended o a ibu e an almos pe asi e unde pe o mance amongs black manage s o cul u al ac o s, a lack o educa ional quali ica ions and acial disc imina ion (see Ho mey , 1981a). Resea ch unde - aken ecen ly a he School o Business Leade ship, Uni e - si y o Sou h A ica (Ho mey , 1982; Human, 1982) has sub- s an ia ed he e idence ela ing o he ob iously disad an ag- ed posi ion o he black Sou h A ican manage in e ms o hese h ee se s o ac o s whils a he same ime highligh ing he expe iences and needs o he black manage wi hin he essen ially 'whi e' o ganiza ion. Fo example, Human's (1982) p o ile o he black manage highligh s his need o adequa e and meaning ul ela ionships in he wo k si ua ion; his need o eedback and he accessibili y o supe io s; his need o espec , app ecia ion and encou agemen ; his need o know whe e he s ands and his need o suppo . These needs, i was disco e ed h ough u he quali a i e esea ch, a ise as much om he ambigui ies, inconsis encies and con lic s wi h which he black manage is aced as om cul u al and educa ional disc epancies and acial disc imina ion. The black manage is a 'ma ginal man' who mus unc ion in a se ies o di e se, con lic ing and o en ambiguous en i onmen s and whose pe - o mance in he wo k si ua ion e lec s he ole con lic and ole ambigui y wi h which he is aced (Human, 1981a; Human, 1981b; see also Jones, 1973 on he USA). Thus, apa om solu ions o p oblems associa ed wi h bla an cul u al di - e ences, apa om hose o p oblems associa ed wi h disc imina ion and apa om hose o p oblems associa ed wi h an educa ional sys em g ossly in e io o ha o Whi es, solu ions also ha e o be ound o he p oblems o ma ginali y expe ienced by he black manage . Ha ing ob ained consen- sus on his poin , decisions hen ha e o be made wi h espec o: (a) how he p oblems aced by he black manage and how he p oblems expe ienced by he employing o ganiza ion a e o be ackled; and (b) how much ime, money and e o a e going o be in es ed in e o s o amelio a e he p oblems wi h which bo h he black manage and he employing o ganiza ion a e aced. This pape akes a b ie look a bo h o hese ques ions. The decision-making p ocess Wi hin many o ganiza ions, economic a ionali y has o en cons i u ed he sole co e o he decision-making p ocess. These S. A . .I. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 1S(2) o ganiza ions ha e el ha he only way o make decisions is o e alua e ends in e ms o al e na i e cos s and o alloca e means in e ms o ma ginal (o compa a i e) u ili y. The assump ion is made ha he ul ima e objec i e o all decisions and ac ions mus be he maximiza ion o some measu able en- i y. The p inciples and ules o his iewpoin ha e, o e he yea s, no only been de eloped by a ious economis s and jus i ied by ce ain u ili a ian philosophe s bu also cons i u ed he ounda ions o innume able policy p oposals and business s a egies (Diesing, 1955: 18). In ecen yea s, he limi a ions o economic a ionali y ha e become inc easingly mo e appa en and a wide pe spec i e on he gene al na u e o decision-making has been p o e ed (see, o example, Diesing, 1955; 1958; 1962). Indeed, many o ganiza ions ha e, p obably, on many occasions, in eg a ed economic and social decision-making p ocesses bu on an un- conscious o ad hoc basis. I is submi ed, howe e , ha , in o de o begin o sol e he p oblems aced by he black manage in a whi e wo ld: (i) a blend o bo h economic and social a ionali y has o be employed, he blend a ying acco ding o he cu en p o- i abili y and ma ke posi ion o he o ganiza ion; and (ii) he p ocess o decision-making and he subsequen im- plemen a ion o s a egy ha e always o be bo h conscious and ' a ional' (in he b oades sense o he e m). Le us b ie ly ollow his a gumen h ough: 'Economic decisions a emp o maximize he achie e- men o gi en ends (goals, desi es, in e es s, needs) h ough he ca e ul use o a ailable means, in a si ua- ion whe e no all ends can be ully achie ed. The means can be used in a numbe o al e na i e ways, and deci- sion consis s o a selec ion o one o hese al e - na i es'(Diesing, 1958: I). Acco ding o Diesing ( 1958: 1), a decision is eached by: (a) E alua ion o wha he p obable e ec s o each al e na i e on he ends a e going o be. (b) Es ima ion o he deg ee o p obabili y o each e ec . (c) Es ima ion and compa ison o he alue o each e ec on a single scale (such as dolla s). (d) Choice o he al e na i e which has he g ea es p obabili- y o p oducing he g ea es alue. This ype o decision is a 'maximizing' decision in he sense ha i consis s o inding he al e na i e which will p o e i sel as possessing he maximum alue (o minimum loss) acco - ding o a chosen scale. Al hough many complex a ia ions in economic decision- making exis , all o hese a ia ions in ol e a emp s o max- imize he achie emen o p ede e mined goals. Social decisions, on he o he hand, a emp o adap pe sonali ies and/o social ela ions in he di ec ion o g ea e essen ial ha mony and s abili y (Diesing, 1958: 2). Acco ding o Diesing (1958: 2), his ype o decision is eached by: (a) De ini ion o a easonably independen p oblem a ea and disco e y o he con lic s ha exis in i as well as he ac- o s esponsible o hei main enance. (b) Es ima ion o he changes ha a e possible in each p o- blema ic ac o , oge he wi h he deg ee o s ain such changes would b ing. (c) Disco e y o s ain- educing suppo s o each change. (cl) P edic ion o u u e con lic s, s ains and s esses which a e ei he likely o accompany each di ec ion o change o which will occu i espec i e o he change. 