UN arms embargoes under scrutiny: Obstacles and options for an effective contribution to conflict resolution

Vo a h, Judi h
Resea ch Repo
UN a ms emba goes unde sc u iny: Obs acles and
op ions o an e ec i e con ibu ion o con lic esolu ion
SWP Resea ch Pape , No. 12/2024
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
S i ung Wissenscha und Poli ik (SWP), Ge man Ins i u e o In e na ional and Secu i y A ai s,
Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Vo a h, Judi h (2024) : UN a ms emba goes unde sc u iny: Obs acles and
op ions o an e ec i e con ibu ion o con lic esolu ion, SWP Resea ch Pape , No. 12/2024,
S i ung Wissenscha und Poli ik (SWP), Be lin,
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SWP Resea ch Pape
S i ung Wissenscha und Poli ik
Ge man Ins i u e o
In e na ional and Secu i y A ai s
Judi h Vo a h
UN A ms Emba goes
unde Sc u iny
Obs acles and Op ions o an E ec i e
Con ibu ion o Con lic Resolu ion
SWP Resea ch Pape 12
Sep embe 2024, Be lin
Abs ac
∎ The e a e s ill a numbe o UN a ms emba goes in place o p e en he
low o a ms and mili a y ma e ial in o con lic zones. Al hough he
UN Secu i y Council is no gene ally deadlocked on his issue, i has only
aken ele an decisions o e-design he emba goes in a ew cases o e
he las en yea s.
∎ Recen amending decisions ha e essen ially c ea ed o ex ended excep-
ions o exemp ions o he secu i y o ces o he espec i e na ional go -
e nmen . This is in ended o s eng hen hem agains non-s a e a med
g oups.
∎ Accompanying con ol mechanisms a e inc easingly con o e sial – bo h
wi h he coun ies conce ned and among he membe s o he Secu i y
Council. A he same ime, meaning ul poli ical guidance on he emba -
goes and hei adap a ion o he espec i e con lic si ua ion ha e p o en
o be di icul .
∎ This s udy ocuses p ima ily on he ela i ely ac i e UN a ms emba goes
on Somalia, Libya, he Democ a ic Republic o he Congo and he Cen al
A ican Republic. Fo hose, i e eals o e a ching challenges in imple-
men a ion and en o cemen : a) smuggling and i egula supplies, which
also e lec he inc easing in e na ionaliza ion o con lic s, b) excep ions
and exemp ions o go e nmen o ces whe e he e is a high isk o
weapons being di e ed om o icial s ocks, and c) inc eased use o ech-
nologies such as d ones and imp o ised explosi e de ices, whose compo-
nen s would ha e o be con olled as dual use goods.
∎ This sugges s a need o u he e o ms o a ms emba goes. Abo e all,
howe e , hey need o be be e linked o poli ical p ocesses, especially
hose in he a ec ed egion. A ms emba goes can also be use ul o ob ain
access o mo e o be e in o ma ion o as a ba gaining chip is-à- is he
in e na ionally ecognized go e nmen .
SWP Resea ch Pape
S i ung Wissenscha und Poli ik
Ge man Ins i u e o
In e na ional and Secu i y A ai s
Judi h Vo a h
UN A ms Emba goes
unde Sc u iny
Obs acles and Op ions o an E ec i e Con ibu ion
o Con lic Resolu ion
SWP Resea ch Pape 12
Sep embe 2024, Be lin
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DOI: 10.18449/2024RP12
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Table o Con en s
5 Issues and Recommenda ions
7 In oduc ion: UN A ms Emba goes
in he Con ex o A med Con lic s
10 UN A ms Emba goes since he Sanc ions Decade
10 Re o ms a e he Bonn-Be lin p ocess
14 Imp o ed impac in he 2000s
16 Design and Implemen a ion o UN A ms Emba goes:
Cu en Challenges
16 Poli ical amewo k: Decisions o he Secu i y Council on
cu en emba goes
33 Moni o ing implemen a ion: challenges and weaknesses
40 Towa ds a Sma e Use o UN A ms Emba goes:
S a ing Poin s and Condi ions
42 Abb e ia ions
D Judi h Vo a h is a Senio Associa e in he
In e na ional Secu i y Di ision a SWP.
SWP Be lin
UN A ms Emba goes unde Sc u iny
Sep embe 2024
5
Issues and Recommenda ions
UN A ms Emba goes unde Sc u iny:
Obs acles and Op ions o an E ec i e
Con ibu ion o Con lic Resolu ion
No o he ype o UN sanc ions has been imposed as
equen ly as he a ms emba go. Vi ually all cu en
Uni ed Na ions sanc ions egimes aimed a esol ing
a med con lic s and suppo ing peace p ocesses in-
clude such an emba go. I hus emains an impo an
pa o he oolbox unde Chap e VII o he UN Cha -
e . Ne e heless, he e is li le ecen e idence o i s
impac and e ec i eness. Many o he emba goes s ill
in o ce a e aimed a a med con lic s ha ha e been
going on o a long ime and seem deadlocked. The
ac ha a ms emba goes ha e been unable o change
his o e all si ua ion is o en seen as p oo o hei
ine ec i eness.
Findings show ha a ious e o ms in he 2000s
ha e ce ainly imp o ed compliance wi h and imple-
men a ion o a ms emba goes. Howe e , i is no only
UN sanc ions ha ha e been ans o med signi ican ly
in he las en yea s; he (secu i y) poli ical en i on-
men has also changed. This may ha e c ea ed new
o highe hu dles ha s and in he way o emba goes
making an e ec i e con ibu ion o con lic esolu-
ion. This s udy he e o e concen a es on how UN
a ms emba goes as an ins umen ha e de eloped,
how hey a e used by he Secu i y Council, and wha
he challenges a e in hei implemen a ion. The key
ques ion is wha obs acles exis o such emba goes
making an e ec i e con ibu ion o con lic esolu-
ion, and wha le e age he ins umen s ill o e s
unde changing condi ions.
Fo eigh o he cu en UN a ms emba goes in
con lic con ex s, his s udy aces how hey ha e
been designed, implemen ed and used poli ically o e
ime. In p inciple, UN membe s a es a e esponsible
o implemen ing hem. Howe e , he UN Secu i y
Council (UNSC) imposes and designs a ms emba goes
and he sanc ions commi ees as i s subsidia y o gans
moni o hei implemen a ion. The commi ees also
ha e ce ain decision-making powe s; o example,
hey can place pe sons o en i ies on sanc ions lis s
o app o e supplies in acco dance wi h exemp ions
o a ms emba goes.
The UNSC has been ela i ely ac i e in ou cases –
including in he las en yea s: he a ms emba goes
Issues and Recommenda ions
SWP Be lin
UN A ms Emba goes unde Sc u iny
Sep embe 2024
6
on Somalia, he Democ a ic Republic o he Congo
(DRC), Libya and he Cen al A ican Republic (CAR).
They will be he main ocus o his analysis. In hese
cases, he emba goes we e imposed unde e y di e -
en ci cums ances, bu all ollowed a simila pa e n
la e . They we e adap ed o suppo an in e na ionally
ecognized go e nmen in consolida ing and expand-
ing i s au ho i y in he ace o only pa ial o un-
sus ainable peace ag eemen s. Thei key objec i e
is o cu he low o weapons o non-s a e ac o s
ha hinde con lic esolu ion, while excep ions o
exemp ions o go e nmen secu i y o ces allow
hem o ecei e ex e nal suppo .
This ype o adap a ion is based on ce ain expec-
a ions as o how he espec i e poli ical p ocess will
de elop. Whe e hese did no ma e ialize in he cases
examined, i was di icul o espond wi h u he
changes, pa ly because he go e nmen s o he coun-
ies conce ned a e inc easingly calling o he UN
a ms emba goes o be li ed al oge he . Di e gences
a e also g owing among Secu i y Council membe s
as o whe he and unde wha condi ions emba goes
could be li ed. A u he di icul y is ha he UNSC’s
a en ion o indi idual a med con lic s ends o luc-
ua e. Depending on na ional in e es s among elec ed
and pe manen membe s o he body, objec i es o he
han se ling and esol ing he con lic gain ele ance,
such as he igh agains in e na ional e o ism
o he expansion o sphe es o in luence. This may
collide wi h he p o isions o he a ms emba go,
especially as he e a e impo an manu ac u e s and
supplie s o weapons and mili a y equipmen among
UNSC membe s.
Such aspec s complica e he poli ical s ee ing o
a ms emba goes as a means o con lic esolu ion –
e en mo e eason o ocus on how hei implemen-
a ion and en o cemen can be imp o ed. The e a e
a ious s a ing poin s o his in he UN a chi ec u e,
in pa icula h ough he now common moni o ing
by expe g oups ha wo k wi h he espec i e sanc-
ions commi ee. Thei epo s – hose which a e
publicly a ailable – e eal a numbe o o e a ching
challenges in he ou “ac i e” co e cases being ad-
d essed in his s udy. Fi s , smuggling and i egula
supplies o a ms and mili a y equipmen e lec how
egionally and in e na ionally in e wined he a med
con lic s a e. In addi ion, he excep ions and exemp-
ions om he emba goes ha exis o he espec i e
go e nmen ’s secu i y o ces no only make moni o -
ing mo e di icul , bu hey can also unde mine he
goal o s eng hening s a e au ho i y, as he e is a
high isk in con lic a eas ha weapons and ammuni-
ion will be di e ed om o icial s ocks. In he con-
lic con ex s examined, echnologies such as a med
o una med d ones and imp o ised explosi e de ices
(IEDs) a e also inc easingly being used. This makes he
al eady di icul ques ion o he ex en o which dual-
use goods a e co e ed by UN a ms emba goes e en
mo e powe ul.
Fu he need o e o m can be de i ed om hese
challenges. Fo example, exis ing ambigui ies in a ms
emba go egula ions should be cla i ied, pa icula ly
ega ding hei exac scope and he exemp ions p o-
ided o . O e all, howe e , he eal obs acles o an
e ec i e con ibu ion o con lic esolu ion lie else-
whe e. As his analysis shows, decisions on emba -
goes a e less abou pe manen blockades in he UNSC
han abou a lack o linkage be ween poli ical goals
and he espec i e con lic dynamics and changing
condi ions o peace e o s. P e en ing he uncon-
olled low o weapons and o he mili a y equipmen
in o con lic a eas is s ill an ob ious app oach. How-
e e , he design o a ms emba goes has o be con inu-
ously adap ed o he con lic and o changes in access
o mili a y ma e ial. This is he only way in which
emba goes can also be used as an e ec i e ba gaining
chip. Whe e his op ion does no exis , in o ma ion
om UN moni o ing can a leas be used in o he
ways – o example, i he EU is conside ing impos-
ing i s own a ms emba go o igh ening an exis ing
one in case a UN emba go is e mina ed o eased.
Re o ms a e he Bonn-Be lin p ocess
SWP Be lin
UN A ms Emba goes unde Sc u iny
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13
on an annual basis.
26
These limi s a e in ended o
encou age he Secu i y Council o conside possible
changes in he si ua ion on he g ound and o decide
whe he he emba go should be ex ended, suspended
o adjus ed. I will end i no new decision is eached.
Exemp ions ha e also become an in eg al pa
o many a ms emba goes, allowing UN peacekeep-
ing missions o o he in e na ional missions o be
equipped and non-le hal mili a y equipmen o be
supplied o exclusi ely humani a ian pu poses.
27
This is o p e en sanc ions om es ic ing in e na-
ional suppo e o s, in pa icula peace ope a ions
by he UN, egional o ganiza ions such as he A ican
Union (AU) o he EU as well as aining missions
o o he in e na ional a angemen s o imp o e he
secu i y si ua ion.
The Bonn-Be lin p ocess iden i ied a whole ange
o s a ing poin s o imp o ing he legal and admin-
26
In addi ion, he pa ial li ing o he gene al emba go
agains Somalia is ime-limi ed.
27
This was pa o he ecommenda ions o he Bonn-
Be lin p ocess, see B zoska, ed., Design and Implemen a ion
o A ms Emba goes and T a el and A ia ion Rela ed Sanc ions
(see no e 12), 31.
is a i e basis o implemen a ion a na ional le el.
These included, o example, making iola ions o UN
a ms emba goes a punishable o ense o enac ing p o-
isions in he membe s a es o eeze and con isca e
asse s om he p oceeds o illegal a ms supplies.
28
The ex en o which hese and o he p oposals ha e
changed he s uc u es and p ac ices in he indi idual
s a es is di icul o asce ain, due o a lack o sys em-
a ic o e iews. The majo i y o sanc ions egimes
include a call on all UN membe s o epo on hei
implemen a ion. In ac , howe e , only a mino i y
o coun ies do so – and no a egula in e als o
acco ding o uni o m s anda ds. As a esul , meaning-
ul in o ma ion on he implemen a ion o a ms em-
ba goes is no a ailable ac oss he boa d. This is one
eason why he moni o ing o implemen a ion has
been g adually expanded in he UN sys em.
