S ümp e , D. J.W.
A icle
S ess managemen in Sou h A ica
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: S ümp e , D. J.W. (1985) : S ess managemen in Sou h A ica, Sou h A ican
Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems
(AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 16, Iss. 2, pp. 61-70,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 16i2.1075
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217890
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S ess
managemen
in
Sou h
A ica
D.J.W.
S Omp e
Depa men
o
Psychology, Uni e si y
o
Cape Town, Cape Town
A dis inc ion is made be ween eus ess and dis ess,
and
he
complexi y
o
s ess phenomena is emphasized.
Accep-
ance
o co po a e social esponsibili y is posed
as
he
mos undamen al o m
o
s ess managemen a he social
and
communi y le el. Sound managemen p ac ices
a e
iewed
as
basic o heal h-enhancing o ganiza ions.
Occupa ional di e ences a e highligh ed. S ess
managemen aining
is
discussed in e ms
o
who needs
aining, indi idual
s.
g oup app oaches, and objec i es.
Knowledge acquisi ion and sel -assessmen
a e
in oduced.
B ie
discussions
o
speci ic skills aining ollow:
Relaxa ion, physical exe cise, a ional-emo i e hinking, goal
se ing, ime managemen , pe sonal and ca ee de elopmen
counselling, and p e en i e heal h managemen . Las ly,
employee counselling p og ammes a e men ioned. The ole
o ollow-up e alua ion is emphasized.
S.
A .
J.
Bus. Mgm . 1985,
16:
61
-
70
Onde skeid wo d ge e ussen 'goeie'
en
'sleg e' spanning
en
die kompleksi ei
an
spanning e skynsels wo d beklem-
oon. Aan aa ding
an
ko po a iewe sosiale e an woo delik-
heid wo d geoppe
as
die mees undamen ele o m
an
spanninghan e ing op sosiale en gemeenskaps lak.
Gesonde bes uu sp ak yke wo d beskou
as
g ondliggend
aan
gesondheid-be o de ende-o ganisasies. Be oeps e skille
wo d
oegelig. Opleiding in die han e ing
an
spanning
wo d
besp eek in e me
an
wie
di
benodig, indi iduele
s.
g oepsbenade ings, en oogme ke. Ve k yging
an
kennis
en
sel e alue ing wo d genoem. Ko besp ekings
an
opleiding
in
bepaalde aa dighede olg: On spanning, liggaamsoe-
ening, asioneel-emo iewe denke, doelwi s elling, ydsbenu -
ing, oo lig ing by pe soonlike
en
loopbaanon wikkeling
en
oo komende gesondheidso g. Laas ens, wo d we kneme -
oo lig ingp og amme e meld. Die ol
an
op olg-e aluasie
wo d beklem oon.
S.-A .
Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1985,
16:
61-
70
Expanded e sion o pape p esen ed
a
he
28 h
Con en ion
o
Ins i u e
o
Pe sonnel Managemen (Sou he n
A ica), Sun Ci y, Bopu ha swana, 3 Oc obe
1984.
D.J.W. S iimp e
Depa men
o
Psychology, Uni e si y
o
Cape Town, P i a e
Bag,
Rondebosch, 7700 Republic
o
Sou h A ica
Accep ed Feb ua y
1985
Tha he bi ds
o
wo y
and
ca e
ly
abo e
you
head, his
you
canno change.
Bu
ha hey build nes s in
you
hai ,
his
you
can p e en . -Chinese p o e b.
In oduc ion
Much
o
wha
is
said and w i en abou s ess
is
based on
dubious assump ions. We a e o en
iewed
as
passi e ic ims
who ha e minimal abili y o cope. We a e assumed no
o
be able o
aJce
ad an age
o
he oppo uni ies p esen ed by
la e 20 h cen u y echnology, indus y and business, bu a e
supposedly unde cons an h ea om hei dange ous side-
e
ec s. The consequences
o
assump ions like hese a e a
helpless, hopeless a i ude
o
s ess a oidance and a cynical
endency o ejec
all
deep in ol emen , s i ing, and
en husiasm
as
i hese somehow ep esen decadence.
Assump ions o he con a y can
also
be made, namely ha
he as majo i y
o
people ha e
an
inhe en mo i e
o
be
compe en in hei in e ac ions wi h he wo ld a ound hem;
ha hey ha e he po en ial
o
de elop a gene al o ien a ion
ha
iews
li e as meaning ul, p edic able and manageable;
as
well
as ha hey ha e he po en ial o de elop as ha dy
pe sonali ies who can in e ac wi h hei en i onmen wi h a
sense
o
commi men , a belie in pe sonal con ol, and
an
expec a ion
o
challenge (see S iimp e , 1983b). Social class
ad an ages and p i ileged occupa ional expe iences con ibu e
o
he ac ualim ion
o
hese po en iali ies, bu he po en ial
need no be denied; and c ea ion
o
op imal condi ions
is
by
no means con a y o o ganiza ional and social objec i es.
When people ace li e wi h compe ence and ha diness,
much
o
s ess should a he be desc ibed as 'eus ess' (G eek
eu -= good; Klausne ,
1968):
A posi i e, pleasan ,
acili a ing esponding o demands. Such 'wo king wi h joy'
is
physically heal hy, psychologically in igo a ing and ca ee -
enhancing, as
well
as highly bene icial o one's employing
o ganiz.a ion.
On
he o he hand,
i
is
possible
o
ca y on oo long and
o wea onesel ou o he poin
o
dange ous exhaus ion and
dis ess (o
'bad'
s ess). The e a e also o e whelming,
uncon ollable ci cums ances which can d ag indi iduals,
g oups and whole communi ies down in o dis ess ha can
des oy physical, psychological, and social heal h. I
is
his
kind
o
dis es.s
ha
is
o en equa ed o 's ess', an un o una e
usage I shall y o a oid in his a icle. P e en ion
o
such
exhaus ion,
as
well
as
alle ia ion, amelio a ion and ea men
when
i
has occu ed a he pe sonal
o
g oup le el, a e he
objec i es
o
dis ess managemen p og ammes.