97 ( e) The sea ch o a change a a manageable le el o s ain which will educe con lic , inc ease lexibili y o p epa e o u u e s esses (Diesing, 1955; Diesing, 1958). This ype o decision is essen ially 'in eg a i e' inasmuch as i equen ly leads o some so o in eg a ion. As in he case o maximizing decisions, many complex a ia ions exis . F om his ex emely b ie bu hope ully no oo simplis ic summa y, i can be seen ha in eg a i e and maximizing deci- sions a e opposi es in se e al wa~--- (a) A maximizing decision-p ocess begins wi h gi en ends which a e ne e ques ioned and which an a emp is made o achie e; an in eg a i e p ocess ega ds gi en ends as poin e s o hidden belie s, ea s, s ains, alues and he like. Such ends may no necessa ily be sa is ied in he cou se o being changed. (b) In a maximizing decision, ends a e ea ed as quan i iable (measu able), compa able en i ies; in an in eg a i e deci- sion, ac o s a e aken in con ex s ha make each ac o a unique se o ela ions, no eadily subjec o measu e- men o compa ison. In an in eg a i e decision, in o he wo ds, ends a e no 'measu able' in e ms o some basic uni o measu emen bu a e, a he , si ua ional; o ex- ample, a speci ic educ ion in a ce ain ype o ension in a speci ic con ex a a gi en ime. Al hough maximizing and in eg a i e me hods a e, in many ways, opposi es, and al hough some si ua ions may demand one so o me hod as opposed o he o he , o complex p ac- ical si ua ions a combined me hod is o en equi ed. Indeed, acco ding o Diesing (1958: 6): 'A basically in eg a i e me hod is called o i a p o- blem is basically one o diso ganiza ion and con lic , while supplemen a y maximizing conside a ions a e necessa y i he solu ion o a diso ganiza ion p oblem equi es he use o sca ce esou ces. A basically max- imizing me hod is called o i a p oblem is basically goal-o ien ed, while supplemen a y in eg a i e con- side a ions a e necessa y i inciden al elemen s o diso ganiza ion o po en ial diso ganiza ion a e also in- ol ed. A blend o bo h me hods is called o i a p o- blem includes bo h impo an goals and impo an elemen s o in e nal con lic .' Fo Diesing ( 1958), ques ions o indi idual and g oup con- lic a e di icul o deal wi h by a maximizing me hod in iew o he ac ha ension- educ ion and he like a e no de ini e, homogeneous en i ies and canno be a ionally compa ed wi h 'economic' goals. When such ques ions occu in an o he wise economic p oblem, a combined socio-economic me hod o making decisions is equi ed. Thus, ollowing Diesing (1955; 1958; 1962), i would ap- pea ha , in o de o con on he p oblems aced by he black manage in a whi e wo ld, a conscious, combined socio- economic me hod o making decisions is a p e equisi e. Bu wha does his me hod en ail? And why no employ a basical- ly maximizing me hod wi h supplemen a y in eg a i e con- side a ions? A e all, he p ima y goal o business o ganiza- ions in capi alis socie y is p o i ; so why place such an em- phasis on ha mony and s abili y? To answe he las ques ion i s , a basically maximizing me hod wi h supplemen a y in eg a i e conside a ions is ele- an only o si ua ions in which a p oblem is basically goal-~ o ien ed and any (po en ial) diso ganiza ion is me ely inciden- al. In eg a i e aspec s a e o mino impo ance and pose no eal h ea o he e ec i eness o ei he he o ganiza ion o 98 o he indi idual. Howe e , when a p oblem con ains bo h impo an alid goals and impo an elemen s o (po en ial) diso ganiza ion, a mo e complex me hod is necessa y. In a coun y such as Sou h A ica, which aces no only acu e sho - ages o skilled manpowe bu also a poli ical and economic need o acial in eg a ion and o ganiza ional s abili y, diso ganiza ion and ins abili y in human ela ions wi hin o ganiza ions would appea o cons i u e a he mo e han p o- blems o an inciden al na u e. Mo eo e , he esea ch o bo h Ho mey (1982) and Human (1981a; 1981b; 1982) indica es he ex en o which he in oduc ion o black manage s in o essen- ially whi e o ganiza ions c ea es p oblems o bo h an in- di idual and collec i e na u e; he p oblems con on ed by bo h he black manage and his employing o ganiza ion a e ex eme- ly eal and po en ially dis up i e. Thus, i would appea ha , in he majo i y o o ganiza ions which a e a emp ing o in- eg a e black manage s in o hei manage ial s uc u es, i is necessa y o de o e esou ces o he pa ial esolu ion o con- lic whils a he same ime no de ac ing om goal- achie emen aims. When he e ec i eness o he indi idual, he o ganiza ion (and possibly also he coun y) a e a s ake, hen a combined socio-economic me hod o making decisions would appea o be a necessi y. Bu wha does his me hod en ail? In one onn o ano he , he con lic be ween in eg a ion and e iciency occu s in all o ganiza ions, hus making a com- pa ison be ween he wo, in enns o impo ance, necessa y. Thus, he i s s ep is o ind a common elemen ha will se e as a uni o compa ison o measu emen . Tha elemen can- no be u ili y, o money, o p e e ence, as in economic a- ionali y, because none o hese economic s anda ds can be applied o in eg a i e p oblems. Ins ead, a common elemen has o be ound a a a he mo e abs ac le el -namely, in he ac ha bo h social and economic sys ems cons i u e 'sys ems o equilib ium' (Diesing, 1958: 15). 'Tha is, bo h ypes o sys em will, in a o able ci - cums ances, main ain a s eady s a e by coun e ac ing andom o ces o change, ei he h ough expulsion, o by neu aliza ion wi h opposing o ces, o by assimila- ion, o by a walling-o p ocess. Fu he , i ci cums an- ces make p ese a ion o equilib ium impossible, bo h ypes o sys em will change in a cyclical o spi al ashion. In un a o able ci cums ances, his will be a icious ci cle mo ing owa d degene a ion, sh inking, simpli ica ion, and ul ima ely o des uc ion; in a o able ci cums ances, i will be a " i uous" o "bene olen " ci cle o g ow h, expansion, inc eased powe and complexi y. All hese e ms can be applied in analogous ashion o bo h economic and social sys ems', (Diesing, 1958, 15). In sys ems o social ela ions, g ow h consis s o inc eased unde s anding, inc eased communica ion, inc eased us , secu i y, ole a ion and he like. Since each o hese ac o s leads o he o he s, a sel -sus aining posi i e g ow h spi al is p oduced. Equilib ium occu s when he o ces o con lic and hos ili y a e balanced by he posi i e o ces o unde s anding and accep ance whils a icious spi al downwa ds consis s o inc eased and inc easing misunde s anding, ea and in- ole ance wi hin social sys ems and inc eased neu osis o psychosis amongs indi iduals. An equilib ium is, mo eo e , ne e s a ic al hough he deg ee o s abili y o ension wi hin i may a y g ea ly om si ua ion o si ua ion. An economic sys em can be said o be in equilib ium when i s p oduc is jus su icien o main ain and eplace ac o s S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15(2) o p oduc ion. Economic g ow h, on he o he hand, in ol es capi al onna ion which is employed o inance echnical