A he hea o he go e nance s uc u e ou lined
in Figu e 2 ha has eme ged is he espec i e sanc-
ions commi ee, which epo s o he Secu i y Coun-
cil as a subsidia y body. The 15 membe s a es o he
Secu i y Council a e ep esen ed on each commi ee.
Howe e , decisions a e made by consensus, meaning
28
Ibid., 100.
Figu e 2
Re o ms a e he Bonn-Be lin p ocess

UN A ms Emba goes since he Sanc ions Decade
SWP Be lin
UN A ms Emba goes unde Sc u iny
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14
ha non-pe manen membe s can also p e en deci-
sions om being made. As a ule, he commi ee is
chai ed by an elec ed membe s a e. The chai can
ini ia e consul a ions i he e is no consensus on an
issue and e e he ma e o he Secu i y Council i
no decision ma e ializes.
The main pu pose o he commi ees is o s eng hen
he implemen a ion o he sanc ions by he membe
s a es and o ake app op ia e measu es i in o ma-
ion is a ailable abou suspec ed cases o non-com-
pliance o iola ions o measu es. The commi ees
a e suppo ed by he UN Sec e a ia . UN Panels o
Expe s (PoEs) we e also in oduced in he 2000s o
be e moni o sanc ions. Essen ially, hey collec ,
e iew and analyse in o ma ion on he implemen a-
ion o sanc ions and on indi iduals and en i ies ha
could be lis ed unde a speci ic egime. The PoEs
epo egula ly o he commi ee and can also make
ecommenda ions o imp o e he e ec i eness o
sanc ions.
The c ea ion o hese expe panels was a key
e o m, as hei in es iga ions and ecommenda ions
p o ide he sanc ions commi ee wi h aluable in o -
ma ion and hold membe s a es mo e accoun able,
pa icula ly h ough naming and shaming.
29
The
PoEs also helped o imp o e he UN sanc ions sys em
and he unde s anding o sanc ions, especially in
s a es wi h low capaci ies. Cu en UN egimes aimed
a con lic esolu ion include such expe g oups o
moni o ing eams – which also include speci ic a ms
expe ise i an a ms emba go has been imposed.
30
To en o ce emba goes, he Secu i y Council e-
quen ly au ho izes membe s a es o inspec on hei
e i o y suspicious ca go owa ds he a ge a ea
and o con isca e and dispose o p ohibi ed weapons,
ammuni ion o o he mili a y equipmen seized in
he p ocess – ins ead o simply sending he shipmen
back, o example. In ce ain cases, such as Somalia
and Libya, he UNSC has also au ho ized o he mem-
be s a es o egional o ganiza ions o inspec suspi-
cious ships o he coas s o hese s a es.
Some UN peacekeeping missions also ha e a man-
da e o moni o he implemen a ion o a ms emba -
goes in coope a ion wi h he PoEs. This can include –
29
In p inciple, seconda y sanc ions can also be imposed
on s a es in case o pe sis en iola ions, al hough his has
only happened wice so a in he UN con ex : agains E i ea
and Libe ia.
30
Amongs hese, only he I aq emba go is no moni o ed
by an expe panel.
as, o example, in he DRC and CAR – he con isca-
ion and collec ion o weapons and o he goods ha
we e impo ed in iola ion o he emba go. The in-
ol emen o peacekeeping missions in he imple-
men a ion and en o cemen o a ms emba goes was
also an impo an conce n o he Bonn-Be lin p o-
cess.
31
Al hough he adjus men s and changes ou -
lined abo e did no always go as a as he o iginal
e o m ecommenda ions, UN a ms emba goes ha e
de eloped subs an ially since he 1990s. Bu ha e
hey also become mo e e ec i e as a esul ?
Imp o ed impac in he 2000s
O e all, he e ec i eness o a ms emba goes and
o he sanc ions emains con o e sial.
32
This is pa ly
because di e en assessmen c i e ia a e used. E en i
sanc ions ail o achie e he cen al goal o changing
he beha iou o a ge ed ac o s, hey can s ill lead
o o he desi ed esul s. I implemen ed consis en ly,
a ms emba goes can a leas limi a con lic – jus
as economic sanc ions can limi he abili y o ce ain
ac o s o coun ies o wage wa .
33
In ac , a ious s udies sugges ha he e ec o
a ms emba goes has been imp o ed by he e o ms.
UN and o he mul ila e al emba goes ha e in some
cases signi ican ly educed he a ms impo s o a ec ed
s a es and g oups.
34
The success a e – measu ed by
signi ican changes in a ms impo beha iou – was
also signi ican ly highe when he emba goes we e
31
B zoska, ed., Design and Implemen a ion o A ms Emba goes
and T a el and A ia ion Rela ed Sanc ions (see no e 12), 116 .
32
Pa s o he ollowing sec ion we e published in Judi h
Vo a h, “The E olu ion o UN A ms Emba goes in Con lic
Se ings: S umbling Blocks o E ec i e Implemen a ion”,
in Mul ila e al Sanc ions Re isi ed: Lessons Lea ned om Ma ga e
Doxey, ed. And ea Cha on and Cla a Po ela (Mon eal &
Kings on, London, and Chicago: McGill-Queen’s Uni e si y
P ess, 2022), 133–47.
33
Ma ga e Doxey, “Sanc ions h ough he Looking Glass:
The Spec um o Goals and Achie emen s”, In e na ional
Jou nal 2, no. 55 (2000): 207–23 (220).
34
Michael B zoska and Geo ge A. Lopez, “Pu ing Tee h in
he Tige : Policy Conclusions o E ec i e A ms Emba goes”,
in Pu ing Tee h in he Tige : Imp o ing he E ec i eness o A ms
Emba goes, ed. idem, Con ibu ions o Con lic Managemen ,
Peace Economics and De elopmen , ol. 10 (Bingley, UK:
Eme ald G oup, 2009), 243–54 (243).
Imp o ed impac in he 2000s
SWP Be lin
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15
pa o a package o sanc ions.
35
This unde lines ha
i was an impo an s ep o mo e away om s and-
alone UN a ms emba goes. Howe e , as expec ed, he
success a e p o ed o be much lowe when a ge
beha iou a he han ac ual a ms impo s was used
as a c i e ion.
36
O cou se, educing impo s does no mean s op-
ping he low o weapons, ammuni ion and mili a y
aid o con lic zones. I o icial a ms deals a e banned,
non-s a e ac o s can s ep in o compensa e o he ban
wi h supplies ia he black ma ke . Ce ain UN mem-
be s a es may also p e e o igno e emba goes o
poli ical o economic easons and (con inue o) supply
a ms and mili a y ma e ial. In o he cases, hey may
simply no p e en deli e ies and ans e s. This can
be due o a lack o capaci y, as many coun ies do
no ha e e ec i e sys ems o con ol he expo and
ansi o goods. Howe e , he e can o cou se also be
poli ical easons o di ec ly o indi ec ly unde min-
ing an emba go. Such in e es s ha e o be weighed
agains he cos s o iola ions o a ms emba goes o
non-compliance wi h hem. Whe he he measu e
is e ec i ely moni o ed and en o ced con inues o
depend hea ily on in luen ial s a es ha p oduce and
ade in weapons hemsel es.
37
The i e pe manen
membe s o he UNSC a e also he s a es in which
he companies wi h he highes a ms e enues a e
based.
38
A s udy on he expo beha iou o s a es showed
ha hei ans e s we e indeed es ic ed by a ms
emba goes. In he case o mul ila e al emba goes,
ex e nal en o cemen mechanisms did no e en
appea o be necessa y o he supplying s a es o
comply wi h he ban.
39
This indica es a poli ical
35
Michael B zoska, Measu ing he E ec i eness o A ms Emba -
goes, Pape O iginally P esen ed a he Annual Con en ion
o he In e na ional S udies Associa ion 2007, Chicago, 28
Feb ua y – 3 Ma ch 2007, 14.
36
F ucha e al., Uni ed Na ions A ms Emba goes (see no e 5),
40.
37
Da id Co igh , Geo ge A. Lopez and Linda Ge be ,
Sanc ions Sans Commi men : An Assessmen o UN A ms Emba goes
(Wa e loo, ON: P ojec Ploughsha es, 2002), 11.
38
SIPRI, The SIPRI Top 100 A ms-p oducing and Mili a y Se ices
Companies, 2022, SIPRI Fac Shee (Solna, Decembe 2023), 5,
h ps://www.sip i.o g/si es/de aul / iles/2023-11/ s_2312_ op_
100_2022.pd (accessed 5 Decembe 2023).
39
Jenni e L. E ickson, “S opping he Legal Flow o
Weapons: Compliance wi h A ms Emba goes, 1981–2004”,
Jou nal o Peace Resea ch 50, no. 2 (2013): 159–74 (168).
binding e ec , al hough ha e ec appea s o ha e
weakened in he inal yea s o he pe iod unde e iew.
This poin s o a cen al p oblem ha a ises when
ying o assess he impac and e ec i eness o a ms
emba goes – many o he a ailable indings da e
back o he 2000s. A ha ime, he e we e indica-
ions ha he emba goes we e becoming mo e e ec-
i e, e en i hei ul ima e objec i es emained un-
achie ed.
40
Howe e , he si ua ion has changed in
many espec s since hen. To assess he cu en chal-
lenges in he design and implemen a ion o a ms
emba goes – and hus hei e ec s – i is necessa y
o analyse how decision-making and p ac ice wi hin
he UN amewo k ha e e ol ed mo e ecen ly.
40
B zoska, “Geziel e Sank ionen als Mi el de Kon lik -
einhegung in A ika” (see no e 15), 214.
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The UNSC is no only esponsible o imposing a ms
emba goes bu also o changing o li ing hem. As
has been shown, hei design has e ol ed signi ican ly.
Howe e , each indi idual case di e s om o he s –
i only in whe he and how he UNSC adap s he
emba go o e ime. The i s pa o his chap e deals
wi h such adjus men s in he con ex o he espec i e
objec i e – i.e. he ques ion o wha he a ms em-
ba go is in ended o achie e in he ele an con lic
con ex and which o e a ching poli ical goals i is in-
ended o suppo . Ano he key poin is he moni o -
ing o he emba go by he PoEs suppo ing he espec-
i e sanc ions commi ee. Thei epo s, as well as
he use ha is made o hem, poin o e y speci ic
obs acles o implemen a ion and en o cemen . The
second pa o his chap e he e o e analyses key
indings on a ms emba goes ha ha e eme ged om
expe panel epo s since 2015.
41
The ongoing UN a ms emba goes in con lic con-
ex s, which a e lis ed in Figu e 3, o m he basis o
he ollowing analysis. The Sou h Sudan emba go is
excluded because i has only exis ed o a ela i ely
sho ime. As he lis shows, he a ms emba goes
ac ually di e signi ican ly in hei design and ele-
an p o isions.
41
The da abase o hese analyses and he associa ed
igu es is eely accessible a GESIS unde DOI 10.7802/2673.
I would like o hank Ma ia Dellasega and Lau a Ma cela
Zuñiga o hei ac i e and compe en suppo in collec ing
and e alua ing a ious da a sou ces, including he PoE
epo s. I would also like o hank Michael B zoska and
Sascha Lohmann o hei e y help ul and cons uc i e
commen s on ea lie d a s. As he au ho , I am o cou se
esponsible o all con en .
Poli ical amewo k: Decisions o he
Secu i y Council on cu en emba goes
This s udy assumes ha he conc e e implemen a ion
o sanc ions and hei use as a poli ical ins umen
a e closely linked. I is ue ha sanc ions can also
ha e an impac wi hou being e ec i ely implemen ed,
o example i a ge ed pe sons o g oups pe cei e
hei me e imposi ion as s igma izing. Bu e en hen,
a ce ain c i ical poin s in a con lic , he ques ion
will a ise whe he he UNSC mus adap o (pa ially)
li he sanc ions. Many o he exis ing con lic - ela ed
egimes wi h a ms emba goes ha e been in place o
a long ime. When egimes we e ended – such as
hose o Libe ia and Cô e d’I oi e in 2016 – his ol-
lowed con lic se lemen s and poli ical ansi ion
phases ha we e conside ed ela i ely success ul. The
cu en UN egimes ela e p ima ily o p o ac ed io-
len con lic s ha ha e so a eluded a las ing solu-
ion, which is o en seen as e idence o he ailu e
o he measu es adop ed. As only ela i ely ew new
sanc ions egimes ha e been adop ed (six in he las
en yea s),
42
he pa icula ly complica ed cases may
be hose emaining. Howe e , i is also concei able
ha he UNSC is less and less willing o able o use
his ins umen e ec i ely and adap i o changing
condi ions. This would esul in “ges u e sanc ions”,
43
which con inue o exis p ima ily o symbolic pu -
poses, wi hou compliance necessa ily being expec ed.