In
pa , i
is
a ma e
o
pe sonal esponsibili y bu o en he pe son
62
needs suppo and assis ance om p o essionals; hence he
in e es
o
pe sonnel managemen in his opic.
Howe e ,
i
is
no only indi iduals who seek eus ess
and
y o a oid dis ess. Whole o ganiza ions could ha e ela ed
aims:
To
c ea e op imal condi ions
o
eus ess o indi idual
membe s and g oups, and o
minimize
condi ions o dis ess.
In pa , he goal would be a ou able condi ions o p oduc-
i i y
and
imp o ed pe o mance. Na u ally, some dis ess
is
ine i able in any
job
and e e y wo king pe son
is
bound o
expe ience such unpleasan ness soone
o
la e ; bu a 'heal h
enhancing o ganiza ion
will
a emp
o
ensu e ha jobs a e
no ypically consis en ly o e loaded wi h po en ial s esso s'
(Simpson,
1983).
The o he side
o
he coin
is
o he o gani-
za ion o shoulde social esponsibili y, o demons a e ha ,
in addi ion o being conce ned wi h he physical
and
psycho-
logical wellness
o
employees as indi iduals and g oups, i also
has a deep conce n o he wel a e
o
socie y
and
o
he
communi y.
S ess
-a
e y
complex
ma e
The expe ience
o
s ess, whe he bad
o
good,
and
e e y hing
ela ed o s ess,
is
-like all human unc ioning - a ma e
o
a la ge numbe and a ie y
o
componen s in dynamic
in e ac ion. The main eason why he li e a u e
on
s ess
and
eachings abou s ess managemen a e so con using,
is
ou
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1985,
l6(l)
endency
o
o e simpli y by a ending
o
a single
componen
in isola ion,
o
a mos
o
a small numbe
o
componen s.
S ess phenomena can be nei he unde s ood no
con olled
in h ee,
o
i e,
o
en easy s eps. We a e o en like
he
blind
men in he Indian legend who each de ined an elephan
in
e ms
o
only ha pa
o
he elephan he had
had
oppo uni y
o explo e. T ouble could, howe e , s a when
we
y
o
become elephan handle s
on
he basis
o
such limi ed
unde -
s anding
o
a a he massi e animal.
A he same ime, le us no be oo ha sh
on
some
would-be
elephan handle s. I
is
ha d
o a consul an (in e nal
o
ex e nal)
o
sell
an
unpackageable, unp og ammable
s uc u e
o
concep s ha equi es cons an e ision and adap a ion
o
each clien
and
each si ua ion. The e
is
an unde s andable
need
o
single
ou
manageable componen s. Bu a
piecemeal
app oach should be labelled as such
and
should no
be
p e-
sen ed as i
i
is
he las wo d
o
g ea es de elopmen
on
~
managemen .
On
he con a y, p oblems
o
his
magni ude
demand scien i ic
and
p o essional humili y ha
will
encou age
us o con inue he sea ch o unde s anding and o
mo e
and
be e ways
o
dealing wi h hem.
Figu e I p esen s a model ha indica es classes o .compo-
nen s
o
o ganiza ional s ess (see labelled ec angles),
wi h
examples lis ed unde each heading. I also indica es
in e ac-
ions be ween componen s, wi h solid a ows indica ing
di ec
.................................................................................................................................
I.
CULTURAL
ANTECEDENTS
SYSTEMS SITUATIONS
-
eligious poli ical condi ions
poh 1cal
economic economic
condi ions
e hnic condi ion
o
communi y
demog aphic place
o
esidence '
C (e.g. sho age
o
high.le el
human
esou ces) lack
o
mobili y
5.
CONDITIONING
6.
COPl'.'ooG
VARIABLES REGRESSIVE
INDIVIDUAL
2.
ORGANIZATIONAL
STRESSORS
dependenq
Physical hypochond 1a"''"'
INDIVIDUAL INTERPERSONAL INTER-GROUP ORGANIZATIONAL
iene ic p ed1spos1 ion smoking
in ac ness o e load esponsibili y con lic con1 ol sys ems d inking
i ness unde load o people
d ui
abuse
gene al heallh
job
secu i y lack
o
suppo
design absen1ee1sm
acial 1ension
gende unemploymcnl managcmenl s yle
lu no e
·~
ole con lic con lic low
p oduCll 111)"
P< sonali y ole ambigui1y media ion eligious ension echnology THERAPEUTIC
ype
a/b
. AVOIDANCE
..............................................
ha diness
..
"'el -es eem educ11on o exposu e
locus o
con ol
3.
REACTIONS
wi hd awal
elaxa ion esponse
ole ance o ambigui y (e.g. p og essi e
mus_cula
mo i ·a11on FIGHT-FLIGHT GENERAL elaxa ion.
med11a11on
.
!e.g. achie emen . . bio eedback. yoga.)
powe . a ilia ion) inc eased hea a e. b ea hing. ADAPTATION
SITUATIONAL ad enalin, no ad enalin.
e c
SYNDROME TRANSFORMATIONAL
Family
His o2
heallh enhancemen
amily o o igin
................................................
(e.g. exe cise. die )
nuclea amily
~
...
~
educa ion and 1 a1mng
occupa ional
h1s1o y
4.
CONSEQUENCES ca ee de elopmen
e hmc
backg ound goal -se ing
h e
e 'CRIS
SHORT-TERM LONG-TERM
a 1onakmo 1 e
hinking
~
Physical
Psychological Physical Psychological
a igue
emo ional
s ain exhaus ion dissa is ac ion
ension (e.g. ange , iob. ca ee . li e)
headaches pessimism. dep ession] diseases
o
bu nou
low back pain cogni i e s ain
adap a ion
(e.g. ulce .
(e.g. p oblem hype ension,
o
concen1 a1e) hea disease)
Figu e
1 Componen s
o
o ganiza ional s ess and hei in e ac ions.
s.
A .
J.