im- p o emen s, leading o g ea e e iciency and hence o g ea e p o i and capi al o ma ion and so on. Economic decline is cha ac e ized by a spi al in he opposi e di ec ion; capi al loss leads o echnological s agna ion and o he g adual disap- pea ance o p oduc i e ac o s (Diesing, 1958: 15-16). Thus, bo h economic and social sys ems display equilib ium cha ac e is ics which in u n implies ha esou ces di e im- mense( in impo ance in di e en s a es o he sy em. Fo example, a sys em in equilib ium has he capaci y o lose o abso b conside able esou ces wi hou any no iceable change; o a sys em which is close o he c i ical bounda ies o equilib ium, on he o he hand, a compa a i ely small addi- ional loss will cause a icious spi al downwa ds whils a ela i ely small gain will ini ia e a posi i e g ow h spi al. A sys em in decline will equi e immense esou ces o e a long pe iod o ime i equilib ium is o be e-es ablished whe eas a sys em in a g ow h spi al can, up o a c i ical poin , gi e esou ces away. Such esou ces gene ally cons i u e econo- mic esou ces in he case o economic sys ems and socio- psychological esou ces in he case o social sys ems (Diesing, 1958: 16). Resou ce alloca ion should be based on a compa ison o he ela i e equilib ium o g ow h condi ions in economic and social sys ems. As Diesing (1958: 16) s a es: 'The a ia ion in impo ance o esou ces in di e en s a es o a sys em p o ides he key o p oblems o e- sou ce allo men . I ei he sys em is nea one o he wo c i ical poin s, i should be allo ed su icien esou ces, bo h economic and noneconomic, o mo e i ou o dange o o p oduce a shi o he nex highe s a e o he sys em. Bu i a sys em is in equilib ium o in decline, i should ei he be allo ed massi e esou ces o e a long pe iod o ime, so ha a shi o he nex highe s a e can be s abilized, o i should ecei e no ou side esou ces a all. A small sho - un alloca ion would simply be was ed. Con e sely, a sys em ha is g owing can spa e conside able esou ces o an in- de ini e pe iod o ime, and a sys em in equilib ium can yield esou ces o a sho e ime; bu a sys em ha is nea a c i ical poin canno spa e any esou ces a all'. Thus, an o ganiza ion ha is making a easonable p o i1 and is no aced wi h o eseeable economic di icul ies can spa e esou ces, o pos pone inc eases in e iciency, o a easonable ime. I hese spa e esou ces a e su icien o es ablish a equilib ium in a p oblema ic social sys em, hey should be alloca ed; i no , some o he solu ion has o be sough . Dies ing (1958) goes so a as o say ha an o ganiza ion ha i: jus main aining a su icien ope a ing ma gin should no sac i ice e iciency o social ela ions aspec s a all. Fo Diesing (1958), his me hod o esou ce alloca ion ap plies no only o he b oad, undamen al decisions o h4 s a egy o mula ion p ocess bu also o mo e speci ic de ails A e a decision conce ning he gene al di ec ion o esou a alloca ion has been aken, pa icula poin s o s ain - bod economic and social -ha e o be e adica ed and elie ed Howe e , he p inciple o basing esou ce alloca ion deci sions on compa a i e equilib ium condi ions can only se l1 sho - un alloca ion ques ions. Fo long- un de elopmen , : second p inciple has o be in oduced. This p inciple in ol e wo king owa ds a educ ion o he con lic be ween e icien cy and men al heal h equi emen s and gene ally in ol es h1 S. A . i. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2) adap a ion o he social sys em o he equi emen s o e i- ciency (Diesing, 1958: 17). Wi h espec o he black manage in a whi e wo ld, his may in ol e s a egies o educe ma ginali y, b idging aining and language ui ion - o name bu some o he sugges ions men ioned in g ea e de ail below. S a egy onnula ion Now, wha abou he o ganiza ion which is making a p o i bu is expe iencing no only acu e sho ages o skilled man- powe bu also p oblems -bo h indi idual and collec i e - wi h hose black manage s i has appoin ed? This o ganiza- ion can spa e esou ces o es ablish equilib ium in i s social sys em and has isola ed he main con lic s which exis wi hin he o ganiza ion as well as he ac o s esponsible o he main enance o such ac o s. Fo example, he o ganiza ion may eel ha i s majo p oblem wi h ega d o a de e io a ing social sys em conce ns no only he p oblems indi idual black manage s a e acing (because o a ela i e lack o con idence wi hin he business wo ld) bu also p oblems wi h some whi e manage s who eel ha hei jobs a e h ea ened. This o ganiza ion is looking o changes in each p oblema ic ac- o oge he wi h s ain- educing suppo s o each change; i is, mo eo e , looking o manageable changes in he o m o de elopmen s a egies which will educe con lic , inc ease lex- ibili y and p epa e o u u e s ess. Wha op ions a e open o i and wha kind o success can i expec ? Al hough needs will a y om o ganiza ion o o ganiza- ion and al hough no single p og amme o in eg a i e decision- making wi h ega d o black manage s can be nea ly de ined, a ious s a egies a e a ailable and can be employed as and whe e app op ia e. Some o hese s a egies a e discussed below: Manpowe planning Despi e manpowe and economic indica o s which epea edly s ess he c i ical sho age o skilled and managemen pe son- nel, e y ew black employees a e mo ing in o senio posi- ions in companies and e y ew will be p omo ed in he u u e, unless companies delibe a ely es ablish a ge s and plans o black ad ancemen . Ho mey (1982) sugges s ha an app o- p ia e basis o de e mining hese a ge s and plans is he man- powe planning amewo k: he company's s a egic plans a e ansla ed in o a o ecas o he employees needed in each job ca ego y in he u u e; his demand o ecas is compa ed wi h he likely supply o manpowe , aking in o accoun likely ans e s, p omo ions, and was age; managemen is hen in a posi ion o decide how many o he acancies e ealed by he gap be ween u u e demand and supply should be illed wi h black pe sonnel. Ho mey (1982) a gues ha wi hou a o mal plan o he appoin men o black employees o senio pos s, ad ancemen o black manage s would no ake place o any signi ican ex e11 . Iden i ica ion o managemen po en ial Once i has been es ablished how many managemen posi ions should be occupied by black employees in he u u e, can- dida es should be iden i ied by means