The i s s ep is he e o e o de e mine how he
Secu i y Council has ac ually used a ms emba goes as
an ins umen o e he las en yea s. The changes o
42
I.e. om 2013 o he end o 2022.
43
Doxey, “Sanc ions h ough he Looking Glass”
(see no e 33), 213.
Design and Implemen a ion
o UN A ms Emba goes:
Cu en Challenges
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he emba goes (see Figu e 4, p. 13)
44
will se e as a
guide and will subsequen ly be placed in he poli i-
cal con ex and he esponses o he espec i e iolen
con lic s.
Symbolic a ms emba goes?
When he UNSC is la gely inac i e
I aq
In he case o some a ms emba goes, he UNSC has
been la gely inac i e, as Figu e 4 shows. Unde he
I aq egime, he e has been no change since an excep-
ion was g an ed in 2004, allowing supplies o he
go e nmen and mul ina ional o ces. This egime,
which ollowed he UN comp ehensi e ade es ic-
ions agains I aq in he wake o he Gul c isis o
1990–91, ep esen s he shi owa ds mo e a ge ed
sanc ions in he UN sys em. Howe e , i has been
44
A dis inc ion is made be ween “exemp ions”, which
equi e no i ica ion o o app o al by he espec i e sanc-
ions commi ee and “excep ions”, which do no equi e
submission o he commi ee.
la gely i ele an o yea s. The e ha e been i ually
no mee ings o he commi ee since 2007; he main
decisions aken we e mainly o emo e indi iduals
and en i ies om he sanc ions lis a e w i en sub-
mission by he Focal Poin o Delis ing.
45
Toge he
wi h he eco e y o I aqi unds ab oad, he possibili-
ies and ways o delis ing also we e he cen al con-
ce n o an I aqi delega ion ha me wi h he commi -
ee in 2019.
46
The a ms emba go, on he o he hand,
did no eally play a ole, mos likely because he go -
e nmen has been excep ed om i – wi hou spe-
ci ic con ol equi emen s.
45
See annual epo s o he UN sanc ions commi ee,
h ps://www.un.o g/secu i ycouncil/sanc ions/1518/annual-
epo s (accessed 5 Decembe 2023).
46
UNSC, “Membe s o 1518 Sanc ions commi ee Mee
wi h I aqi Delega ion”, SC/13670, p ess elease, 18 Janua y
2019, h ps://p ess.un.o g/en/2019/sc13670.doc.h m (accessed
10 Janua y 2023).
Figu e 3
Poli ical amewo k: Decisions o he Secu i y Council on cu en emba goes
Design and Implemen a ion o UN A ms Emba goes: Cu en Challenges
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Sudan
The e has also been li le ac i i y on he UN a ms em-
ba go on Sudan in he las en yea s. This is mainly
due o di e ging posi ions among he P5. F om he
ou se , he emba go applied exclusi ely o he Da u
egion. E o s o ex end i o he en i e e i o y o
Sudan we e unsuccess ul, mainly due o he spli in
he Secu i y Council. This was al eady e iden in he
o ing p ocess ha led o he imposi ion o he a ms
emba go in 2004.
47
China and Russia also abs ained
when he emba go was ex ended o all wa ing pa -
ies in Da u and he Sudanese go e nmen was
obliged o ob ain p io au ho iza ion o a ms ans-
e s o he egion. Rep esen a i es o bo h s a es sub-
sequen ly emphasized ha a ms supplies o Sudan
we e s ill possible wi hou iola ing he emba go, as
he go e nmen he e was esponsible o app o als.
48
This poin s o a gla ing loophole in he emba go. The
2022 PoE epo simply s a es ha iola ions o he
a ms emba go con inued unhinde ed and ha he
commi ee had no ecei ed any co esponding appli-
ca ions o no i ica ions om he go e nmen ega d-
ing a ms supplies.
49
Acco ding o a o me membe o
he expe panel, he di ision be ween he membe s
o he Secu i y Council in he case o Sudan means
ha he sanc ions we e p ima ily in ended o main-
ain he illusion ha he UN was ac ing decisi ely in
Da u .
50
Recen ly, he e ha e been inc easingly con o e -
sial deba es in he UNSC abou he condi ions unde
which he sanc ions could be li ed. The c i e ia o
hei e iew, which we e ou lined in a epo by he
UN Sec e a y-Gene al, ha e been ejec ed by he
coun y’s mili a y go e nmen , which was ins alled
ollowing he coup in 2021, as impossible o ul il. I s
ambassado blamed he emba go o encou aging
“ ogue a med ansbounda y bands o dis up peace
and o de in Da u ”.
51
In he UNSC, China and
47
Thomas Dö le , Secu i y Council Sanc ions Go e nance:
The Powe and Limi s o Rules (New Yo k, 2019), 151.
48
Ibid., 155.
49
UNSC, S/2022/48, 3 (access o epo s o he PoEs in
he Uni ed Na ions Elec onic Documen A chi e a h ps://
documen s.un.o g).
50
Jé ôme Tubiana, “The Dia y o a Fo me Sanc ions
Bus e ”, openDemoc acy, 2 Oc obe 2012, h ps://www.
opendemoc acy.ne /en/dia y-o - o me -sanc ions-bus e /
(accessed 11 Janua y 2023).
51
“Sudan Demands Uni ed Na ions Immedia ely Li A ms
Emba go”, AP News, 4 Feb ua y 2023, h ps://apnews.com/
a icle/poli ics-sudan-go e nmen -uni ed-na ions-793ec
Russia, as well as he h ee elec ed membe s o he
A ican G oup o S a es (A3) and he Uni ed A ab
Emi a es (UAE), spoke ou in a ou o conside ing an
uncondi ional li ing o he emba go, as demanded
by he Sudanese go e nmen .
52
O e all, he discus-
sions emained deadlocked, and he a ms emba go
ul ima ely had mainly symbolic signi icance in
he ug-o -wa o e he u u e o he sanc ions in a
de e io a ing poli ical and secu i y en i onmen .
Ta ge ed a ms emba goes:
Taliban/A ghanis an and Yemen
Two o he a ms emba goes ha appea la gely inac i e
in Figu e 4 a e hose on he Taliban and Yemen. This
is unsu p ising as hey a e a ge ed emba goes, apply-
ing o pe sons and en i ies ha a e on he espec i e
sanc ions lis . In he i s case, hese a e pe sons and
en i ies designa ed as Taliban o pe sons and g oups
associa ed wi h hem; in Yemen, he leade ship o
he Hou hi ebels and associa ed pe sons and, since
Feb ua y 2022, also he Hou hi as a g oup. The scope
o he espec i e a ms emba go he e o e changes as
a esul o lis ings o delis ings made by he sanc ions
commi ee o Secu i y Council. Acco dingly, he e a e
no excep ions o exemp ions decided by he UNSC,
which a e common in o he cases. Po en ially, he
Taliban emba go (wi h 135 indi iduals and i e en-
i ies) has a much g ea e each han he one agains
he Hou hi (wi h wel e indi iduals and one en i y,
bo h as o Janua y 2023). The key poin , howe e , is
ha bo h emba goes a e aimed a a speci ic pa y o
he con lic .
This is no only in line wi h he app oach o using
UN sanc ions in a mo e a ge ed manne , bu de ac o
means aking sides. Lea ing unde lying poli ical ob-
jec i es aside, his mo e is also based on he assump-
ion ha asymme ic a ms emba goes a e mo e likely
o lead o he desi ed esul . Sanc ioned g oups usually
all behind mili a ily in he con lic i he o he side
3544dd486c96bc28 e3 0014 e2 (accessed Feb ua y 7, 2023).
Also see: Le e da ed 27 Janua y 2023 om he Pe manen
Rep esen a i e o he Sudan o he Uni ed Na ions add essed
o he P esiden o he Secu i y Council, S/2023/67, 30 Janu-
a y 2023: h ps://www.secu i ycouncil epo .o g/a /c /%7
B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/S202367.pd
(accessed 12 Augus 2024).
52
In Ma ch 2023, he UNSC ins a ed a ime-limi on he
sanc ions, including he a ms emba go, o he i s ime as
pa o a comp omise. Secu i y Council Repo (SCR), Wha ’s
in Blue, Sudan Sanc ions: Vo e on D a Resolu ion, 8 Ma ch 2023,
h ps:// inyu l.com/27z ae9w (accessed 7 Sep embe 2023).

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can con inue o ecei e weapons and mili a y ma e ial.
Ex e nal mili a y in e en ions a e also mo e p om-
ising unde hese condi ions.
53
In ac , he ele ance o he a ms emba go di e s
in he wo cases. The sanc ions egime agains he
Taliban was c ea ed because hey suppo ed ansna-
ional e o ism. A e he a acks o Sep embe 11,
2001, i was expanded o include a ge ed sanc ions
agains Osama bin Laden and membe s and o shoo s
o Al-Qaida (and la e ISIL, he Islamic S a e in I aq
and he Le an ). The ocus was he e o e ini ially on
coun e - e o ism be o e he Taliban sanc ions lis
was sepa a ed in 2011 o suppo he A ghan peace
p ocess.
54
Du ing nego ia ions wi h he Taliban in
Qa a , led by he USA, he sanc ions epea edly played
a ole. Thei li ing emained one o he Taliban’s
ecu ing demands, as hey saw he measu es as a
s igma and an obs acle o hei poli ical ac i i ies. As
hei willingness o engage in eal nego ia ions and
econcilia ion emained ex emely ques ionable
55
and
he iolence in A ghanis an con inued o inc ease,
56
new lis ings we e indeed issued – in addi ion o
some delis ings. These also applied o he a ge ed
a ms emba go, bu ul ima ely hey we e p ima ily
ele an o he a el ban and he asse s eeze,
which we e also he ocus o he Moni o ing Team’s
57
ecommenda ions du ing his phase.
58
The a ms emba go in i s a ge ed o m was pa icu-
la ly di icul o con ol, meaning ha he new desig-
na ions did no ma e much. The e we e also inc eas-
ing i s be ween he P5 in he UNSC when i came o
ca ego izing he key h ea s in A ghanis an.
59
When
he Taliban ook powe in Augus 2021, he o e a ch-
ing objec i es o he sanc ions became obsole e, bu
53
B zoska and Lopez, “Pu ing Tee h in he Tige ”
(see no e 34), 245.
54
Dö le , Secu i y Council Sanc ions Go e nance (see no e 47),
93.
55
See, among o he s, SCR, June 2021 Mon hly Fo ecas ,
h ps://www.secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2021-
06/a ghanis an-12.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
56
This included a acks by he Taliban and also by
Al-Qaida and Islamic S a e.
57
In he case o he Taliban egime an Analy ical Suppo
and Sanc ions Moni o ing Team was se up, which also sup-
po s he sanc ions commi ee on ISIL (Da'esh) and Al-Qaida.
58
See in e alia ecommenda ions in his epo : UNSC,
S/2012/971, 3.
59
SCR, Ma ch 2017 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2017-03/a ghanis an_20.
php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
no he sanc ions hemsel es. In he i s weeks and
mon hs, he Taliban appoin ed nume ous people
o he cabine and o he high- anking posi ions who
we e on he UN sanc ions lis .
60
How o deal wi h his
and wi h he excep ions om he a el ban o he
Taliban was he subjec o con o e sial deba e.
61
Unde he gi en ci cums ances, he a ge ed a ms
emba go had li le conc e e signi icance; a mos , i
could p obably come in o play again as a ba gaining
chip when i comes o u u e ela ions wi h he
Taliban go e nmen .
In he case o non-s a e ac o s, he
li ing o an emba go canno be used
as an incen i e o nego ia e.
In Yemen, he aim o he a ms emba go is simila ,
bu he si ua ion ega ding implemen a ion and en-
o cemen is di e en . The ocus on he Hou hi ebels
is in ended o suppo he go e nmen ecognized as
legi ima e. This is pa icula ly in he in e es s o he
Secu i y Council membe s USA, G ea B i ain and
F ance (P3), o push back he in luence o he Hou his
as well as hei main ally, I an. A egional coali ion
led by Saudi A abia, wi h logis ical suppo om he
US and he UK, has also been backing he Yemeni
go e nmen mili a ily, including wi h ai s ikes.
Obse e s ha e hus been calling his a p oxy wa .
62
The USA and Saudi A abia we e keen o main ain
s ic con ol o he ai and sea ou es. A blockade
was imposed on Hou hi- uled a eas in 2015, jus i ied
in pa icula wi h he need o en o ce he a ms
emba go.