Bus. Mgm . 1985, 16(2)
in luences
o
one
componen
leading
o
ano he , and b oken-
line
a ows indica ing p ocesses which condi ion, i.e. s eng-
hen
o
weaken, in e ac ions. I ha e discussed he de ail
o
his model elsewhe e (S iimp e , 1983b; 1983c)
and
in end
o use he model he e only as a ame
o
e e ence
and
as
a eminde
o
main ain as
b oad
a iew
o
o ganiza ional s ess
as
possible.
Co po a e
social
esponsibili y
and
s ess
When one begins
o
hink
o
how
o
enhance eus ess
and
how o dec ease dis ess, i
is
oolish, i
no
down igh
dange ous, o s a hinking
o
indi iduals in he i s place.
One has
o
s a wi h
he
whole
o
a socie y
and
wi h he
communi ies wi hin i ,
app oaching
he
ma e
in a holis ic
o gene al sys ems way.
The i s ec angle in Figu e 1 e e s o 'cul u al an eceden s'
o
s ess, in he sense
ha
he
o al en i onmen o ms he
backd op
o
e e y hing
an
indi idual expe iences. The ela i e
'heal h'
o
a socie y, in e ms
o
social, poli ical, economic
and educa ional condi ions, will con ibu e
o
he balance
o
eus ess -dis ess expe ienced
by
i s membe s.
In e ms
o
a
communi y,
one
could use he concep
o
solida i y,
an
a i ude
o
esponsibili y owa ds
one
ano he ,
a eeling
o
con idence
and
op imism owa ds asks o be
accomplished,
and
he
abili y
o
i s social sys ems
o
sa is y
he needs
o
membe s (S iimp e , 1975). A lack
o
solida i y
esul s om ac o s such as
poo
o
limi ed leade ship, high
incidence
o
poo ly in eg a ed
o
b oken
amilies, po e y in
gene al,
poo
housing, ew ec ea ional ac i i ies and acili ies,
high incidence
o
ju enile
and
adul delinquency, as well as
poo
and
dis up ed ne wo ks
o
communica ion
and
in e -
pe sonal suppo . High le els
o
agg ession and hos ili y wi hin
he communi y
and
agains ou side s a e cha ac e is ics
o
a
communi y
ha
lacks solida i y. Ob iously, solida i y con i-
bu es immensely
o
he
eus ess o ien a ion, while lack
o
solida i y
is
a e ile condi ion o dis ess. Un o una ely he e
is
no way
o
denying
ha
he
wo ld
o
indus ial wo ke s,
pa icula ly ha
o
blacks, ypically shows
no
o
e y ew
o
he posi i e cha ac e is ics
o
solida i y which people highe
up he o ganiza ional ladde conside as hei bi h igh .
Co po a e social esponsibili y demands ha companies
conside
b oade
social issues
and
alloca e esou ces o
b oade social pu poses. I should like
o
quo e om Bloom's
(1984) alk
o
he U.S. Business Council ea lie :
' his app oach
is
plainly co ec because ac i e in ol emen
can be jus i ied
on
he
basis
ha
i
is
pa en ly ob ious
ha i
is
in
ou
in e es s
o
ope a e in a s able
and
heal hy
socie y, a socie y which
is
no
jeopa dised by he de e io a-
ion
o
condi ons in i s en i onmen . Le us be clea -
he e
can
be
no
p o i s
o
business
and
no
u u e o
people in a disin eg a ing communi y, a communi y
cha ac e ised
by
unemploymen , ci il diso de
o
c ime,
anywhe e in
he
wo ld.'
Social policy codes usually exp ess in en ions
and
commi -
men s in his connec ion,
apa
om hose conce ning
employmen p ac ices. Companies can
make
signi ican
con ibu ions owa ds he quali y
o
wo ke s' li es ou side he
wo k en i onmen , o ins ance h ough housing subsidies,
bu sa ies
and
o he
educa ional assis ance, li e acy
and
nume acy aining, medical aid unding
and
legal counselling.
They can also
suppo
cha i able
and
philan opic p ojec s
ha can bene i whole communi ies.
Bloom (1984) also
made
a poin
o
poli ical in ol emen ,
ha companies should speak
ou
on
ma e s
o
na ional
impo ance, such as emo als, de en ions
and
bannings. Wi h
63
he acial and poli ical condi ions in Sou h A ica in ' iolen
equilib ium' (The io s, 1984) and wi h he as majo i y
o
hei e~ployees o en being
o
he unp i ileged class,
compa ues canno a o d a emp s
a
poli ical neu ali y -
no o poli ical easons in he i s place, bu o he sake
o
he o al wellness
o
hei wo k- o ce.
In he case
o
lowe le el employees, such indi ec con i-
bu ions may be mo e wo hwhile han any di ec a emp s
a
s ess managemen . I a choice has
o
be made, gene al
quali y
o
li e o such
an
indi idual, his/he amily, iends
and communi y, a e a mo e undamen al, emb acing,
and
las ing han many
o
he hings which, o ins ance, execu i es
who ake a good li e ou side wo k o g an ed, may conside
a sign
o
special ca ing by he company. And i con ibu ions
o communal good a e wha a company chooses, in p e e ence
o
s ess managemen aining, i will s ill be
on
he side
o
he angels!
Ac i i ies
o
his kind a e no immedia ely isible
and
subs an ial because hey a e long- e m in es men s. In e en-
ion
a
his le el
is
he e o e much ha de o sell o
op
managemen (o o sha eholde s) han e.g. a pa icula aining
o
counselling p og amme. I akes a a -sigh ed
and
cou a-
geous managemen o become in ol ed
a
his le el. Ye i
is
he mos undamen al o m
o
's ess managemen ',
and
absolu ely essen ial in Sou h A ica.
Sound
managemen
p ac ices
When one looks a any lis
o
o ganiza ional s esso s (e.g.
in Figu e
1),
i
is
qui e ob ious ha many
o
hem ough
no
o
be deal wi h in a symp oma ic way. O ganiza ional s es-
so s esul om unsound people-managemen p ac ices
and
he emedy should be sough in imp o ing he psychological
and social heal h
o
he o ganiza ion as a whole. Au ho s like
A gy is,
Bennis,
Like , McG ego and Schein ha e desc ibed
heal hy, as opposed
o
unheal hy o ganiza ions.