o assessmen cen es, in e iews and he like so ha ca ee and de elopmen p o- g ammes can be o mula ed. Candida es can ei he be selec ed om wi hin he company o be ec ui ed. Iden i ica ion o aining needs One o he majo asks Ho mey (1982) se himsel in his esea ch conce ned he iden i ica ion o aining needs. A sam- 99 pie o manage s and po en ial black manage s e alua ed he ela i e impo ance o a lis o manage ial dimensions; hey also a ed he cu en pe o mance o he po en ial manage s -and hese wo se s o a ings, impo ance and pe o mance, we e combined o es ablish he mos impo an aining needs. The e ec s on he a ings o manage and subo dina e a iables such as age, unc ion, and educa ional le el we e measu ed o explain and e ine he indings. The mos impo an gene al aining needs we e clea ly es ablished o be he 'managemen unc ions' o decision-making, planning, o ganizing, p oblem- sol ing, and con ol. The indings esul ing om a quan i a i e s udy we e employed by Ho mey ( 1982) as a basis o discus- sions wi h a sample o black manage s who p o ided some easons o he indings and made ecommenda ions o de eloping po en ial black manage s in hese a eas. Ho mey (1982) sugges s ha while his indings p o ide use ul in o ma ion in hemsel es and could o m he basis o managemen aining p og ammes o po en ial black mana- ge s, indi idual de elopmen and ad ancemen p og ammes should be based on he iden i ica ion o indi idual aining needs. Fo example, manage s and hei subo dina es could assess he cu en pe o mance o he subo dina e agains a lis o job dimensions which a e necessa y o e ec i e pe - o mance. This app oach was e alua ed by Ho mey (1982) who claims ha i a manage and his subo dina e ollow he same p ocess, hen meaning ul aining needs should be iden- i ied. The need o join consul a ion and a commi men o de elopmen plans was also s essed. The job The esea ch o Ho mey (1982) highligh s he ac ha i black employees a e o be de eloped and p omo ed in o managemen posi ions, i is essen ial ha , i s ly, hei jobs be clea ly de ined and, secondly, hey be gi en jobs and assignmen s which allow hem o de elop he manage ial compe encies. F om ~he 'ma ginal' posi ion o he black employee in he business wdd (Human, 1981a; 1981b) o he o e whelming consensus amongs he black manage s ha po en ial black manage s a e no gi en he oppo uni y o de elop managemen skills (Ho mey , 1982), he poin has been made epea edly ha managemen de elopmen o senio black employees should s a wi h he wo k i sel . As pa o his s a egy, Ho mey (1982) ecommends ha he black manage ial ad ancemen be made pa o he o ganiza ional manpowe plan. Such a plan would gi e ocus o he company's ad ancemen plans and would enable ca ee pa hs and p og ess a ge s o be d awn up. Nume ous w i e s, o example Humble (1968), D ucke (1974) and Schu e (1981), ha e emphasized he need o job desc ip ions, job objec i es, and s anda ds o pe o mance. These cla i y o he indi idual: wha is expec ed om him; he limi s o his au ho i y and esponsibili y; and how his pe - o mance will be measu ed. Humble (1968) sugges s a p o- cess o es ablishing he objec i es o a job by: (a) de e mining wha he pu pose o he job is; (b) iden i ying he unc ions o he job; (c) deciding wha he main unc ions o he job a e; (d) compa ing he p esen si ua ion wi h he desi ed si ua ion in each o he main unc ions o de e mine in which a eas speci ic objec i es o imp o emen should be se ; (e) se ing s anda ds o pe o mance o ensu e ha pe o - mance in he o he unc ions is main ained; ( ) ensu ing ha a p ocess o p og ess e iew and pe o mance app aisal akes place o moni o p og ess and assess he 100 employee's s eng hs and weaknesses on a egula basis. Wha e e p ~ is p e e ed, i would appea ha manage- men de elopmen has o s a wi h he de ini ion o he employee's job. I he po en ial manage is o plan, m~e d~- sions, o sol e p oblems, hen he mus know wha h1~ ~bJec- i es a e, wha his esponsibili ies a e and wha he hm1 s o his au ho i y a e. These issues a e pa icula ly impo an in he case o he black employee because, i s ly, he is likely o be somewha less su e o himsel han his whi e coun e pa and, secondly, in o mal communica ion on pe o mance and job equi emen s is less likely o ake place be ween a whi e manage and a black subo dina e han would be he case i bo h pa ies we e whi e. I goes wi hou saying ha as a as possible he job which is being de ined o he po en ial black manage should be as meaning ul as possible. Fe nandez (1975), o example, desc ibes job en ichmen as one o he key elemen s in an e ec i e ad ancemen p og amme. AU o he black manage s in e iewed by Ho mey (1982) emphasized he ac ha Blacks, gene ally, a e no exposed o si ua ions in which hey a e equi ed o ca y ou he managemen unc ions. One black manage said simply ha 'wha is lacking is he exposu e ha ansla es i sel in o managemen skills; planning, o ganizing, and con olling can only be lea ned on he job'. Simila ly, ano he manage ex- p essed he iew ha 'i you don' know wha you a e sup- posed o do, i you esponsibili ies a e no dea , i is impossible o make decisions o de elop he o he managemen skills'. A pessimis ic iew was ha 'mos Blacks don' ha e " eal jobs" because unc ions like planning and decision-making a e ypically ese ed o whi es. Blacks a e usually gi en a po - ion o an assignmen , no a comple e job; bosses end o delega e "li le" jobs'. In conjunc ion wi h he cla i ica ion o he job and i s e- qui emen s and app op ia e aining, manage s who a e com- mi ed o de eloping hei subo dina es should ensu e ha he job allows he employee o gain he p ac ice and expe ience which is necessa y o de elop hose skills which ha e been iden- i ied as aining needs. I is wo h no ing ha he 'manage- men unc ions' which we e iden i ied by Ho mey (1982) as he mos impo an aining needs comp ise cogni i e skills which a e somewha easie o lea n and de elop han, say, quali ies such as independence, lexibili y, o isk- aking p o- pensi y. Fu he mo e, he de elopmen s a egy being ecom- mended he e, namely job cla i ica ion and exposu e o mean- ing ul wo k, seems o be pa icula ly ele an o he de elop- men o hese 'p ac ical' skills. A logical ou come o he p ocess which has been ecom- mended abo e is an e alua ion o p og ess and pe o mance. Wi hou his, i is unlikely ha signi ican imp o emen s will be made. Me ely p ac ising a new skill does no gua an ee ha lea ning will ake place. Byham (1977: 3) commen s ha , 'Wi hou eedback ela i e o he success o quali y o pe o mance, a pe son canno imp o e ... The supe - iso s a s ou doing a poo job and keeps on epea ing he mis akes, because no-one ells him o he any hing di e en ly.' Educa ion and aining Rele an expe ience has o be supplemen ed wi h app op ia e educa ion and aining. Whe eas educa ion in he con ex o managemen de elopmen e e s o he a emp s o b oaden an indi idual in ellec ually wi h li le a en ion o immedia e job applica ion o he p og amme con en , aining in ol es he sys ema ic imp o emen o he speci ic skills, knowledge, s .. A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984. 