60
UNSC, S/2022/419, 3; SCR, No embe 2021 Mon hly
Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly-
o ecas /2021-11/a ghanis an-14.php (accessed 25 Janua y
2024).
61
SCR, Sep embe 2022 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2022-09/
a ghanis an-18.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
62
Kali Robinson, “Yemen’s T agedy: Wa , S alema e,
and Su e ing” (New Yo k and Washing on D.C.: Council
on Fo eign Rela ions, 21 Oc obe 2022), h ps://www.c .o g/
backg ounde /yemen-c isis (accessed 16 Janua y 2023).
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Figu e 4
Poli ical amewo k: Decisions o he Secu i y Council on cu en emba goes
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21
In ac , la ge quan i ies o weapons, ammuni ion
and o he mili a y equipmen ha e epea edly been
seized, o example in Janua y 2023, when he US
Na y in e cep ed a ishing boa in he Gul o Oman
en ou e o Yemen ha was ca ying mo e han 2,000
assaul i les.
63
Howe e , he compe en PoE poin ed
ou ha he coali ion and he go e nmen i sup-
po ed also con ibu ed o he sp ead o weapons in
Yemen, which hen ended up o could end up in
he hands o he Hou his.
64
In 2016, he panel had
al eady p oposed ha he Secu i y Council make he
deli e y o weapons and mili a y ma e ial o secu i y
o ces unde he con ol o he Yemeni go e nmen
condi ional on he sanc ions commi ee being gi en
ad ance in o ma ion.
65
Howe e , no such adjus men
was made. Fo yea s, Resolu ion 2216 o 2015 e-
mained he basis o ac ion, a ac which was inc eas-
ingly seen as an obs acle o peace e o s, no jus
conce ning he a ms emba go.
66
Mo e ecen lis ings also e e ed exclusi ely o
he Hou hi. This did no change when he pa ies o
he con lic became agmen ed – including on he
go e nmen side. The e was ecu ing dissen in he
UNSC; Moscow epea edly c i icized a biased posi ion
owa ds he Hou hi. As a ule, howe e , Russia ab-
s ained as a pe manen membe when new lis ings
we e pu o he o e – and e en o ed in a ou
when he Hou hi we e added o he lis as a “ e o is
g oup”. In con as o A ghanis an, he e was a neigh-
bou ing coun y ha had a i al in e es in en o cing
he UN a ms emba go – namely Saudi A abia, which
bo de s di ec ly on he a eas ha ha e been con-
olled by he Hou hi o e a longe pe iod o ime.
The a ge ed emba go he e o e was ac ually ele an ,
e en i he Hou hi s ill ha e access o weapons and
o he ma e ial. In a nego ia ion p ocess, howe e , i
can only be used o a limi ed ex en as a means o
wo king owa ds con lic esolu ion. This is because
li ing he emba go (o delis ing ac o s) speci ically as
an incen i e is no an op ion o non-s a e g oups. I
63
“US Na al Fo ces Seize Vessel wi h AK-47 Assaul Ri les
o Hou his in Yemen”, Na al News, 11 Janua y 2023, h ps://
na y ecogni ion.com/index.php/na al-news/na al-news-
a chi e/2023/janua y/12694-us-na al- o ces-seize- essel-wi h-
ak-47-assaul - i les- o -hou his-in-yemen.h ml (accessed
19 Janua y 2023).
64
See UNSC, S/2018/192, 26 Janua y 2016.
65
Ibid., 49 .
66
SCR, Sep embe 2019 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2019-09/yemen-
10.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
is possible o ex end a a ge ed o a gene al a ms
emba go, bu his has no occu ed – in he case
o his o o he exis ing a ge ed a ms emba goes.
67
Emba goes as a means o con lic
esolu ion? When he UNSC makes
adjus men s
The changes o he UN a ms emba goes shown in
Figu e 4 sugges ha he Secu i y Council has been
qui e ac i e in some cases o e he las en yea s. In
he ollowing sec ion, hese adjus men s o Somalia,
DRC, Libya and CAR a e placed in hei espec i e
con ex s, pa icula ly wi h ega d o decision-making
and posi ions in he Secu i y Council as well as he
link wi h o he measu es.
Somalia
The a ms emba go on Somalia is no only he longes
exis ing among he cu en ones, bu i was also he
only UN sanc ion in his con ex un il 2008. I s in-
e ec i eness was a ibu ed in e alia o he ac ha
i “became a subs i u e o an ac i e policy on Soma-
lia ollowing he ailu e o peacekeeping missions in
he ea ly 1990s.”
68
I was also only wi h he au ho i-
za ion o AMISOM, an AU peace ope a ion, ha he
UNSC made a signi ican change o he a ms emba go
in 2007. I was li ed o weapons and equipmen
in ended o use by AMISOM o o he de elopmen
o he Somali secu i y sec o ; in he la e case he
supplying s a es had o in o m he sanc ions com-
mi ee.
69
This was in ended o suppo he in e na-
ionally ecognized T ansi ional Fede al Go e nmen
(TFG), which had been in place since 2004, pa icula ly
wi h ega d o comba ing he Al-Shabaab mili ia,
which was seen as he main h ea o peace and secu-
i y. This line had in ac been pu sued ea lie al eady.
A he end o 2006, o example, he UNSC ailed o
67
In he case o Somalia, in addi ion o he gene al and
pa ially li ed a ms emba go, he e is also a a ge ed one
which was adop ed la e . The ex ension o a gene al a ms
emba go in he case o Hai i did no ake place un il 2023,
see no e 4.
68
SCR, Ana omy o a Sanc ions Regime: A Case S udy o Six een
Yea s o Failed E o s o E ec i ely Implemen Sanc ions in Somalia,
Special Resea ch Repo , 2008, no. 4 (16 Sep embe 2008), 2.
69
UNSC, “Secu i y Council Au ho izes Six-mon h A ican
Union Mission in Somalia, Unanimously Adop ing Resolu-
ion 1744 (2007)”, SC/8960, p ess elease, 20 Feb ua y 2007,
h ps://p ess.un.o g/en/2007/sc8960.doc.h m (accessed 25
Janua y 2024).
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o mally condemn a mili a y in e en ion by E hiopia
alongside he TFG, e en hough i had o be conside ed
as a iola ion o he a ms emba go.
70
Du ing his phase, he UNSC became mo e ac i e,
in pa icula by imposing a ge ed sanc ions ( a el
ban, asse s eeze, a ge ed a ms emba go) by unani-
mous decision in 2008. In 2009, he egime was also
ex ended o E i ea o punish he coun y o suppo -
ing a med g oups in Somalia, pa icula ly Al-Shabaab.
71
This seconda y sanc ion and he ea men o E i ea
we e highly con o e sial and subsequen ly a ecu -
ing bone o con en ion in he Secu i y Council.
O e he las en yea s, he e ha e been a whole
se ies o changes o he a ms emba go. A e Al-
Shabaab had been pushed back, he e was s ill a basic
consensus in he UNSC o s eng hen he cen al go -
e nmen in Somalia. Howe e , posi ions on speci ic
measu es di e ged, especially when i came o he
a ms emba go. This was e iden when i was pa ially
li ed in 2013, pa ly in eac ion o c i icism om he
Somali go e nmen ha , despi e exis ing exemp ions,
he emba go was hinde ing he igh agains Al-Sha-
baab, which was now associa ed wi h Al-Qaida. The
USA s ongly suppo ed he pa ial li ing, while a
majo i y o Secu i y Council membe s including Eu o-
pean s a es, we e a mo e scep ical in iew o he
lack o con ol exe cised by he Somali go e nmen .
72
Ul ima ely, ce ain condi ions ha applied o sup-
plies and mili a y suppo we e no only e ained,
bu pa ly ex ended.
73
In pa icula , he li ing was
limi ed o wel e mon hs and he Somali go e nmen
was obliged o epo egula ly on he s uc u e o
he na ional secu i y o ces and on he egis a ion,
s o age and dis ibu ion o weapons.
74
Sho ly a e
his adjus men , he Obama adminis a ion decided
ha Somalia could ecei e mili a y suppo om he
70
Pie e D. Wezeman, A ms Flows and he Con lic in Somalia,
SIPRI Backg ound Pape (Solna: SIPRI, Oc obe 2010), 5 .
71
Ano he eason o he sanc ions was E i ea’s a med
con on a ion wi h Djibou i. UNSC, “Secu i y Council Im-
poses Sanc ions on E i ea o e I s Role in Somalia, Re usal
o Wi hd aw T oops Following Con lic wi h Djibou i”,
SC/9833, p ess elease, 23 Decembe 2009, h ps://p ess.un.
o g/en/2009/sc9833.doc.h m (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
72
SCR, Ma ch 2013 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2013-03/somalia_5.php
(accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
73
SIPRI, SIPRI Da abases/A ms Emba goes, UN A ms Emba go
on Somalia, h ps://www.sip i.o g/da abases/emba goes/un_
a ms_emba goes/somalia (accessed 11 Augus 2023).
74
UNSC, Resolu ion S/RES/2093 (2013), 6 Ma ch 2013.
USA.
75
When Al-Shabaab subsequen ly commi ed
massi e a acks, he ocus on igh ing i in ensi ied,
including h ough AMISOM, which ca ied ou ope a-
ions oge he wi h he Somali a my. In addi ion,
Kenya and he USA launched ai s ikes agains
Al-Shabaab.
76
Washing on la e admi ed ha i had
main ained a limi ed mili a y p esence o up o 120
soldie s in Somalia since 2007.
77
Agains his backd op, he pa ial li was ex ended
a e one yea , al hough he moni o ing eam ound
ha he Somali go e nmen was clea ly iola ing he
equi emen s.
78
Howe e , u he epo ing obliga-
ions we e in oduced o he go e nmen a he be-
ginning o 2014, o example on he dis ibu ion o
impo ed weapons.
79
In addi ion, he UNSC au ho -
ized a Ma i ime In e dic ion Fo ce he same yea ,
which has been enewed annually since hen. The
Fo ce is also mean o moni o he ban on cha coal
expo s, which was p ima ily aimed a dep i ing
Al-Shabaab o e enue.
80
Al hough he ins alled
Combined Ma i ime Fo ces ha e ound weapons and
ammuni ion, hei ope a ions a e conside ed less
e ec i e han hose used o comba pi acy o he
coas o Somalia.
81
In addi ion, indings o epo s
o iola ions a ely had meaning ul consequences.
The numbe o lis ings unde he Somalia egime
emained a a low le el wi h a o al o 20 (as a he
end o 2022);
82
only h ee o hese we e based on a
iola ion o he a ms emba go.
83
75
SCR, May 2013 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2013-05/somalia_7.php
(accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
76
SCR, Ma ch 2014 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu
i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2014-03/somalia_13.
php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
77
SCR, Oc obe 2014 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2014-10/ soma-
lia_15.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
78
See commen s in chap e “Moni o ing emba go im-
plemen a ion: challenges and weaknesses”, p. 41.
79
UNSC, Resolu ion S/RES/2142 (2014), 5 Ma ch 2014.
80
UNSC, Resolu ion S/RES/2182 (2014), 24 Oc obe 2014.
81
Magne F os ad, “Uni ed Na ions Au ho ized Emba goes
and Ma i ime In e dic ion: A Special Focus on Somalia”, in
The Fu u e o he Law o he Sea B idging Gaps be ween Na ional,
Indi idual and Common In e es s, ed. Gemma And eone (Cham,
2017), 2013–37.
82
This includes Al-Shabaab as a g oup.
83
See “Sanc ions Lis Ma e ials” on Somalia, h ps://www.
un.o g/secu i ycouncil/sanc ions/751/ma e ials (as a he end
o 2022).
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Cen al A ican Republic (CAR)
Unlike in he case o Libya, he UNSC’s app oach in
he Cen al A ican Republic (CAR) was ini ially a he
passi e a e con lic s b oke ou . The p ima y ocus
was on suppo ing egional media ion e o s. In
Ma ch 2013, Séléka ebels – an alliance o se e al
a med g oups – seized he capi al Bangui a e an
ag eemen wi h he go e nmen collapsed, and he
incumben P esiden F ançois Bozizé led in o exile.
The Economic Communi y o Cen al A ican S a es
(ECCAS) hen ini ia ed a ansi ion p ocess, which
included he o ma ion o a ansi ional council.
158
The imposi ion o he UN a ms emba go ma ked
he beginning o a phase o g ea e Secu i y Council
ac i i y. Fu he a ge ed sanc ions we e also h ea -
ened.
159
In his phase, he e we e inc easing wa nings
o a comple e e osion o he si ua ion o he poin
o genocide. Ch is ian-o ien ed “an i-Balaka” mili ias
o med agains he Muslim-o ien ed Séléka o ces,
which had o icially been dissol ed bu emained
ac i e ( e e ed o below as he ex-Séléka).