To
lis bu
a ew cha ac e is ics om Fo dyce & Weil's (1979:
13-16)
lis
o
indica ions
o
o ganiza ional heal h:
The e
is
a no iceable sense
o
eam playing in planning,
in pe o mance and discipline -in sho , a sha ing
o
esponsibili y.
The judgemen
o
people lowe down in he o ganiza ion
is
espec ed.
-The ange
o
p oblems ackled includes pe sonal needs and
human ela ionships.
-Collabo a ion
is
eely en e ed in o.
Con lic s a e conside ed impo an o decision-making and
pe sonal g ow h.
-Leade ship
is
lexible, shi ing in s yle
and
pe son
o
sui
he si ua ion.
Poo
pe o mance
is
con on ed,
and
a join esolu ion
sough .
Manage s' o ien a ion
is
o
'wo k he p oblem',
no
o
' ind he culp i '.
An
o ganiza ion cha ac e ized by beha iou
o
his kind
will be much mo e conduci e
o
indi idual eus ess
han
o
dis ess,
and
dis ess will be much mo e eadily managed in
such
an
en i onmen
han
in
one
augh wi h au ho i a ia-
nism, ejec ion, mis us , p ejudice, hos ili y, exploi a ion
and
he like.
A s udy
a
he Uni e si y
o
Michigan (Caplan,
Cobb,
F ench, Van Ha ison & Pinneau,
1975)
compa ed dis esw s
among
23
di e en occupa ions. The
majo
dis esso s o
p o essional
and
whi e-colla wo ke s esul ed om ac o s
like oo li le delega ion
and
oo
li le decen aliz.a ion
o
asks
and
decision-making.
Fo
blue-colla wo ke s, he
majo
64
s esso s ended
o
go
in he opposi e di ec ion, e.g. lack
o
job
complexi y
and
unde -u iliza ion
o
abili ies.
Coope 's
conclusion om his s udy was:
'This may indica e he eason why he e
is
a g owing
mo emen in Wes e n Eu ope
and
No h Ame ica o
g ea e indus ial democ acy a wo k (e.g.
au onomous
wo k g oups,
g oup
decision-making,
job
e-design e c.).
I may be ha g ea e mo emen in he di ec ion
o
dele-
ga ing decision-making downwa d in a wide a ie y
o
jobs
would no only alle ia e s ess
among
whi e-colla
and
p o essional wo ke s bu also encou age g ea e u iliza ion
o
abili ies and enhance
job
sa is ac ion among blue-colla
wo ke s.' (Coope , 1980: 50)
Fo
easons such as hese, I wan
o
pose o ganiza ional
de elopmen , de elopmen
o
sound pe sonnel p ac ices (in-
cluding he design
and
e-design
o
wo k),
and
sound indus-
ial ela ions as he mos undamen al ways
o
managing
s ess wi hin any o ganiza ion.
An
o ganiza ion ha
is
well-
un in i s o ali y will c ea e eus ess in i s membe s
and
g oups,
and
will in he na u al way
o
hings elimina e
many
dis ess ul condi ions.
Pa
o
he o ien a ion desc ibed abo e would
be
a e-
e alua ion
o
he
human
esou ces
o
a i m, no only in
humanis ic e ms bu also in inancial e ms, as a capi al asse .
Unlike he case wi h machines
and
o he equipmen , he wea
and
ea
on
people by wo k,
and
he need o main enance
a e oo o en simply igno ed. Re-e alua ion implies
an
accep-
ance
o
he eali y
o
dis ess in o ganiza ional li e (Coope ,
1984).
This, in
um,
would p epa e he o ganiza ion so ha
speci ic s ess managemen in e en ions will seem like he
logical nex s ep.
On
he o he hand, a s ess managemen
aining p og amme ins alled in o
an
o ganiza ion ha
malignan ly gene a es dis ess h ough unsound managemen
will be ejec ed like a o eign
body
o
a ansplan om a
s ange .
Occupa ional
di e ences
The
concep
o
's ess'
is
o en popula ly associa ed wi h
highe le els
o
managemen , as
i
i
is
' he
boss' disease'
o
' he di ec o s' disease'.
O
cou se, people expe ience dis ess
o
a ious kinds
a
all le els
o
employmen
and
in a wide
a ie y
o
occupa ions.
'Wo k
p essu e a ec s all wo ke s
and
. . . he sou ces
and
mani es a ions
o
s ess a y om
occupa ion
o
occupa ion' (Coope , 1980: 49).
A he lowe o ganiz.a ional le els 'blue-colla s ess'
is
o en
ela ed
o
he mo e physical condi ions
o
wo k,
o
bo edom,
ambigui y abou
job
u u e,
and
o he ela i ely conc e e
ac o s (Caplan e al., 1975; Poul on, 1978; Shos ak, 1980).
'Subo dina e se ice ole' dis ess (Shami , 1980)
is
qui e a
di e en kind
o
lowe le el dis ess, expe ienced by people
in posi ions a he in e ace be ween
an
o ganiza ion
and
i s
clien ele, o ins ance wai e s, sales cle ks, ecep ionis s,
and
bank
elle s.
A
supe iso y
and
manage ial le els dis ess
is
cha ac e ized by a a ie y
o
psychological ac o s ha a e
no
p esen in ei he
o
hese kinds
o
wo k (S iimp e ,
1983b). In manage ial
and
supe iso y anks, mo eo e ,
job
le el seems
o
be
in e sely ela ed
o
dis ess, as well as
o
gene al heal h (Howa d, 1976).
O he
occupa ional g oups a e,
o
cou se, also subjec
o
dis ess. Ai a ic con olle s ha e almos become
pa
o
he s ess olklo e, as a esul
o
hei ension - illed
and
o e loaded wo k li es (C ump,
Coope
& Maxwell, 1981;
Hen y, 1981). As he e m was used ini ially,
'bu nou '
was
a consequence
o
dis ess among
human
se ice p o essionals
like
social
wo ke s, psychologis s, psychia is s, nu ses'.