15(2) o a i udes needed by an indi idual o do his cu en job. The disad an ages expe ienced by mos Blacks in e ms o hei educa ion a e many. A black manage who was in e - iewed commen ed ha , in his opinion, he damage done by he black educa ion sys em could ne e be ecouped. Nume ous Sou h A ican companies ha e a emp ed o deal di ec ly wi h he p oblems ela ing om he inadequa e o insu icien educa ion ecei ed by hei black employees. One app oach has been o employ compe en eache s o o ganize and o e educa ion o employees a e hou s, hus a o ding hem a 'se- cond chance' o ob ain a S anda d 8 o ma icula ion ce - i ica e. In iew o he emphasis placed on educa ion by black people, and he in luence which his educa ion can ha e on an employee's oppo uni ies, quali y o li e, and job com- pe ence, hese e o s should be encou aged. Howe e , while such an app oach may suppo he gene al de elopmen o employees, i canno be desc ibed as a speci ic, managemen de elopmen s a egy. Ano he app oach which has been adop ed by some Sou h A ican companies has been o design so-called 'b idging cou ses' o close he gap be ween he educa ion ecei ed and some o he basic demands o he employee's job. While un- doub edly he e may be some me i in hese p og ammes, o aspec s o hem, i should be no ed ha some o he black manage s who we e in e iewed by Ho mey (1982) exp essed doub s abou hei ole in black ad ancemen . The iew o one manage was ha he b idging cou ses and o he 'Blacks only' p og ammes encou age wha he e e ed o as a 'nega i e sel - ul illing p ophecy'; i po en ial black manage s we e con- sis en ly old ha hey we e 'disad an aged' and needed 'special aining', hey would begin o accep his and pe o m less well han hey migh . Ano he manage exp essed he opinion ha b idging cou ses can become an end in hemsel es i companies concen a e on he cou ses and no on de eloping black employees h ough meaning ul esponsibili y and job ex- pe ience. This was pa icula ly he case i he b idging p o- g amme ook place o e , say, a ew mon hs p io o he employee aking up his job, and was no in eg a ed in o he pe o mance o his job. Ye ano he manage wa ned o he us a ion which may esul om such a p og amme which was likely o be 'all heo y and no p ac ice'. In addi ion o he expe ience and on- he-job oppo uni ies which should be p o ided o po en ial manage s, aining which supplemen s wha is being lea ned on he job should also be p o ided. In he i s place, any job knowledge which is needed o he employee o ca y ou he echnical aspec s o his wo k mus be p o ided. (Al hough job knowledge was iden i ied as he mos impo an manage ial dimension, mos po en ial black manage s in Ho mey 's, 1982, s udy a ed well on his a ibu e and i was he e o e no iden i ied as an im- po an aining need.) Indeed, he 'managemen unc ions' we e highligh ed as he mos impo an aining needs. Wi h ega d o hese, Ho mey (1982) makes he ollowing ecom- menda ions: (a) aining in he managemen unc ions should be designed o suppo he employee's on- he-job expe ience in hese unc ions; (b) o acili a e a ans e o lea ning om he aining en- i onmen o he wo k si ua ion, aining should be in- eg a ed wi h on- he-job applica ion; (c) as a as possible, aining should be expe ien ial in na u e; (d) an eclec ic app oach o he use o di e en aining ap- p oaches should be encou aged: Ho mey (1982) e e s o he use o case s udies, c i e ion- e e enced ins uc ion and S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2) ole-plays as well as o o he adi ional me hods o aining. In addi ion o aining in he managemen skills, a en ion also needs o be paid o he adjus men o he black employee o he wo ld o wo k, his a i ude owa ds business and suc- cess in ha en i onmen , and he a i udes o his whi e col- leagues and supe io s owa ds him. The mo emen o black people om u al o u ban a eas and he di icul ies expe ienc- ed in adap ing o, and eeling com o able in, he business wo ld ha e been discussed elsewhe e (see o example, Human, 1981a). Nume ous o he w i e s ha e deal wi h he p oblems o accul u a ion: Bu ack, S aszak, and Pa i (1972:269), o ex- ample, desc ibe he p ocess as 'a majo challenge which is no eadily accomplished . . . '. Clea ly, bo h skills and a i udes need o be add essed. Whe e aining can be used o assis in he adjus men o employees o hei wo k and he no ms which domina e business, i should be encou aged. A he same ime, i should complemen he o he ac i i ies sugges ed he e o he de elop- men o po en ial black manage s: ac i i ies which ange om manpowe planning, o managemen aining, o suppo which has o be gi en by he o ganiza ion. These ac i i ies a e pa ly aimed a upg ading compe ence, bu in hemsel es also aim o b ing abou changes in he a i udes o employees and employe s owa ds black ad ancemen . The o ganiza ion The all-impo an ela ionship be ween he po en ial manage and his supe io has been e e ed o b ie ly abo e. The black manage s who we e in e iewed by Ho mey (1982) and Human (1981b; 1982) s essed ha po en ial manage s need en- cou agemen and suppo i hey a e o de elop. A numbe o hese manage s no ed ha he adi ional ela ionship be- ween whi e manage and black subo dina e was one o pa e - nalism. One manage commen ed ha : 'The e is a lo o pa e nalism . . . you can eel i . You ge he imp ession ha you manage is no alking openly o you and ha he is saying o himsel , "I mus no hu his pe son".' Wi h he emphasis which has been placed