160
In iew
o hese ci cums ances, calls o a UN peacekeeping
mission became mo e insis en . Howe e , as he e
was no consensus in he Secu i y Council, F ance
was ini ially au ho ized o deploy addi ional oops
o suppo he exis ing AU mission beyond he 400
o ces al eady s a ioned in he coun y.
161
In Janua y
2014, he EU decided on an addi ional mili a y mis-
sion o up o 1,000 soldie s, p ima ily o elie e he
F ench oops. In he same Resolu ion ha au ho ized
he EU mission, he Secu i y Council expanded he
sanc ions egime, so ha indi iduals and en i ies
could be a ge ed by he commi ee.
162
In Ap il, i was inally decided o ans o m he AU
ope a ion in o a UN mission (MINUSCA). Sho ly a e -
wa ds, he sanc ions commi ee designa ed he i s
pe sons – in addi ion o o me P esiden Bozizé,
one leade o he Séléka and one leade o he an i-
158
SCR, July 2013 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2013-07/expec ed_
council_ac ion_in_july.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
159
UNSC, Resolu ion S/RES/2127 (2013), 5 Decembe 2013,
pa a. 56.
160
SCR, Decembe 2013 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2013-12/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_3.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
161
SCR, Janua y 2014 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2014-01/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_4.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
162
UNSC, Resolu ion S/RES/2134(2014)*, 28 Janua y 2014.
Balaka.
163
Du ing his phase, he UNSC aced he
dilemma o how o hold ac o s accoun able o hei
beha iou while a he same ime inding channels o
communica ion wi h he a med g oups.
164
In addi ion
o a cease i e – which was o emain e y agile –
he B azza ille Ag eemen concluded in July 2014
ag eed, amongs o he hings, on a go e nmen o
na ional uni y and he planning o pa liamen a y
and p esiden ial elec ions.
165
F om he ou se , he
a ms emba go allowed o he supply o weapons and
le hal equipmen o he CAR secu i y o ces as pa
o a secu i y sec o e o m (SSR) and ollowing p io
app o al by he commi ee.
166
This co esponded wi h
he goal o s eng hening s a e au ho i y, which
MINUSCA was also manda ed o suppo . In addi ion,
he EU es ablished a mili a y ad iso y mission in CAR
as a successo o i s expi ing mission.
167
Appa en ly, mos o he a med g oups’ equipmen
a his ime came om s a e a senals, so he commi -
ee sen a le e o he CAR go e nmen demanding
o be e managemen o o icial weapons s ocks.
168
The go e nmen had al eady called o he emba go
o be li ed in Augus 2015. Howe e , gi en he gaps
in secu ing weapons, he e was no consensus in he
UNSC o elax he equi emen s.
169
Despi e an ag ee-
men ha p o ided o hei disa mamen , demobili-
za ion and ein eg a ion, membe s o some g oups
we e s ill ca ying ou iolence agains he ci ilian
popula ion and engaging in c iminal ac i i ies.
170
The
commi ee subsequen ly decided on u he lis ings –
ini ia ed by F ance, he UK and he USA, among
163
SCR, June 2014 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2014-06/cen al_a ican_
epublic_5.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
164
SCR, July 2014 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2014-07/cen al_a ican_
epublic_6.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
165
SCR, Sep embe 2014 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2014-09/
cen al_a ican_ epublic_8.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
166
UNSC, Resolu ion S/RES/2127 (2013), 5 Decembe 2013.
167
SCR, Ap il 2015 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2015-04/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_11.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
168
SCR, Wha ’s in Blue, Cen al A ican Republic Sanc ions
Commi ee Ac i i ies, 26 Augus 2015, h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/wha sinblue/2015/08/cen al-a ican-
epublic-sanc ions.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
169
Ibid.
170
SCR, Augus 2015 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2015-08/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_13.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).

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o he s – in esponse o a enewed escala ion o io-
lence in Bangui ahead o a e e endum and he elec-
ions, which we e la e pos poned.
171
Acco ding o he expe panel, he
a ms emba go was also used as a
p e ex o blaming he UN o he
ongoing iolence in he CAR.
The conduc o he elec ions was con o e sial,
including in he UNSC. Howe e , o me P ime Minis-
e Faus in-A change Touadé a was ul ima ely con-
i med as he new p esiden by he Cons i u ional
Cou in Ma ch 2016, and he Na ional Assembly
was cons i u ed in May a e enewed pa liamen a y
elec ions.
172
Ye , hopes o a posi i e de elopmen
emained un ul illed, and he Secu i y Council’s
a en ion o he CAR waned.
173
While e o s o es ab-
lish a peace p ocess a egional le el con inued, i
was s ill p ima ily up o MINUSCA o ensu e secu i y.
Howe e , he mission inc easingly became he a ge
no only o a acks by a med g oups, bu also o p o-
es s accompanied by demands o an end o he a ms
emba go.
174
The new CAR go e nmen epea edly decla ed
ha he emba go had o be li ed o compensa e o
disad an ages is-à- is a med g oups. In ac , he
PoE no ed a he ime ha he ex-Séléka, o example,
we e bene i ing om a ms smuggling om Sudan
and he DRC.
175
Howe e , he panel emphasized ha
he exis ing exemp ion made i possible o equip he
na ional secu i y o ces, suspec ing ha he a ms
emba go also se ed as a p e ex o blaming he UN
171
SCR, Janua y 2016 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2016-01/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_14.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
172
SCR, Ap il 2016 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2016-04/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_15.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
173
SCR, June 2017 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2017-06/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_21.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
174
SCR, Janua y 2017 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2017-01/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_19.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
175
SCR, Oc obe 2016 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2016-10/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_17.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
o he ongoing iolence.
176
A his poin , he Secu i y
Council was s ill unwilling o allow he emba go o
expi e.
177
Bu i s con inued exis ence became inc eas-
ingly con o e sial – as did he ole o MINUSCA and
o he ex e nal secu i y ac o s ha we e gaining in im-
po ance. Based on a bila e al ag eemen on secu i y
coope a ion, Russia deployed mili a y aine s o he
CAR om 2018 onwa ds and no i ied he UN sanc-
ions commi ee. Howe e , igh e s and weapons om
he Russian me cena y g oup Wagne also en e ed
he coun y.
178
Moscow s ongly suppo ed he li ing
o a leas easing o he emba go, while he P3 in
pa icula insis ed ha he s a e o he secu i y sec o
in he CAR did no allow ei he . Du ing he ex ension
o sanc ions, i was ag eed ha clea benchma ks
should be es ablished, acco ding o which he UNSC
could e iew he emba go. In addi ion, he UN Sec e-
a y-Gene al should assess p og ess acco ding o
hem.
179
A peace ag eemen b oke ed by he AU was con-
cluded in ea ly 2019. Howe e , se e al a med g oups
soon wi hd ew om he newly o med go e nmen ,
o cing he p esiden o eshu le he cabine so ha
all g oups would be ep esen ed; subsequen ly, io-
lence epea edly b oke ou a he hands o a ious
signa o y pa ies.
180
Howe e , he e we e no u he
a ge ed sanc ions while he a ms emba go was eased.
The p og ess epo had s a ed ha he e was an a ms
imbalance be ween he go e nmen and he ebels,
176
SCR, Oc obe 2017 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2017-10/cen al_
a ican_ epublic_22.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
177
SCR, July 2016 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2016-07/cen al_a ican_
epublic_16.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024); SCR, Janua y
2017 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i ycouncil epo .
o g/mon hly- o ecas /2017-01/cen al_a ican_ epublic_19.
php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
178
Di k D ue , Wagne G oup Poses Fundamen al Challenges
o he P o ec ion o Ci ilians by UN Peacekeeping Ope a ions, IPI
Global Obse a o y (New Yo k: In e na ional Peace Ins i u e,
20 Ma ch 2023), h ps:// heglobalobse a o y.o g/2023/03/
wagne -g oup-p o ec ion-o -ci ilians-un-peacekeeping-
ope a ions/ (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
179
SCR, Wha ’s in Blue, Cen al A ican Republic Sanc ions
Regime Manda e Renewal, 30 Janua y 2019, h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/wha sinblue/2019/01/cen al-
a ican- epublic-sanc ions-commi ee-manda e- enewal.php
(accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
180
SCR, June 2019 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2019-06/cen al-a ican-
epublic-2.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
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which c ea ed he imp ession ha he emba go pu
he go e nmen a a disad an age. The exemp ion
was adjus ed o he e ec ha only no i ica ions o
he commi ee and no p io app o als we e equi ed
o supply weapons o ce ain ypes o he na ional
secu i y o ces.
181
Howe e , u he dissen eme ged in he posi ions
o some pe manen UNSC membe s, pa icula ly
be ween F ance and Russia. This dynamic con inued
wi h upcoming ex ensions. A e mos ly p o ac ed
nego ia ions, he emba go was g adually eased by
g an ing exemp ions o addi ional ypes o weapons,
ammuni ion and equipmen .
182
The secu i y si ua ion
in he CAR emained p eca ious, and he implemen-
a ion o he 2019 peace ag eemen s alled ime and
again. In Ap il 2020, se en o he 14 a med g oups
among he signa o ies suspended hei pa icipa ion
in he go e nmen , and iolence escala ed in some
pa s o he coun y. The UNSC esponded by lis ing
wo leade s o a med g oups in Ap il and Augus
2020.
183
A new dynamic eme ged when he “Coali ion o
Pa io s o Change” (CPC) was ounded – an alliance
o pa ly i al ebel g oups whose aim was o dis up
he elec ions due a he end o 2020. The o e was
inally p e en ed by iolence in a ound 40 pe cen o
cons i uencies. Despi e he es ic ions and opposi ion
p o es s, he Cons i u ional Cou ul ima ely con-
i med he ic o y o incumben Touadé a. Howe e ,
he iolence con inued, including a acks on a ious
owns, some o which we e epelled by MINUSCA
oge he wi h he na ional a med o ces (FACA).
184
181
SCR, Oc obe 2019 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2019-10/cen al-
a ican- epublic-3.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
182
In July 2023, he no i ica ion equi emen s o supplies
o go e nmen o ces we e li ed comple ely, see UNSC, Reso-
lu ion S/RES/2693 (2023), 27 July 2023, pa as. 1 and 2. Russia
and China abs ained because hey demanded a comple e
li ing o he emba go, see UNSC, “Secu i y Council Ex ends
A ms Emba go on Cen al A ican Republic, Manda e o
Expe Panel, Adop ing Resolu ion 2693 (2023) by 13 Vo es
in Fa o , 2 Abs en ions”, SC/15369, p ess elease, 27 July
2023, h ps://p ess.un.o g/en/2023/sc15369.doc.h m (accessed
7 Sep embe 2023).
183
UNSC, The Lis Es ablished and Main ained Pu suan o
Secu i y Council Res. 2127 (2013), h ps://scsanc ions.un.o g/
wq7bk-en-ca .h ml (accessed 8 Sep embe 2023).
184
SCR, Feb ua y 2021 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2021-02/cen al-
a ican- epublic-10.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
Bo h he go e nmen and he UN mission suspec ed
ex-P esiden Bozizé, who had e u ned om exile and
was no eligible o he elec ions, o making common
cause wi h he a med g oups in o de o ake powe .
185
In any case, CPC o ces su ounded he capi al Bangui
in Janua y 2021; hey we e pushed back mainly wi h
he help o Russian and Rwandan oops.
186
F om he na ional go e nmen ’s pe spec i e, he
a ms emba go was p ima ily a misguided e o by
he UN, as weapons and igh e s con inued o en e
he CAR ia he bo de s wi h neighbou ing coun ies.
The P3 and some elec ed Secu i y Council membe s
placed condi ions on he suppo o he go e nmen ,
which included a e o m o he secu i y sec o . They
also insis ed on moni o ing whe he secu i y ac o s
we e espec ing human igh s. The ex ensions o
MINUSCA’s manda e and o he a ms emba go egu-
la ly led o con o e sy on hese poin s. In addi ion,
he A ican membe s o he UNSC a he ime also
inc easingly spoke ou in a ou o li ing he em-
ba go.
187
Wha was pa icula ly ele an , howe e , was ha
Russia expanded i s poli ical and economic in ol e-
men in he CAR.
188
A e he a ack on Bangui, Rus-
sian o ces had become a kind o gua an ee o su -
i al o he coun y’s go e nmen ; hey inc easingly
in luenced he ope a ions o he na ional secu i y
o ces o we e ac i e independen ly o hem.