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1985,
16(2)
policemen
and
p ison pe sonnel (Maslach & Jackson,
1982)·
he e he deep emo ional in ol emen wi h people
seems
~
be he mos p ominen ea u e.
O he
occupa ional
g oups
could also be men ioned
(Coope
& Ma shall,
1980).
Wha
is
impo an ,
is
o
keep
an
open mind o he
di e si y
o
s esso s
and
dis ess expe iences
ha
esul om
a ious
kinds
o
occupa ion. E en when some
o
he eac ions
and
consequences (Figu e
l)
seem simila . he con ex
o
he
o al
expe ience
and
he ways a ailable
o
p e en
and/o
amelio-
a e i ,
demand
a en ion
o
his di e si y.
No
single
in e en-
ion
is
likely
o
wo k o all occupa ional g oups. Up
o
a
poin , s ess managemen p og ammes, he e o e, ha e o
be
occupa ion-speci ic.
Indi idual-o ien a ed
s ess
managemen
aining
Who needs s ess managemen aining?
Pa icipa ion in
any
s ess managemen ac i i y should
always
be olun a y. Since pe sonal s ess managemen
is
always,
in
he inal ins ance, a
ma e
o
sel -managemen , he
mo i a-
ion o pa icipa ion should be
ha
o
he pa icipan .
Sub-
o dina es
canno
be assigned
o
such a p og amme, and
e en
a mild
o
sub le sugges ion
ha
a pe son needs i , should
be
a oided. I employee a endance
is
in
any
way equi ed
by
he
company,
he acili a o can
jus
as
well
gi e
up.
Pa icipan s ha e
o
accep he p emise ha s ess may
be
impo an
in hei li es, pa icula ly a wo k. Hence he
only
way
o
p esen a
p og amme
wi h
any
hope
o
success
is
' o
le people know wha he
p og am
is
all
abou
( he objec i e);
why hey may wan
o
a end ( he a ionale); and wha
hey
migh expec
o
gain;
and
hen le he indi idual decide'
(Ma eson & I ance ich, 1982b:71 I).
Indi idual di e ences (Rec angles 5
and
6 in Figu e l)
will
a ec such decisions. E en
hough
no
one can deny
he
omnip esence
o
s esso s,
and
e en hough a psychologis
may
be con inced ha e e yone exposed
o
a pa icula job
si ua ion mus expe ience i as dis ess ul, he e
will
p obably
always be some
ha dy
indi iduals
who
ind ha si ua ion
'no mal',
e en in igo a ing
and
exhila a ing (S iimp e ,
1983b).
A
he same ime, he e a e achie emen -mo i a ed
people
who
a e cons an ly seeking he ad ice and aid o
expe s who can help
hem
o
imp o e hei pe o mance
and
who
may
welcome
some
s ess managemen echniques
o
p o-ac i e pu poses.
Fo
such easons, all people who, on
he
basis
o
wha has been p esen ed
o
hem,
eel
ha he
p og amme
migh be help ul should ha e access o i .
When
an
o ganiza ion begins conside ing in oduc ion o
s ess managemen , a equen ques ion
is
whe e o s a .
Many op- ligh companies ha e chosen
o
in ol e manage ial
and
supe iso y pe sonnel i s . Mo e socialis ically inclined
commen a o s ind aul wi h such a p io i y.
on
he g ounds
ha since he physical, psychological
and
social condi ions
o
wo k a lowe le els
a e
much
less a ou able, o dina y
wo ke s should ge alle ia ion i s .
O
cou se, his
is
a
complica ed ma e , pa icula ly since he kinds
o
dis ess
di e
a
di e en le els,
and
hence he emedy equi ed.
Ma eson & I ance ich (1982b) exp essed he opinion ha ,
all else being equal, supe iso y
and
managemen pe sonnel
should be selec ed i s . Thei easons we e, i s , ha hey
ca y signi ican esponsibili y o people, a s esso ha
esea ch has consis en ly shown
o
be wo se han esponsibili y
o hings;
and,
second,
ha
i
supe io s unde s and dis ess
be e , hey
will
be in a be e posi ion
o
help employees
iden-
i y
and
deal wi h dis ess. Simpson
(l
983) added ano he
cogen eason: 'execu i es ha e a g ea e impac
on
he econo-
mic well being
o
an
o ganisa ion
and
hence. any incompe ence

s.
A .
J.
Bus.
Mgm .
1985,
16(2)
as
a
esul
o s ess a an execu i e
le el
will
p obably
ha e
mo e
signi ican
esul s on he o ganisa ion's bo om line'.
Nex ,
Ma eson and I ance ich ad ised ha one should
iden i y
g oups
o
employees
in
high-dis ess
jobs,
o
ins ance
hose
wi h:
'unusually
p olonged deadline p essu es; ch onic wo k
o e load;
cons an change
in
equi emen s, p ocedu es,
schedules
o
e en
supe iso s; equen physical dange ;
minimum
oppo uni ies o in e ac
wi h
o he s and hus
build
social-suppo ne wo ks; o highly au oma ed and
epe i i e
asks.' (Ma eson & l ance ich,
1982b:
771)
Thi dly,
hese
au ho s e e ed o g oups
o
employees
who
a e
pa icula ly
suscep ible
o dis ess,
ega dless
o
hei ac ual
wo k,
o
ins ance,
e y
young and inexpe ienced employees,
olde
employees
on a ca ee pla eau bu
s ill
making a wo h-
while
con ibu ion, ecen ly ans e ed people, and 'mino i y'
g oup
membe s
(as
an example, hey men ioned 'in some
cases,
emales';
black
manage s
would
also
be
a good
example
in
his
coun y).
Las ly,
pe sonnel and p oduc i i y c i e ia,
like
abno mal
le els
o u no e and absen eeism, acciden s, escala ing
cos s
o
p oduc ion dec emen s, may
lag
dis ess
in
wo k g oups,
i
hese
canno be explained
in
e ms
o
causes no ela ed
o
dis ess.