on oppo uni ies and expe ience as he majo de elopmen al p ocesses, i is clea ha , o he ex en ha hese elemen s do no exis , po en ial black manage de elopmen and ad ancemen a e no likely o ake place. So how can his p oblem be handled? A black aining manage , who was in e iewed by Ho mey (1982), commen ed ha he always insis s ha black and whi e employees a e ained oge he because his allows hem o mix wi h, and lea n abou , each o he in addi ion o wha is lea ned in he aining i sel . Fu he mo e, he had a anged ' aining' sessions o delibe a ely add ess he issues which we e causing ba ie s and p oblems be ween whi e and black employees so ha hese could be esol ed. As he aining manage , he had o ensu e a clima e and s uc u e du ing hese sessions which would encou age candou and objec i i y. His expe ience had been ha in eg a ed aining and sessions designed o deal wi h black/whi e ba ie s had led o g ea e unde s anding o he s eng hs and weaknesses o each o he and a disco e y on he pa o black pa icipan s ha hey we e 'jus as good as anyone else'. Clawson (1980), in his a emp o iden i y he cha ac e is ics o an e ec i e coach, d aws a en ion o he ac ha he ela- ionship be ween many whi e manage s and hei black subo - dina es is unlikely o con ain a 'coaching' componen . He has sugges ed aining p og ammes designed o ' each' manage s JOI how o be good coaches. In addi ion o he skills aining which Clawson includes in his aining, he issue o black-whi e a - i udes and unde s anding o each o he would also ha e o be add essed in a Sou h A ican p og amme. Clawson's (1982) aining co e s he ollowing opics: (a) on- he-job aining in co po a e li e oday; (b) coaching: a 'mac o- iew' o on- he-job aining (i) coaching de ined, (ii) lea ning implica ions in coaching; (c) unde s anding he adul lea ning p ocess: he c i ical ac- o o any manage who in ends o coach his people; (d) de elopmen o he coaching model (i) assessing, (ii) planning, (iii) in e iewing; (e) p oblem-cen ed cases in coaching. Some companies ha e adop ed a 'men o sys em' whe eby selec ed black employees ha e been assigned o a 'men o ' whose ole i is o assis in he de elopmen o he employee and, in pa icula , his in eg a ion in o he non- o mal sys ems and s uc u e in he company. Speci ic unc ions ou lined o men o s in one company (Reese, 1978) included he ollowing: (a) es ablish a p og amme o p ojec s o acili a e he employees' in e ac ion in and unde s anding o he company; (b) es ablish a ela ionship wi h he employee whe eby he has egula discussions wi h his men o ; (c) es ablish a p ocedu e wi hin he men o 's depa men (o a leas an a i ude in he men o 's depa men ) which will acili a e he lowe ing o any ensions and s imula e he in eg a ion o he employee in o he depa men ; (d) de elop, oge he wi h he pe sonnel depa men , p o- cedu es which will moni o he employee's p og ess in e ms o his pe o mance, mo i a ion, and mo ale. The ecommenda ion made ea lie ha manage and subo - dina e de ine he po en ial manage 's job, iden i y his ain- ing needs, and e iew his p og ess, imp o es he unde s an- ding which exis s be ween he wo indi iduals. This s uc u e p o ides a amewo k o egula discussion o pe o mance and p og ess. The o al en i onmen The en i onmen in which he black employee li es and wo ks will ha e an impac on his a i udes and beha iou in he wo k- place. An a i ude may be seen as a p edisposi ion o espond in a a ou able o un a ou able way o objec s, pe sons o concep s. Based upon his a i udes owa ds some hing, a pe - son is p edisposed o beha e in a pa icula way. A i udes a e acqui ed om pa en s, eache s and o he people who play an impo an pa in a pe son's li e. Thus a i udes a e lea n- ed: an indi idual acqui es a i udes h ough expe ience and in- e ac ion wi h he wo ld a ound him (Robbins, I 979). Some esea ch in o he a i udes o black employees owa ds wo k, o example, esea ch unde aken by Bhaga (1979), sug- ges s ha , in gene al, Ame ican blacks do no iden i y closely wi h he wes e n wo k e hic. And isani ( 1976) ound ha young and middle-aged black men in Ame ica we e consis en ly less 'in e nal' han whi es in hei ou look; hey pe cei ed li le pay- o o ini ia i e as hey el ha e en s and pe o mance we e de e mined la gely by e en s ou side o hei con ol. In Sou h A ica, Temple (1980) a gues ha , amongs black employees in gene al, he e is e idence o a lowe le el o iden i ica ion han whi e employees wi h he alues o he adi ional wo k e hic. He belie es ha ' his non-iden i ica ion wi h he wo k 102 e hic means ha black employees a e unable o pe o m as well as hei whi e colleagues, o o espond o challenging jobs' (I 980: 3). To he ex en ha hese a i udes and belie s exis among.g po en ial black manage s, he e may be a lack o com- mi men owa ds ad ancemen and managemen de elopmen . In Ho mey 's (1982) in e iews wi h senio black employees, he ound a conside able deg ee o commi men and mo i a- ion owa ds success and achie emen in managemen . Howe e , in Sou h A ica, he e is a undamen al di e ence in he expe ience o whi es and blacks and in he oppo uni ies a ailable o hem, and hese di e ences will, o a g ea e o lesse ex en , in luence he black employee's a i ude owa ds his wo k. One o he black manage s e e ed o 'a need o consis ency in he o al en i onmen o a manage '. The ' o al en i onmen ' included he legal en i onmen , he social en- i onmen and he poli ical en i onmen , and he a gued ha o he black pe son he e was an inconsis ency and unce - ain y associa ed wi h each o hese en i onmen s which would always p e en him om becoming pa o he 'whi e man's wo ld'. His iew was ha un il he e was a g ea e measu e o consis ency, black managemen de elopmen would be se e ely hampe ed (see also Human, 1981a; 1981b; and 1982). One black manage commen ed on a need o 'p epa e he en i onmen ' o black ad ancemen . Managemen should alk o he people who would be dealing wi h he black manage- men candida es and ad ise hem as o he a ionale behind, and p og ammes o , black ad ancemen . This manage el he e was no enough communica ion in companies abou wha hei plans and ac i i ies we e in e ms o black manage de elopmen . He also sugges ed ha managemen should com- munica e o o he companies wha hey we e doing o