189
This
had a - eaching consequences. Acco ding o epo s
by he UN Sec e a y-Gene al, he e we e a ge ed
h ea s and hos ili ies agains MINUSCA by na ional
secu i y o ces and bila e ally deployed secu i y pe -
185
“Cen al A ican Republic: A Dispu ed Elec ion and a
S ange Rebel Alliance”, BBC News, 7 Janua y 2021, h ps://
www.bbc.com/news/wo ld-a ica-55558642 (accessed 8 Sep-
embe 2023).
186
SCR, Feb ua y 2021 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2021-02/cen al-
a ican- epublic-10.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
187
SCR, Wha ’s in Blue, Cen al A ican Republic: Vo e on a
D a Resolu ion Ex ending he Sanc ions Regime, 29 July 2022,
h ps://www.secu i ycouncil epo .o g/wha sinblue/2022/07/
cen al-a ican- epublic- o e-on-a-d a - esolu ion-ex ending-
he-sanc ions- egime.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
188
Julia S anya d, Thie y Vi coulon and Julian Rade-
meye , The G ey Zone: Russia’s Mili a y, Me cena y and C iminal
Engagemen in A ica (Gene a: Global Ini ia i e Agains T ans-
na ional O ganized C ime, Feb ua y 2023), 58.
189
Ibid., 50.
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sonnel
190
( he la e commonly a synonym o Wagne
o ces), and he USA also exp essed s ong c i icism.
Russia, howe e , ejec ed he accusa ions.
191
F ance,
in u n, suspended mili a y coope a ion wi h he CAR
and budge suppo o he coun y in 2021 – ci ing
an ob ious disin o ma ion campaign by he CAR
go e nmen .
192
In addi ion, e idence o human igh s
iola ions by he FACA and “bila e al o ces” accu-
mula ed in he cou se o a ious in es iga ions.
193
The EU imposed sanc ions agains he Wagne G oup
in Decembe 2021 and suspended i s aining mission
in he CAR sho ly a e wa ds.
194
The UNSC mee ings
we e co espondingly ense, and he a ms emba go
emained a cen al poin o con lic , while insecu i y
inc eased, especially in he bo de a eas o he coun-
y.
195
Conclusion
In he ou cases discussed – Somalia, DRC, Libya
and he CAR – he espec i e a ms emba goes we e
imposed unde e y di e en ci cums ances, bu
hey ha e ollowed a simila pa e n o e he las en
yea s. Thei emphasis is on cu ing o non-s a e
ac o s ha hinde con lic esolu ion om he low
o a ms and mili a y ma e ial. A he same ime, he
in e na ionally ecognized go e nmen is suppo ed
in consolida ing and expanding i s au ho i y in he
ace o only pa ial o unsus ainable peace ag ee-
men s. The e o e exemp ions o go e nmen s ha e
190
See e.g. UNSC, Repo by he Sec e a y-Gene al on he Cen al
A ican Republic, S/2021/867, 12 Oc obe 2021, 12+16: h ps://
www.secu i ycouncil epo .o g/a /c /%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-
4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/S_2021_867_E.pd (accessed
27 Augus 2024).
191
SCR, July 2021 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2021-07/cen al-a ican-
epublic-12.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
192
Ibid.
193
SCR, Wha ’s in Blue, Cen al A ican Republic: Vo e on
Renewing he Sanc ions Regime, 28 July 2021, h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/wha sinblue/2021/07/cen al-
a ican- epublic- o e-on- enewing- he-sanc ions- egime.php
(accessed 25 Janua y 2024); SCR, No embe 2021 Mon hly
Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly-
o ecas /2021-11/cen al-a ican- epublic-14.php (accessed
25 Janua y 2024).
194
SCR, Feb ua y 2022 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.
secu i ycouncil epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2022-02/cen al-
a ican- epublic-15.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
195
SCR, July 2023 Mon hly Fo ecas , h ps://www.secu i y
council epo .o g/mon hly- o ecas /2023-07/cen al-a ican-
epublic-21.php (accessed 25 Janua y 2024).
been in oduced o enable hem o s eng hen hei
secu i y o ces while a he same ime con olling he
in low o mili a y goods – unde he supe ision o
he sanc ions commi ee.
The p ospec o li ing an a ms
emba go can be used o p essu e a
go e nmen in o e o ms in he
secu i y sec o .
A emp s o suppo peace h ough he a ms em-
ba goes encoun e ed a ious obs acles. Fi s , he
adjus men s o he emba goes we e linked o ce ain
assump ions o expec a ions as o how he poli ical
p ocess would de elop. I hese did no ma e ialize, i
was di icul o espond again wi h changes. In gene al,
i is a challenge o e ec i ely combine UN sanc ions
wi h media ion e o s.
196
The special ea u e o a ms
emba goes is ha hey p ima ily o e po en ial le e -
age o e he espec i e ecognized au ho i ies, as
ce ain incen i es can be c ea ed h ough (pa ial) li -
ings o exemp ions. This op ion does no exis o
non-s a e a med g oups ha a e subjec o he emba -
go, since he aim du ing a con lic se lemen and
peace p ocess is p ecisely o disa m and demobilize
hem. A he same ime, i he emba go was o be
igh ened (again) o he espec i e go e nmen , his
could be in e p e ed as a wi hd awal o us o as
calling he espec i e peace p ocess in o ques ion.
This has he e o e only occu ed once in he las en
yea s in he cases examined: in 2014, wi h he a ms
emba go on Libya. The p ospec o a li ing can be
used o push o conc e e e o ms by he go e nmen
in he secu i y sec o . Howe e , he e a e inc easingly
di e gen iews among he P5 on whe he and how
condi ions should be imposed. In addi ion, he espec-
i e na ional go e nmen s some imes ehemen ly
c i icize he condi ions se unde emba go exemp-
ions. Unde hese ci cums ances, he endency o
u he ease o li a ms emba goes o go e nmen
o ces con inues, as he mos ecen decision on he
CAR a ms emba go shows.
197
196
In de ail: Thomas Bie s eke , Rebecca B ubake and
Da id Lanz, UN Sanc ions and Media ion: Es ablishing E idence o
In o m P ac ice (New Yo k: Uni ed Na ions Uni e si y Cen e
o Policy Resea ch, 18 Feb ua y 2019).
197
UN News, “Secu i y Council Li s A ms Emba go on
Cen al A ican Republic Fo ces”, 30 July 2024, h ps://news.
un.o g/en/s o y/2024/07/1152656 (accessed 27 Augus 2024).
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The second obs acle is he luc ua ion o a en ion
ha exis s in he UNSC o speci ic a med con lic s.
An o en-o e looked aspec o his is ha egionally
in luen ial coun ies a e equen ly elec ed o he
Secu i y Council, which ha e s ong posi ions on he
espec i e con lic in hei neighbou hood. I he e
a e se ious in e es s by elec ed o pe manen mem-
be s goals o he han he se lemen and esolu ion
o he con lic o en become ele an , such as he
igh agains in e na ional e o ism o he expansion
o sphe es o in luence. This can collide wi h he p o-
isions o he UN a ms emba go. Ye i is c ucial o
i s c edibili y ha i is suppo ed by he P5, as hey
a e hemsel es impo an a ms p oduce s.
I emba goes ha e a ime limi , his ac ually seems
o lead o mo e ac i i y in he cases discussed. Mo e
ecen ly, nego ia ions a ound egula ex ensions ha e
become inc easingly con o e sial, which a leas
e eals he di e en posi ions, while in he case o
inde ini e emba goes such as he one on Libya, he e
has in ac no longe been a consensus o some ime.
Howe e , discussions o en e lec he di e en poin s
o iew on sanc ions among he UNSC membe s
a he han he si ua ion on he g ound. This can be
seen om he ac ha he deba es and decisions on
a ious emba goes in ecen yea s – ega ding he
DRC, CAR, bu also Sou h Sudan and Sudan – ol-
low a e y simila logic, al hough he si ua ion in
he coun ies hemsel es is e y di e en . All hese
aspec s make i di icul o poli ically di ec a ms
emba goes as a means o con lic esolu ion. Ye , o
as long as such emba goes a e in place, he o he
p essing ques ion is how o imp o e hei implemen-
a ion and en o cemen .
Moni o ing implemen a ion:
challenges and weaknesses
Besides he Secu i y Council, he sanc ions commi -
ees and panels o expe s (PoEs) a e key playe s wi h-
in he UN go e nance s uc u e on sanc ions. The
PoEs p ima ily p o ide he in o ma ion basis o
moni o ing he implemen a ion o measu es and
adjus ing hem i necessa y. A numbe o o e a ching
challenges can be iden i ied om he moni o ing
o he ou cases o UN a ms emba goes analysed in
mo e de ail he e.
The indings o he panels ine i ably e lec he
manda es and guidelines issued by he espec i e
commi ees, as well as he composi ion o he panels
hemsel es. Thei wo k is also in luenced by es ic-
ions o a inancial, logis ical o poli ical na u e –
no necessa ily in an iden ical manne ac oss he ou
cases. The Co id-19 pandemic has been a p oblem
o all PoEs, as i has es ic ed a elling in pa icu-
la , which has had an impac on he con en o he
epo s in he las wo yea s co e ed. And las bu
no leas , some o he in o ma ion ha lows o he
commi ee is con iden ial, so he publicly a ailable
epo s may no con ain all indings. In p inciple, he
panels can only p o ide pa s o he pic u e on he
compliance wi h an emba go. Thei in o ma ion is
based on seizu es by na ional o in e na ional o ces,
on he examina ion o weapons used o cap u ed in
comba , on in o ma ion om membe s a es o o he
ac o s and on hei own econnaissance, o example
ia sa elli e images, documen s and local sou ces.
Na u ally, his can esul in ce ain biases. Ne e -
heless, he epo s on CAR, DRC, Libya and Somalia
om 2016 o 2022
198
p o ide impo an insigh s in o
when and how UN a ms emba goes we e (possibly)
b eached o ci cum en ed and wha weaknesses hey
ha e.
I egula supplies and smuggling in o
con lic zones
In p inciple, in all ou cases, he pa ies o he con-
lic ha e con inued o ha e access o weapons,
ammuni ion and mili a y equipmen in ecen yea s
despi e he emba go – some imes o a conside able
ex en . The cen al ques ions in moni o ing he
emba goes a e whe e his ma e ial comes om and
by which ou e o h ough which channels i has
eached he a ge a ea. This ela es o p o iding sup-
plies o mili a y assis ance and o a lack o adequa e
con ols in UN membe s a es o p e en such sup-
po . Fi s o all, he PoEs iden i y (possible) iola ions
o he emba go on he basis o he sou ces men ioned.
Some panels also y o c ea e baselines by compiling
o e iews o he ypes o weapons and ammuni ion
ha a e a ailable in he a ge a ea a a ce ain poin
in ime – his makes i possible o iden i y newly
eme ging makes la e . In many a eas whe e a med
con lic s ha e been ongoing o a long ime, as in he
198
He e he inal epo s o he expe panels a he end o
hei (usually one-yea ) manda e we e aken in o accoun .
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cases discussed he e, la ge numbe s o weapons a e
al eady in ci cula ion.
199
Weapons also en e he a ge a eas i egula ly
ia a ious ou es. Fi s , in all ou cases he e a e
egional links be ween di e en con lic a eas ia
a ms smuggling – o example be ween he DRC and
he CAR, he CAR and Sudan, Somalia and Yemen,
and Libya and he Sahel s a es. In pa icula , he la ge
numbe o weapons ha en e ed he coun y du ing
he Libyan e olu ion no only illed he s ocks o
Libya’s own mili ias, bu subsequen ly sp ead h ough-
ou he egion
200
– despi e he “ wo-way” emba go,
which also p ohibi s he expo o weapons and mili-
a y equipmen om Libya.
201
In he case o Somalia, he PoE p ima ily epo s
on weapons and ammuni ion being smuggled in o
he coun y by sea om o h ough Yemen. The ships
mainly landed on he coas o Pun land in no h-
eas e n Somalia,
202
whe e he local secu i y au ho i-
ies and in e na ional na al o ces o he Combined
Ma i ime Fo ces epea edly con isca ed such ship-
men s;
203
o he s could a leas be con i med by he
Moni o ing G oup. These a e mainly small a ms and
ammuni ion ha en e he coun y, p ima ily by boa
om Yemen; acco ding o he UN expe s, hey a e
in ended o mili ias, Al-Shabaab o ISIL, bu may also
only be passing h ough Somalia as a ansi coun-
y.
204
These include weapons and o he supplies ha
appea o come om I an.
205
In he CAR epo s, smuggling by land is pa icu-
la ly emphasized. Hun ing i les and ammuni ion
o en come om he DRC, some imes in exchange
o gold and diamonds.
206
This access was ele an o
a whole spec um o a med g oups (an i-Balaka, ex-
Séléka and sel -de ence g oups).