Indi idual
s.
g oup p og ammes
The
causes
o
dis ess may be so speci ic o an indi idual ha
an
indi idual s ess managemen p og amme,
o
he na u e
o
pe sonal
counselling, may
be
equi ed. Fo ins ance,
in
he
case
o senio manage s, psychological p oblems can ha dly
be
deal
wi h
in
a g oup se ing. Ano he example
may
be
dis ess
ela ed o ca ee -de elopmen , whe e a
leas
a
la ge
po ion
o
he counselling p ocess has o be indi idualized.
P oblems
a ound he mid-ca ee ansi ion a e also
likely
o
equi e
indi idual a en ion. Simila ly,
exe cise
p og ammes
o
people
who
a e a isk o co ona y hea
diseases
ha e
o
be
indi idualized, a leas o an ini ial pe iod.
In
iew
o
he ela i e in equency
o
such si ua ions,
o
he
specialized
aining and
skills
equi ed,
o
con iden iali y,
'.15
well
as
he cos liness
o
indi idual p oblem managemen ,
i
may
make sense o
use
ou side consul an s
o
such
app oaches.
Ve y
la ge o ganiza ions may, howe e ,
ha e
wo k
enough
o
his kind o employ counselling o
clinical
psychologis s,
physicians,
and
biokine icis s.
A
he
same
ime,
no
jus
any
membe
o
hese
occupa ions will
be
use ul.
Apa
om
high-le el
p o essional aining,
i
akes an o ien a ion
owa ds
heal h, a he han pa hology ( he e o e, e.g.,
counselling
a he han
clinical
psychology),
as
well
as
a
ce ain
amoun
o
indus ial/o ganiza ional
expe ience
and
insigh
-
a combina ion ha d o ga he .
G oup-based p og ammes ha e a ious ad an ages. The
mos
ob ious
is
cos -e ec i eness. The
second
is
ha he
same
~ind_o
p oblems occu equen ly enough ha people
expe-
0:n~g
hem
can
be
b ough oge he . The hi d
is
ha
people
wi h
~1mila
~ oblems can help, suppo and ein o ce
each
o he s beha iou
in
he igh kind
o
g oup se ing. Las ly,
mo i a ion o compliance ends o un highe
in
g oup
app oaches.
In
o ganiza ions s a us di e ences canno
be
igno ed and
he
cons i u ion
o
g oups may equi e ca e ul conside a ion
om
his
poin
o
iew.
Supe io s and subo dina es should
almos
ne e
be
in
he same g oup. G oups
o
pee s
a e
likely
o
wo k
be e han g oups wi h
wide
di e ences
in
ank
ep esen ed.
People
who
ha e
o wo k oge he
daily
may
also
65
equi e ca e ul o e hough
(husband-wi e
combina ions
sh~ul~
p obably
be
uled
ou
al oge he ).
I
he
aining
obJec 1 es
a e
mo e
psychological
in na u e,
di e si y
among
~~up
membe s
may,
howe e ,
be
a
e y
aluable
cha ac e -
1s 1c
o
build
in o he g oup.
The
excep ional
si!u~ ion
~he e a na u al
wo k
g oup
should
wo~k
oge he
1s
m
dealing
wi h
' ole
s ess'
p oblems.
Role
con lic and
ole
ambigui y,
as
well
as
ole
o e load
ha e
equen ly
been
iden i ied
as
dis esso s.
Beha iou ~
consul an s
ha e
de eloped
a
a ie y
o
ole
cla i ica ion
p ocedu~es
o
gene a e
a
discussion
o
oles
and
o
cla i y
he
expec a ions o
membe s.
One
example
is
he
ole
analysis
echnique
(Dayal
& Thomas,
1968;
F ench
&
Bell,
1978;
Lyn on,
1968).
Some
knowledge
o
g oup
dynamics,
as
well
as
skill
and
expe ien~e
o
u~ng
ela i ely
ins uc u ed g oup aining,
a e
?b 1ous
quali ica ions o a aine , p e e ably
o
be
ob amed unde
supe ision.
Goals
and
Objec i es
Be o e
conside ing
con en ,
any
aine
would
wan
o
se
goals
and
objec i es.
In
e ms
o
ai ly
global
goals,
dis ess
managemen p og ammes
may
be
di ec ed
a emedia ion,
p e en ion o enhancemen o
wellness,
o
a
all h ee. On
ano he con inuum,
hey
may
ange
om
a b oad app oach
o
eaching in o ma ion
and
skills
ha
would
be
use ul
in
many
li e
si ua ions,
o
being
di ec ed
a
speci ic
wo k
condi ions.
A
p og amme
may
also
ange
om
being
basically
in o ma i e and heo y-based,
o
being
o ien a ed owa ds
eaching
one o
mo e
skills.
In
de e mining
he
goals
o one's
p og amme, he
needs
o
he
o ganiza ion
and
o
he a ge
g oups,
as
well
as
he
a ailabili y
o
esou ces,
like
skilled
s a ,
inancing,
and
pa icipan
ime,
ha e
o
be
conside ed.
In
e ms o
ai ly
conc e e
objec i es,
Ma eson and
l ance ich
sugges ed
i s ly,
knowledge
acquisi ion:
'Any
p og am
should
p esen
in o ma ion ha will
be
use ul
o he
pa icipan s,
in
inc easing
hei
awa eness
o
s ess,
i s
ole
in
hei
li es,
and
how
i
wo ks
o
and
agains hem'
(Ma eson &
I ance ich,
1982b:
771).
As
an
example,
hey
men ioned
awa eness
and unde s anding
o
he
physiological
and
biochemical
changes
ha ake
place
in
one's body unde
dis ess:
Knowledge
o
hese
changes
and hei ela ionship
o
nega i e
heal h
ac o s
would
make
one
much
mo e
s ess
conscious.
Knowledge
o beha iou al mani es a ions
o
dis ess
is
ano he
example:
Teaching an
ea ly
wa ning
sys em
o
help
one
ecognize
he onse o a p oblem and diagnose
i
p ope ly,
whe he
in
onesel ,
one's
colleagues
o one's
sub-
o dina es (see
also
Coope ,
1984).
Ma eson &
I ance ich
conside ed skill
acquisi ion
as
he
second
objec i e,
p o iding
speci ic,
'usable
skills
ha
can
be
applied
in
a
a ie y
o
ci cums ances
bo h on and o
he
job'
(p.