de elop manage s and, in pa icula , wha success hey we e ha ing. Th ough hese measu es, companies would c ea e a heal hie clima e o black ad ancemen , bo h in hei own o ganim- ion and in he business communi y in gene al. A numbe o black manage s e e ed o he es ic ions placed on blacks bo h in he pas and a p esen which p e en ed a ' ee en e p ise sys em': hey a e no ee o li e and wo k whe e hey please, o es ablish businesses whe e hey see oppo uni ies, o o ob ain he same bene i s and ad an- ages as whi es in business. These ac o s wiU con inue o se e as ba ie s o he ull inco po a ion o Blacks in o he business sys em and will a ec , di ec ly o indi ec ly, hei pe o mance and de elopmen (see also Human, 1981a; 1981b; 1982). All o hese poin s ela ing o he social, poli ical and economic en i onmen in which he black Sou h A ican manage mus unc ion lend especial suppo o Human's (1981a; 1981b) indings wi h ega d o he ma ginal posi ion o he black manage wi hin a whi e wo ld. Essen ially, Human (1981a; 1981b) a gues ha he black Sou h A ican manage is expec ed o unc ion in possibly h ee di e en wo lds. Fi s - ly, he is expec ed o unc ion in he wo ld o he black ownship and black u ban cul u e. Secondly, he is expec ed o unc ion as a 'Non-Whi e' in apa heid socie y. Thi dly, he has o con- end wi h he wo k si ua ion whe e he may be expec ed o unc. ion as an equal wi h his whi e colleagues. As he black manage 's posi ion in he wo k si ua ion (whe e he is ega ded as an equal o his whi e colleague) is inconsis en wi h his posi- ion in apa heid socie y, he e is small wonde ha he is con- used and ha his pe onnance in he wo k si ua ion may su e as a esul . Indeed, in iew o he inconsis encies, con lic s and ambigui ies h own up by in ol emen in hese h ee di e se and con lic ing en i onmen s, i is ha dly su p ising ha all o he black manage s in e iewed by Human (1981a; 1981b) S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15(2) desc ibed wha could be called an inne s ain o malaise wi h espec o hei wo k si ua ion. Many said ha in he wo k si ua ion, hey eel as hough hey 'do no belong'. The gene al eeling was ha black manage s a e li ing a schizoph enic ex- is ence: hey a e li ing in a no man's land be ween wo cul u al g oups; hey a e pa ially accep ed and pa ially ejec ed by he whi e wo ld in which hey a e expec ed o pe o m; hey ace he psychological bu den o no knowing 'whe e hey s and'; hey canno ake he knowledge hey equi e o p ac- ical compe ence in ou ine pe o mance o g an ed. The wo ld o he black manage is i e wi h inconsis encies on he socio-poli ical and cul u al le el which in u n a e exace ba ed by an a emp a in eg a ion in he wo k se ing. Thus, on op o cul u al inconsis encies, con lic s and ambigui ies and on op o being classi ied as a 'Non-Whi e' o he g ea e pa o he ime, he black manage is expec ed o unc ion as a Whi e in a whi e wo ld du ing his wo king day. This is in spi e o he ac ha he may ha e had li le p e ious exposu e o whi e in o mal ne wo ks, in spi e o he ac ha he may con on okenism in he wo k se ing; in spi e o he ac ha he may ecei e inadequa e exposu e and consul a ion; unequal emune a ion; hos ili y om he shop- loo ; a op-managemen policy o non-disc imina ion bu disc imina ion a lowe - managemen le els; unwilling sec e a ies; poo e p omo ion oppo uni ies; li le o wa d ca ee planning; disc imina ion on a social le el and encou agemen o be indi idualis ic while a he same ime being cons an ly eminded o his e hnic backg ound. The expe iences o he black manage in a whi e wo ld e ade adequa e desc ip ion unlike beha iou o pe o mance which can be bo h quan i ied and assessed. Lack o cla i y and quan- i ica ion should no , howe e , be ega ded as an excuse o dismissal. The ma ginal expe ience o he black manage is eal and, in some ins ances, acu e. Thus Jones (1973) desc ib- ing his expe iences o 'Wha i 's like o be a black manage ' in he USA, which p o esses a philosophy o acial in eg a- ion in all sphe es o li e, pu s o wa d an a gumen e y simila o hose pu o wa d by he black manage s in e iewed in Sou h A ica. Jones's (1973) expe iences highligh a phenomenon - he ma ginal si ua ion - which he himsel admi s he did no unde s and a he ime. Jones (1973) was a black man in a unique posi ion in a whi e company; he was anxious because o in e nal con lic s and con used because o ex e nal inconsis encies. His lack o p e ious exposu e o whi e in o mal ne wo ks, his own need o 'p o e' himsel , o ganiza- ional inconsis encies, cul u al di e ences and abo e, and in- cluding all, his ma ginal posi ion a ec ed his pe o mance. Ac- co ding o Jones (1973: 116), he ne e ec o his expe iences is, mo eo e , simila o ha o o he black people wi h whom he has discussed he ma e . F om hese indings, i would appea ha he p oblems aced by he black manage a e no unique o Sou h A ica bu a e a he gene alimble o anyone wi h a black skin who a emp s o unc ion in an e s while whi e wo ld. Such p oblems esul mo eo e no only om cul u al, educa ional and disc imi- na o y ac o s, bu also om he peculia si ua ion - he ma ginal si ua ion -in which he black manage inds himsel . The black manage who is aced wi h a wholly disc imina o y sys em is no ma ginal; he knows p ecisely 'whe e he s ands'. I is he black manage who is in ce ain ways ejec ed o disc imina ed agains and a he same ime and in ce ain o he sphe es accep ed as an equal who con on s p oblems o a ma ginal na u e. Thus, e en in he USA, a his o y o acial disc imina ion and he eac ion o ce ain indi iduals owa ds S. A . J. Bus. Mgml. 1984, 15(2) a black skin, oge he wi h a lack o p e ious exposu e o a speci ically whi e in o mal ne wo k, pu Jones (1973) in a posi- ion in which he could no ake his wo k-wo ld o g an ed; he was ne e qui e su e o how pa icula indi iduals we e go- ing o eac o him and he could ne e qui e dismiss he ac ha he was black om his mind. The implica ions o he ma ginal si ua ion could be cons ued as sugges ing ha black people should be employed by companies which employ only black people and which a e owned and un by Blacks. This is undoub edly one solu ion. Howe e , humaneness and economic eali y sugges he diame ically opposed solu ion. In o de o Sou h A ica o unc ion iably