207
Some membe s o
199
Libya: UNSC, S/2016/209, pa a. 107; DRC: UNSC,
S/2022/479, pa a. 128; UNSC, S/2016/466, pa a. 219;
CAR: UNSC, S/2017/1023, pa a. 102.
200
UNSC, S/2016/209, pa a. 107.
201
UNSC, S/2016/209, pa a. 187; UNSC, S/2018/812,
pa a. 123; UNSC, S/2022/427, pa a. 78.
202
UNSC, S/2016/919, pa a. 122.
203
Ibid., pa a. 121, 124.
204
UNSC, S/2017/924*, pa a. 104; UNSC, S/2019/858*
pa a. 130; UNSC, S/2020/949, pa a. 113; UNSC, S/2022/754*,
pa a. 83, 105.
205
UNSC, S/2016/919, pa a. 115 ; UNSC, S/2017/924*,
pa a. 104.
206
UNSC, S/2016/1032 pa a. 145; UNSC, S/2019/930,
Annex 4.5.
207
UNSC, S/2017/1023, Summa y, 3.
he CAR mili a y a e also said o be in ol ed in a ms
smuggling om he DRC.
208
In addi ion, weapons
and igh e s en e ed he CAR om Sudan,
209
as well
as ac oss he wes e n bo de s
210
o om Chad o he
no h o he coun y, especially in 2020–21, when
he newly ounded CPC was in pa icula need o
ma e ial.
211
Fo a ms smuggling in o he DRC he links o
neighbou ing coun ies o he eas men ioned in he
las sec ion a e pa icula ly ele an . Du ing he
epo ing pe iod, a smuggling ne wo k consis ing o
membe s o he Bu undian a my, a ious in e medi-
a ies and Congolese a med g oups was in es iga ed
in de ail.
212
The Bu undian, Ugandan and Rwandan
a mies also equen ly ope a e di ec ly on he e i-
o y o he DRC – o suppo o comba a med
g oups wi h con ac s in hei espec i e coun ies.
213
O e all, smuggling o en e lec s egional links
be ween iolen con lic s. A ms lows can be an in-
dica o o shi s in con lic dynamics bu can also
be he subjec o a med con lic s hemsel es in some
cases – o example, when i comes o con olling
smuggling ou es and a eas close o bo de s. I egula
a ms shipmen s na u ally also each go e nmen
o ces, o en ia longe - ange anspo s. In Somalia,
he bla an cases in he epo ing pe iod mainly con-
ce ned secu i y o ces ha a e no assigned o he
cen al go e nmen bu a e allowed o ecei e sup-
po and ma e ial i he sanc ions commi ee has been
in o med and has no objec ed. These we e mainly
egional o ces in Somaliland and Pun land.
214
Fo
example, he UAE es ablished a mili a y base in
he po ci y o Be be a in Somaliland,
215
and a s a e-
owned company om E hiopia supplied weapons
and ammuni ion o a ious Somali egional adminis-
a ions o a leas a decade.
216
208
Ibid., pa a. 22, 248.
209
UNSC, S/2017/639, Annex 5.9; UNSC, S/2017/1023,
pa a. 173; UNSC, S/2018/1119, pa a. 69.
210
UNSC, S/2017/1023, pa a. 247.
211
UNSC, S/2021/569, pa as. 30 .
212
UNSC, S/2017/672/Re .1, pa a. 152; UNSC, S/2018/531,
pa as. 198 .
213
UNSC, S/2019/469, pa a. 66; UNSC, S/2022/479,
pa a. 162; UNSC, S/2022/479, pa a. 21; UNSC, S/2022/479,
pa a. 71.
214
UNSC, S/2016/919, Annex, 8.3.
215
UNSC, S/2018/1002, pa as. 40 .; UNSC, S/2019/858*,
pa a. 128 .
216
UNSC, S/2019/858*, pa a. 120.

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In bo h CAR and DRC, he na ional a med o ces
also ecei ed supplies wi hou he necessa y no i ica-
ions o app o als. Rela ed ligh s o he CAR we e
appa en ly ca ied ou by he Sudanese ai o ce and
Congolese ai lines, amongs o he s, whose ai c a
landed a Bangui In e na ional Ai po .
217
Fo he
DRC, he expe s epo ha mo e han 2,000 ons
o ma e ial o he mili a y, including weapons and
ammuni ion, we e deli e ed i egula ly om Janua y
2018 o he ime o he 2020 epo .
218
The Congolese
secu i y o ces also ecei ed aining assis ance and
ci ilian ai suppo om ab oad.
219
I egula deli e ies o Libya we e pa icula ly
ex ensi e. No su p isingly, bo h sides compe ing
o powe bene i ed om his. Ex e nal suppo has
inc eased, pa icula ly in he cou se o he igh ing
since 2014 and he ise o ISIL.
220
Acco ding o he
PoE, he majo i y o ans e s in a ou o he o ces
a ilia ed wi h Gene al Ha a came om he UAE
and Jo dan du ing he epo ing pe iod.
221
The mili-
a y ma e ial which he GNA in u n ecei ed om
Tu key, a i ed by ai wi h mili a y ai c a , and in
some cases also by sea.
222
The main ai ou es we e
be ween he UAE and eas e n Libya o wes e n Egyp
espec i ely, om Russia ia Sy ia o eas e n Libya
as well as om Tu key o he wes o he coun y.
223
A pa icula ly ex ensi e ope a ion was o ganized
o Ha a ’s o ces by companies based in he UAE;
acco ding o he epo , E ik Dean P ince, ounde
and long- ime CEO o he p i a e secu i y company
Blackwa e , was also in ol ed.
224
In addi ion o he supply o mili a y goods, he
deploymen o o eign igh e s and me cena ies was
also a ele an ac o in Libya. The PoE desc ibes in
de ail he ac i i ies o he Russian Wagne G oup
he e since 2018 – om main enance assis ance o
ope a ional suppo in comba and he pe o mance
o specialized mili a y asks. E ec i ely i ac ed as a
“ o ce mul iplie ” o he o ces on he Ha a side in
2019 and ea ly 2020. Wagne was ac i e in Libya wi h
217
UNSC, S/2021/569, pa a. 73, 76.
218
UNSC, S/2020/482*, pa a. 156.
219
Ibid., pa a. 148.
220
UNSC, S/2016/209, pa a. 108.
221
UNSC, S/2017/466, pa a. 132; UNSC, S/2019/914*,
pa a. 61.
222
UNSC, S/2019/914*, pa a. 62; UNSC, S/2021/229,
pa a. 73.
223
UNSC, S/2021/229, pa a. 81; UNSC, S/2022/427,
pa a. 79.
224
UNSC, S/2021/229, pa a. 86 .
up o 2,000 people and also deployed comba ai -
c a .
225
The SADAT In e na ional De ence Consul ancy
om Tu key appa en ly ained o ces close o he
go e nmen and was also esponsible o supe ising
and paying he app oxima ely 5,000 Sy ian igh e s
on he GNA side.
226
In ea lie epo s, he panel also
p o ided in o ma ion abou o eign pilo s ec ui ed
by a med g oups in Mis a a. They had been enlis ed
by an in e media y company ha had p e iously
been in ol ed in illegal a ms deals.
227
Howe e , his phenomenon is no limi ed o Libya.
As al eady men ioned, Russia sen mili a y aine s
o he CAR, whe e he bounda y o Wagne ope a-
ions was luid. The ins uc o s pa icipa ed di ec ly
in comba ope a ions and p o ided a med pe sonal
p o ec ion o CAR o icials, al hough hey we e sup-
posed o be una med and only in he coun y o
aining. Acco ding o a ious sou ces, hei numbe
was be ween 800 and 2,100, which was signi ican ly
highe han o icially s a ed.
228
In he case o he DRC, he panel ci ed e idence
ha a leas 80 people om Geo gia and Bela us had
wo ked as pilo s, aine s and echnicians o he
Congolese ai o ce o e a pe iod o almos en yea s.
Appa en ly, Geo gians who had p e iously se ed in
he Geo gian Ai Fo ce we e ec ui ed by he Congo-
lese au ho i ies.
229
A leas some o he business models behind he
i egula deli e ies a e becoming appa en . In addi-
ion o go e nmen s, hei secu i y o ces and non-
s a e a med g oups in he a ge a ea, a ious p i a e
ac o s a e in ol ed – beyond he manu ac u e s o
weapons and mili a y equipmen .
Exemp ions o go e nmen o ces and
isks o “di e sion”
Supplies such as hose desc ibed no only iola e he
p o isions o he exemp ions, hey can also unde -
mine hei objec i e, namely o s eng hen he au ho -
i y o he espec i e in e na ionally ecognized go -
e nmen o imp o e he secu i y si ua ion. In almos
all con lic con ex s, he e is a high isk ha weapons
and ammuni ion will be di e ed om o icial s ocks
(“di e sion”). The p oblem o equipping na ional
225
Ibid., pa a. 93 , 97.
226
Ibid., pa a. 99.
227
UNSC, S/2016/209, pa a. 170.
228
UNSC, S/2021/569, pa as. 66, 68.
229
UNSC, S/2020/482*, pa as. 188 .
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secu i y o ces has been a ecu ing heme in cases
such as A ghanis an. Howe e , wi h he a ge ed
a ms emba go, he si ua ion he e was di e en om
he excep ions and exemp ions o he emba goes dis-
cussed in mo e de ail he e. Al hough he exemp ions
allow supplies o secu i y o ces, hey a e also in-
ended o ensu e ha hei ype, scope and whe e-
abou s a e moni o ed mo e closely and o help
imp o e weapons managemen on he g ound,
including egis a ion, secu e s o age and end-use
con ol.
In almos all con lic con ex s, he isk
o weapons and ammuni ion being
di e ed om o icial s ocks is high.
Howe e , he epo s on CAR, DRC, Libya and
Somalia up o 2022 pain a pic u e o ecu ing io-
la ions o epo ing o au ho iza ion equi emen s.
I is no always possible o dis inguish be ween a
lack o knowledge o o due diligence and delibe a e
dis ega d. In some cases, deli e ies such as hose dis-
cussed in he las sec ion we e clea ly delibe a ely
made wi hou ollowing he in ended p ocedu es.
Un il a leas 2019, o example, paymen s o o eign
companies o mili a y equipmen and aining we e
eco ded in o icial DRC documen s unde he pu -
chase o ag icul u al goods.
230
Exemp ions can also se e as loopholes, o exam-
ple i a no i ica ion is made bu only pa o he deli -
e y o suppo is epo ed – as in he case o Russia’s
bila e al mili a y suppo o he CAR. Mili a y equip-
men au ho ized o impo can also be upg aded
la e , as he panel on Libya ound o pa ol essels
ha had been egula ly deli e ed o he GNA by UN
membe s a es unde he cu en excep ion o non-
le hal equipmen .
231
In some cases, he e we e egula deli e ies wi h-
ou he sanc ions commi ee being in o med acco d-
ingly. This was he case when he Chinese a med
o ces, a s a e-owned a ms and ammuni ion company
in he People’s Republic and p i a e companies ans-
e ed mili a y equipmen o he DRC eigh imes
be ween Janua y 2015 and Janua y 2019.
232
Some-
imes epo s a e simply consis en ly inco ec o
delayed – as in he case o deli e ies om China,
he USA, Tu key, Saudi A abia and Djibou i o Soma-
230
UNSC, S/2022/479, pa as. 16 .
231
UNSC, S/2019/914*, pa a. 78.
232
UNSC, S/2020/482*, pa a. 158.
lia, as epo ed in he 2018 Moni o ing Team epo .
233
Membe s a es some imes poin o ambigui ies in he
exemp ions as a eason o his; in he ele an Reso-
lu ions, i is essen ially le o he indi idual s a es
o de ine he exac scope o applica ion.
234
Some PoEs
also no e ha he e is con usion ega ding he spe-
ci ic esponsibili ies o no i ica ions o a lack o co-
o dina ion be ween he supplie s a e and he sup-
plied go e nmen
235
o among he au ho i ies o he
ecipien coun y.
236
Howe e , he ambigui ies go beyond me e p oce-
du e. One di icul y lies in de ining which uni s o
ac o s a e s a e-con olled and he e o e allowed o
ecei e mili a y ma e ial unde excep ions o exemp-
ions. In Libya, he p oblem al eady exis ed be ween
2011 and 2014 as he e we e compe ing p ocu emen
channels wi hin he in e na ionally ecognized go -
e nmen and a he same ime he e was a lack o
o e sigh and cla i y ega ding end use s.
237
The panel
also c i icized he GNA o no p o iding any in o ma-
ion on he s uc u e o he secu i y o ces unde i s
con ol.
238
The go e nmen subsequen ly ailed o
p o ide mo e de ailed epo s.