772)
o
p e en
a
dis ess
eac ion
o o
dissipa e
he
e ec s
o
dis ess
mo e
p oduc i ely; o o o mula e
i
e en
mo e
gene ally, o each pa icipan s g ea e con ol o e
physiological
and
psychological
sys ems
which
a e
eac i e
o
dis ess
(Mu phy,
1984).
The p og amme should p o ide o
bo h demons a ion and adequa e p ac ice du ing aining,
as
well
as
p o ide
ways
o p epa ing
o
'back-home'
applica-
ions.
Thei hi d
objec i e
was
eedback:
'p o iding pa icipan s
wi h
speci ic
in o ma ion abou hei cu en
le els
o
s ess
and ce ain
o
hei beha io pa e ns and pe sonal o ien a-
ions ha
can
se e
as
a
basis
o mo e
e ec i e
s ess
managemen ' (p.
772).
66
Gene al
knowledge
and
sel -knowledge
Knowledge acquisi ion
I has become cus oma y in managemen
and
o he
concen a ed aining p og ammes
o
equi e p e-cou se
eading. P o ided he olume
and
quali y
o
eading a e no
in hemsel es causes
o
dis ess, I see
no
eason why s ess
managemen wo kshops o highe le el employees canno
s a his way. Ob iously, he eading ma e ial should
be
adap ed
o
he eading le el
o
pa icipan s.
Many
eadable
a icles could se e his pu pose, while books like hose
o
G eenbe g (1983), I ance ich & Ma eson (1980), Ma eson
& I ance ich (1982a), Moss (1981)
and
Sha e (1982)
may
be
use ul. Reading assignmen s can
also
be gi en du ing
and
a e a wo kshop.
Al hough lec u ing
is
a poo way
o
con eying in o ma ion,
lec u es
and
lec u e es ha e hei place du ing a wo kshop.
Films a e abso bing
and
in e es ing ways
o
con eying in o -
ma ion (some examples a e lis ed in Appendix
l).
Ideally, heo y inpu s should co e all
o
he a eas indica ed
in Figu e
l,
bu
p ac ical ci cums ances will de e mine
he
ex en
o
co e age. Pa icipan s should
be
in ol ed
h ough
small g oup discussion
and
in e ac ion, pe haps in eac ion
o
a lec u e, a ilm,
o
a speci ic ques ion. Desc ip ions
o
pe sonal c i ical incidences, expe ien ial exe cises, ole plays
and
case s udies could all inc ease pa icipa ion.
Sel assessmen
Following heo y inpu s (pe haps e en as pa
o
p e-wo k),
pa icipan s should ha e oppo uni ies
o
assess hemsel es
wi h espec
o
he in o ma ion p o ided. Acco ding
o
Ma eson & I ance ich (1982b: 773), sel -assessmen 'heigh ens
in ol emen , p o ides a
da a
base
upon
which pa icipan s
can u he hei unde s anding
o
how s ess ela es
o
hem,
and
gene ally ein o ces bo h lea ning
and
ans e '. Ma eson
& I ance ich also cau ioned ha pa icipan s should always
be assu ed
o
he con iden iali y
o
such
da a
and
ha hey
should eel
no
di ec
o
indi ec p essu e
o
sha e
hem
wi h
anyone.
Some
o
he
books
lis ed in he p e ious sec ion con ain
examples
o
ques ionnai es ha could
be
used o such
pu poses. Caplan, e
al.
(1975) p o ided scales
ha
could
be
use ul
o
desc ibe
many
job
dis esso s.
The
C own-C isp
Expe ien ial Index (C own & C isp, 1979)
is
a somewha clini-
cal ins umen
bu
h ee
o
i s scales we e used in
Coope
&
A bose's (1984) execu i e s ess su ey o In e na ional
Managemen ,
hus p o iding o some s imula ing c oss-
cul u al inpu s as pa
o
a wo kshop.
Coope
and
A bose
also
used a lis
o
p essu es, commonly expe ienced by
execu i es, which could simila ly be used
o
compa e
Sou h
A icans wi h hei
Sou h
A ican sample
and
samples om
nine o he coun ies.
The
Jenkins Ac i i y Su ey (Jenkins,
Zyz.anski & Rosenman, 1979)
is
a handy measu e
o
Type
A beha iou ; a 13-i em sho o m
may
be use ul in some
si ua ions (Jenkins, 1984). (An A ikaans ansla ion
is
a ailable om me,
bu
a ee
is
payable
o
he Psychological
Co po a ion,
and
I also ha e
da a
on
a a ie y
o
Sou h
A ican samples (S iimp e , 1983a)).
O
cou se, a a ie y
o
o he ins umen s dese e se ious conside a ion. Ins umen s
should p e e ably
'be
sho , easy
o
unde s and, ideally un
o
comple e (a leas no a cho e),
and
possess a
good
deg ee
o
ace alidi y' (Ma eson & I ance ich, 1982b: 373).
A se ious limi a ion in connec ion wi h all sel -assessmen
measu es (apa om eliabili y
and
alidi y, which
canno
necessa ily
be
assumed o scales p o ided in se e al books)
is
ha
o
s anda diza ion, pa icula ly o
Sou h
A ican
S.-A .
Tydsk .
Bed y sl.
198S,
16(2)
samples. (The e
is
oom
o se e al mas e s
and
doc o al
disse a ions in his
a ea
alone!)
An
aspec
ha
should be emembe ed
is
ha mos
o
he
a ailable s ess measu es
a e
subjec
o
copy igh and
as
a
ma e
o
p o essional e hics, as well as a ma e
o
p o ec ion
agains p osecu ion, use s should
buy
hem h ough
he
Na ional Ins i u e
o
Pe sonnel Resea ch
o
ob ain pe mission
o duplica ion om
au ho s
o
publishe s.