and peace ully, we mus examine he e ec s he ma ginal si ua ion has on black manage s and a emp o ind solu ions o hei dilemma. Ou ask is o educe he con lic s, inconsis encies and ambigui ies wi h which black manage s a e aced in o de ha hei pe - o mance in he wo k si ua ion migh no only imp o e, bu also be meaning ul o hem. Ini ially, howe e , le us examine he e ec s he ma ginal si ua ion may ha e on he pe o mance o he black manage . The inconsis encies, ambigui ies and con lic s con on ed by he black manage would appea o lea e him doub ul o whe e his loyal ies lie. They also c ea e a le el o s ain and sensi i i y which, i is acknowledged, may a y om indi idual o indi idual. The cumula i e e ec s o he ma ginal si ua- ion may, howe e , a ec he pe o mance o he black mana- ge in he wo k si ua ion. In o he wo ds, unde pe o mance, a lack o asse i eness o sel -asse ion, a ilia i e endencies, ension, dissa is ac ion and he like, may no on( esul om cul u al ac o s, an in e io educa ion sys em and disc imina- ion, bu also om he inconsis encies, ambigui ies and con- lic wi h which black manage s a e aced. Al hough esea ch in his a ea is nee<;led, li e a u e pe aining o ole con lic and ole ambigui y, concep s which may well be ela ed in some way o ma ginali y, sugges ha ambigui y and con lic may well cause lowe p oduc i i y, ension, dissa is ac ion and psychological wi hd awal om he wo k g oup (see, o ex- ample, Van Sell e al, 1981). I would hus appea ha he ma ginal si ua ion may be a pa ial cause o p oblems p e ious- ly associa ed wi h cul u e, educa ion and disc imina ion and ha ou ailu e o ecognize i s impo ance may go some way owa ds explaining a pe sis en ly unsa is ac o y le el o pe - o mance amongs some black manage s. I his is he case, hen we mus commence he sea ch o ways in which incon- sis encies, ambigui ies and con lic s can be educed. Many o he s a egies discussed ea lie will ob iously ha e spin-o s in e ms o a educ ion in ma ginali y. Fo mo e sensi i e in- di iduals, howe e , such s a egies may ha e o be exagge a ed in o de o p oduce a ou able esul s. Fo example, he de ini- ion o Key Pe o mance A eas would gi e he black manage a clea idea o his oles and esponsibili ies is-a- is hose o o he manage s, and cha ges o disc imina ion o window d essing could hus be dismissed. Mo eo e , a s anda d e alua- ion p ocedu e could be de eloped wi h espec o he Key Pe - o mance A eas o all manage s. E alua ions would, howe e , ha e o be discussed wi h he pa icula manage s conce ned in o de ha hey migh be seen as easonable and objec i e and as oid o any disc imina o y o e ones. Black manage s could also, as s a ed ea lie , be placed in he ca e o sympa he ic men o s who would a emp o sha e he bu den o he machina ions o he in o mal o ganiza ion. In his ega d, Jones (1973: 115) sugges s an app aisal o manage s on hei con ibu ions o he company's equal oppo uni y objec i es. Acco ding o Jones (1973: 115), 'The en i e managemen eam mus be mo i a ed o change any deep belie s abou who does and doesn' i wi h ega d o colo . Acco dingly, companies should use he app aisal sys em o make he wel a e o he black ainee coinciden wi h he well-being o his supe io . Such ac ion, o cou se, will p obably ecei e conside able esis ance om middle -and lowe -le el managemen . Bu manage s a e app aised on hei abili- y o each o he impo an objec i es; and, mo e signi ican ly, he inclusion o his a ea in app aisals signals o e e yone in ol ed ha a company is se ious. Failu e o ake his s ep signals business as usual and adds o any c edibili y gap be ween he company and black employees'. I03 Mo eo e , his kind o app aisal sys em mo i a es he men- o o school he black ainee in he eali ies o he poli ical p ocess in he o ganiza ion. Acco ding o Jones (1973) no one can su i e in an o ganiza ion wi hou his kind o in o ma- ion. Jones (1973: 115) also sugges s unques ionable op managemen in ol emen in and commi men o well hough - ou plans o equal oppo uni y and di ec wo-way channels o communica ion be ween op managemen and ainee black manage s. Wi h ega d o he la e , i would appea ha Jones (1973) is aci ly ecognizing a p oblem pa icula ly pe inen o he Sou h A ican con ex , namely, ha o esis ance on he pa o i s line whi e manage s who may eel ha hei jobs a e h ea ened. Jones (1973) a gues ha open channels o communica ion acili a e he in e cession o a disin e es ed pa y i he black ainee inds a pa icula si ua ion p o- blema ic. Mo eo e , Jones (1973: ll5) eels ha , 'Clea channels o communica ion will also enable op managemen o p o ide empa he ic sou ces o counsel o help he new black ainee comba he po en ially c ippling pa anoia ha I encoun e ed. I didn' know whom o us ; consequen ly, I us ed no one. The counsel o ma u e and p o en black execu i es will also help mi iga e his pa anoia.' In he inal analysis, i would appea ha a mo al commi - men by o ganiza ions o equal oppo uni y is no enough. In o de o su moun he inconsis encies in he o al en i onmen o he black manage , op managemen mus no only be com- mi ed o black ad ancemen bu mus also be seen as com- mi ed by i s en i e wo k o ce. Conclusions and discussion In his a icle we ha e a emp ed o ake a b ie look no only a he s a egies which could be employed owa ds he solu- ion o he p oblems aced by bo h he black manage and his employing o ganiza ion, bu also a he possibili y o p o- iding a en a i e o mula o decisions ela ing o he amoun o ime, money and e o which should be expended on e o s o amelio a e p oblems o his kind. I has been a gued ha a emp s o success ully in oduce black manage s in o an e s while 'whi e' wo ld will equi e a combined socio-economic me hod o decision-making. In o he wo ds, i would appea ha , in he majo i y o o ganiza ions which a e a emp ing o in eg a e black manage s in o hei manage ial s uc u es, i is necessa y o de o e esou ces o he pa ial esolu ion o con lic whils a he same ime no de ac ing om goal achie emen aims. I has u he been a gued ha sho - un esou ce alloca ion wi h ega d o social e sus economic ends should be based on a compa ison o he ela i e equilib ium o g ow h condi ions in he economic and social sys ems wi hin he o ganiza ion. In he long- un, a second p inciple - which