239
Simila di icul ies can be ound in he case o
Somalia. E en a e a na ional secu i y a chi ec u e
was adop ed o he coun y in 2017, he go e n-
men ’s manda o y epo s con ained no in o ma ion
on he s a us o egional o ces o mili ias.
240
In 2022,
he PoE called o a lis o be d awn up o Somali
secu i y sec o ins i u ions ha do no belong o he
cen al go e nmen . A he same ime, i ecom-
mended he c ea ion o mechanisms wi h which he
go e nmen could o e see he supply o weapons,
ammuni ion and equipmen o hese ins i u ions.
241
In ac , ma e ial and mili a y suppo low la gely
unchecked o he egional o ces in ques ion.
242
The epo s on Somalia and Libya hin a ano he
ambigui y. He e, p o isions o he a ms emba go
collide wi h o he Resolu ions, especially hose on
comba ing e o ism. In addi ion o he ai s ikes
233
UNSC, S/2018/1002, pa a. 10.
234
UNSC, S/2019/914*, pa a. 79.
235
Somalia: UNSC, S/2017/924*, pa a. 126.
236
CAR: UNSC, S/2016/919, pa a. 111.
237
UNSC, S/2016/209, pa a. 115.
238
UNSC, S/2017/466, pa a. 107.
239
See ecommenda ions unde UNSC, S/2018/812,
pa a. 243; UNSC, S/2022/427, pa a. 132.
240
UNSC, S/2018/1002, pa a. 38.
241
UNSC, S/2022/754*, pa a. 140(g).
242
UNSC, S/2020/949, pa as. 111 .
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ha he USA claims o ha e ca ied ou in 2017–18
in suppo o he GNA agains ISIL and Al-Qaida,
243
he panel on Libya also epo s ope a ional and ech-
nical suppo om I alian, B i ish and Ame ican
special o ces
244
as well as F ench ope a ions
245
and
indica ions o F ench an i- ank missiles on he side
o he Ha a oops.
246
A he PoE’s eques , F ance
speci ically in oked pa ag aph 3 o Resolu ion 2214
(2015), in which membe s a es a e u ged by he
Secu i y Council o use all means o comba h ea s
o peace and secu i y posed by ac s o e o ism.
247
When assessing he associa ed mili a y ac i i ies
ca ied ou in ag eemen wi h he GNA, i is unclea
whe he he p o isions o he a ms emba go a e
umped by hose on coun e - e o ism.
248
In Somalia, Pun land’s secu i y o ces a e being
suppo ed by he UAE and he USA in he igh
agains Al-Shabaab and ISIL, al hough he commi -
ee’s app o al has no been ob ained.
249
The panel
also epo ed on indica ions o a deli e y o a med
d ones by Tu key in 2021. When ques ioned on his
poin , Tu key claimed ha i would use he sys ems
i sel in he igh agains e o ism in Somalia. How-
e e , he e was no co esponding excep ion, and
he panel exp essed doub s abou he ac ual use by
Tu key.
250
These cases show ha membe s a es
p io i ize he igh agains e o ism o e compliance
wi h he a ms emba go.
E en i exemp ion p o isions a e obse ed, he
o en-inadequa e pos -deli e y managemen emains
p oblema ic. The panels on Libya, Somalia and he
DRC poin ou ha signi ican quan i ies o a ms,
ammuni ion and o he ma e ial en e ed he coun ies
h ough exemp ions. In Somalia alone, mo e han
20,000 weapons and 13 million ounds o ammuni-
ion eached he cen al go e nmen ’s a med o ces
be ween 2013 and Sep embe 2016, a e he emba go
was pa ially li ed.
251
Howe e , he PoEs epea edly
s a e ha hey a e unable o de e mine whe he
weapons and ammuni ion ha e eached he in ended
243
UNSC, S/2018/812, pa a. 108.
244
UNSC, S/2017/466, pa a. 147.
245
Ibid., pa a. 133.
246
UNSC, S/2019/914*, pa a. 93.
247
UNSC, Resolu ion S/RES/2214 (2015), Ma ch 27, 2015.
248
UNSC, S/2019/914*, pa a. 229; UNSC, S/2021/229,
pa a. 59.
249
UNSC, S/2016/919, pa a. 119.
250
UNSC, S/2022/754*, pa a. 96.
251
UNSC, S/2016/919, pa a. 115; o mo e de ailed igu es
on impo s o Libya, see UNSC, S/2018/812, pa a. 129.
end use s due o a ious de iciencies in documen-
a ion and p ocesses.
252
In Somalia, he PoE epo e ealed a signi ican
disc epancy be ween he numbe o weapons o i-
cially ecei ed by he go e nmen since he pa ial
suspension and hose ac ually dis ibu ed o he coun-
y’s na ional a my.
253
In gene al, he PoEs equen ly
iden i y weapons and ammuni ion om go e nmen
o ces ha ha e ei he been esold by mili a y pe -
sonnel, passed on o allied a med g oups o s olen
by a med g oups.
254
O e all, he willingness o some
UN membe s a es o espond o he panels’ inqui ies
abou possible deli e ies is limi ed. As a esul , ac-
ing a emp s o en come o no hing. In con as , he
PoEs do epo e o s in a ms managemen and selec-
i e imp o emen s – pa ly hanks o he suppo o
he UN and in e na ional pa ne s – al hough many
gaps emain. While he emba goes a e o en c i icized
by he espec i e go e nmen s as an obs acle, many
o he PoE epo s sugges ha he condi ions o sup-
plying a ms and ammuni ion a e insu icien ly ul-
illed.
“New” echnologies and dual use goods
As men ioned abo e, he e m “a ms and ela ed
ma e iel” includes no only all ypes o weapons and
ammuni ion, bu usually also componen s, spa e
pa s and weapon accesso ies.
255
Gi en he lack o
s anda d lis s, a u he challenge is he e o e o
de e mine he scope o he a ms emba goes in ela-
ion o dual-use goods. Annexes ha speci y he
equi emen s o exemp ions – such as in he case
o Somalia, whe e lis s o goods o app o al and
no i ica ion we e d awn up – can indi ec ly indica e
wha is de ini ely co e ed by he emba go. Howe e ,
hey a e no comp ehensi e and a e no a ailable
o all egimes. I is he e o e always up o he PoEs
o poin ou ambigui ies and he esul ing dange s
252
Somalia: UNSC, S/2017/924*, pa a. 138; CAR: UNSC,
S/2018/1119, pa as. 191 ; DRC: UNSC, S/2018/531, pa a. 204;
Libya: UNSC, S/2016/209, Annexes 31, 38; UNSC, S/2018/812.
253
UNSC, S/2018/1002, pa a. 22.
254
Fo a ious examples, see, in e alia, in he case o
CAR: UNSC, S/2021/569, pa a. 98; on DRC: UNSC, S/2021/560,
pa as. 143 .; UNSC, S/2019/469, pa as. 197 .; on Somalia:
UNSC, S/2020/949, pa a. 98; UNSC, S/2022/754*, pa a. 78;
UNSC, S/2018/1002, pa a. 24; UNSC, S/2019/858*, pa a. 114.
255
Wa son Ins i u e o In e na ional and Public A ai s/
Compliance and Capaci y Skills In e na ional, High-Le el
Re iew o Uni ed Na ions Sanc ions (see no e 25), 60 .
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o ci cum en ing emba goes. In he case o Libya, he
expe s called o cla i ica ion as o whe he ce ain
echnologies (such as pa ol boa s) can be used o
mili a y pu poses in he coun y and he e o e all
unde he a ms emba go.
256
The same epo also
aises his ques ion o elec onic in e dic ion and
jamming sys ems designed o disable unmanned
ae ial ehicles (UAVs) and unmanned comba ae ial
ehicles (UCAVs) o comme cial UAVs.
257
This poin s o an impo an aspec ha u he
exace ba es he dual use p oblem: he eme gence
o “new” ypes o weapons ha a e some imes only
assembled in he con lic zones. UAVs and UCAVs
play a pa icula ole in he epo s on Libya, bu also
appea in hose on he DRC, whe e he expe g oup
poin s ou ha he Allied Democ a ic Fo ces (ADF) use
su eillance d ones.
258
On Libya, he PoE ound ha
Ha a o ces used UAVs supplied by he Uni ed A ab
Emi a es,
259
while GNA o ces used Tu kish-made
UCAVs (majo deli e ies o componen s o hese
d ones we e also men ioned).
260
Bo h sides also used
small UAVs o in elligence, su eillance and econ-
naissance pu poses.
261
The unde lying issue, acco d-
ing o he PoE, is ha “[ ]he e e -e ol ing echnology
and ela i ely low cos o sma elec onic as -mo ing
consume goods, such as op ics and unmanned ae ial
ehicles, […] and he ease o modi ica ion o ci ilian
ehicles o con e hem in o comba -capable ehicles
[…] make such dual-use i ems […] ideal o mili a y
use in low-le el con lic s.”
262
The expe s belie e
ha he a ms emba go is iola ed in cases whe e he
co esponding ups eam echnology is p ima ily im-
po ed by pa ies o he con lic and used o mili a y
pu poses.
263
Howe e , expo e s as well as coun ies
o o igin and ansi would ha e o e i y his acco d-
ingly, which is di icul in many cases.
The use o such echnologies is, in ac , no new
bu plays a g owing ole in almos all p o ac ed
a med con lic s. The same applies o he use o imp o-
ised explosi e de ices (IEDs). These a e o en buil in
256
UNSC, S/2019/914*, pa a. 80.
257
Ibid., pa as. 99, 229.
258
UNSC, S/2021/560, pa a. 23.
259
UNSC, S/2019/914*, pa as. 108, 110.
260
Ibid., pa as. 112–116, 121.
261
Ibid., pa a. 122.
262
UNSC, S/2022/427, pa a. 61. The PoE poin s ou he e
ha i s de ini ion o “dual use” does no co espond o ha
used unde he Wassenaa A angemen o he EU expo
con ol egime (ibid., no e 90).
263
UNSC, S/2022/427, pa a. 61.
he con lic zone i sel om explosi e ma e ial and
o he componen s, o example in he DRC, whe e he
ADF a e using hem mo e and mo e equen ly.
264
Be ween No embe 2020 and Ma ch 2021 alone, o
example, 36 inciden s in ol ing 64 IEDs we e egis-
e ed ha we e suspec ed o con i med as being
linked o he g oup.
265
These included ma e ial om
Tanzania, which is o en used in mining,
266
as well as
explosi es, ba e ies and de ona o s om Uganda.
267
The Secu i y Council hus added a lis ing c i e ion
in 2022 o being in ol ed in he p oduc ion o use
o IEDs as well as o any planning, o de ing o assis-
ance o a acks in he DRC wi h IEDs.
268
In he case o CAR, he use o IEDs has also inc eased
signi ican ly since mid-2020, especially in he wes
and no h-wes o he coun y. In 2021 alone, 44 such
a acks we e eco ded, in which 30 people died,
mos ly ci ilians. Howe e , he PoE does no go in o
de ail abou he design o he explosi e de ices and
he possible o igin o he componen s used.
269
IEDs play a pa icula ly impo an ole in he
epo s on Somalia.
270
In 2016 he PoE had al eady
ound ha Al-Shabaab was using inc easingly sophis-
ica ed echnology agains high- alue a ge s, includ-
ing AMISOM, a use acili a ed by o eign aine s
and he ans e o knowledge om o he con lic
zones.
271
This a ec ed he a ms emba go because he
PoE ound clea e idence ha Al-Shabaab had been
manu ac u ing i s own explosi es since a leas July
2017, ha ing p e iously used mainly mili a y explo-
si es de i ed om wa emnan s o cap u ed by
AMISOM.
272
The PoE epea edly called o be e in o -
ma ion om UN membe s a es ega ding expo s o
Somalia o chemicals sui able o he cons uc ion o
imp o ised explosi e de ices.
273
When examining a
speci ic case, he sanc ions commi ee ound ha
al hough explosi es o comme cial pu poses a e no
264
UNSC, S/2020/1283, pa as 12 .
265
UNSC, S/2021/560, pa a. 19.
266
UNSC, S/2016/466, pa a. 222.
267
UNSC, S/2021/560, pa a. 24.
268
UNSC, Res. 2641 (2022), pa a. 3.
269
UNSC, S/2022/527, pa a. 28.
270
The PoE on Libya men ions IEDs only in ela ion o
boxes o de ona ing co ds in Benghazi ha o igina ed om a
Tu kish-based explosi es manu ac u e and we e seized om
a essel coming om Mis a a. UNSC, S/2018/812, pa a. 119.
271
UNSC, S/2016/919, pa a. 123.
272
UNSC, S/2019/858*, pa a. 20.
273
UNSC, S/2017/924*, pa a. 224; UNSC, S/2019/858*,
pa a. 24.