Skills
aining
The
ange
o
s ess- ela ed skills
is
oo
wide
o
be
co e ed
adequa ely in
an
a icle like his one. Voluminous omes,
like
he 499-page
one
edi ed by Meichenbaum &
Ja emko
(1982),
and
piles
o
a icles un o una ely ha e
o
be waded h ough
i
one
wan s
o
de elop
an
adequa e
backg ound. A
e iew
a icle by
Mu phy
(1984) can p o ide use ul e e ences. I
in end
o
in oduce wha I (please no e he limi a ion) conside
among
he mos
impo an
skills, wi h some commen s, bu
also wi h eading e e ences
ha
will hope ully p o ide
leads
o people in e es ed in addi ional in o ma ion. In gene al,
all
o
hese skills should gene alize om he aining si ua ion
o
he pe son's whole way
o
li e, a he han
o
be o
empo a y emedial
o
he apeu ic signi icance only.
Relaxa ion echniques
Relaxa ion in some o m
o
ano he
is
p obably he mos
commonly
used
dis ess managemen echnique
and
has
been
shown
o
be e ec i e in a ious g oups (Ca ing on, Collings,
Benson, Robinson,
Wood,
Leh e , Wool olk & Cole,
1980).
P og essi e
muscula
elaxa ion
was in oduced long be o e
he e e en was he concep
o
s ess
o
be managed.
I s
popula i y p obably s ems
om
i s ob ious ace alidi y,
i s
ease
o
use,
and
i s almos immedia e bene i s. As i
is
used
nowadays, he pe son usually s a s
o
wi h a ela i ely long
o m, equi ing 20 -
25
min. a a ime o wo - ou
weeks
o
egula p ac ice; some
16
o
20 ela i ely small g oups
o
muscles, like a oo ,
hen
a cal , hen
an
uppe leg, e c., a e
ensed
and
elaxed al e na i ely, wo king
up
om he
ee
o
he ace.
Fo
he nex
wo-
h ee weeks' p ac ice, body
pa s a e combined, e.g. a oo , cal
and
uppe
leg
all oge he ,
educing he numbe
o
muscle g oups
o
se en. Then ollows
a
week
o
wo whe e he
numbe
o
muscle g oups
is
educed
o
only ou . This
is
ollowed by a s age
o
ecall only, whe e
he indi idual ecalls he eeling
o
elease in si ua ions which
end
o
cause ension. By his ime he pe son
is
usually
capable
o
loca ing a eas
o
ension, hen elaxing hem by
simply gi ing
him/he sel
a
command,
like 'Relax, calm
down',
aking a deep, slow b ea h
and
ocusing
on
he muscle
g oups conce ned. I
is
o en combined wi h cue-con ol, using
s icky colou ed do s (o s a s)
o
pas e
on
places
and
hings
a
wo k
and
a
home
which (s)he equen ly expe iences as
ension-inducing; each encoun e wi h a colou ed do hen
se es as a cue
o
he elaxa ion esponse. Al hough hese
ins uc ions a e qui e simple, some psychological skill may be
necessa y in handling some clien s.
Medi a ion
is
ano he
way
o
e oking wha Benson (1974;
Benson & Allen, 1980) has called he ' elaxa ion esponse'·
He
in oduced he ' espi a o y
one
me hod',
a non-cul ic
echnique in which men al epe i ion
o
he wo d
'one'
is
linked wi h each
ou
b ea h,
o
a pe iod
o
10
-20 min. (see
Pe e s & Benson, 1978: 124 o ins uc ions). T anscenden al
medi a ion
is
he mo e amilia me hod bu he e a e esea ch
indica ions
ha
he elaxa ion esponse
a
he co e
o
he
echnique can also be augh in
an
unembellished o m.
Bio eedback
aining
can
be
used
o
induce gene alized
s.
A .
J.
Bus.
Mgm . 1985, 16(2)
elaxa ion bu i
is
p obably
mo e
app op ia e o use in
beha iou al medicine, e.g. o he ea men
o
ension
headaches
and
mig aine. I s
main
disad an ages a e ha ,
unlike p og essi e muscula elaxa ion, i
is
'non-po able'
(Roskies & A a d, 1982),
and
equi es special equipmen and
special aine aining. Bo h equipmen
and
ope a o s a e
expensi e. Minia u ized uni s a e less expensi e bu no
necessa ily eliable
and
a e
s ill
mo e
cumbe some han
no
equipmen
a
all.
Imp essed wi h
he
he apeu ic successes
o
elaxa ion wi h
acu e dis ess, hype ension
and
o he
condi ions, some
au ho s
and
consul an s ha e sugges ed ha a elaxa ion
echnique should become
pa
o
e e y pe son's daily
a mamen a ium agains dis ess. In
Sou h
A ica he e
is
an
unusual p eponde ance
o
Type A beha iou among execu-
i es, as well as a e y se ious sho age
o
high-le el human
esou ces which
call
o a
Type
A kind
o
li e-s yle
o
su i e
and succeed (S iimp e , 1983a).
A
leas o such go-ge e s,
i
is
un ealis ic
o
hope
o con inued egula p ac ice
o
a
elaxa ion-inducing echnique. I
is
oo
passi e
an
app oach
and
is
eadily ejec ed as incompa ible wi h ' eal li e'. Hence,
my sugges ion
is
ha
p og essi e muscula elaxa ion augh
as desc ibed abo e, should
be
used ini ially as a he apeu ic
echnique
bu
a e wa ds i
can
become a skill a ailable
o
he indi idual,
o
be used only when necessa y.
O
cou se,
some ein o cemen p ac ice will be necessa y om ime o
ime. Pe haps I should
add
ha
o people who can con inue
wi h e.g. medi a ion because i i s hei empe amen , i may
p o e
o
be a e y aluable
componen
o
a di e en li e-
s yle. My only conce n
is
no
o
each o he una ainable
in
one's
en husiasm o some hing which only a small
p opo ion
o
one's
clien s
a e
likely
o
accep ully.
Physical i ness p og ammes
While elaxa ion skills
can
help
an
indi idual
o
handle a pa -
icula ension-p o oking expe ience, egula physical exe cise
will
ha e a mo e gene al p e en a i e
and
heal h-enhancing
aspec . I
is
he mos na u al way
o
eleasing he pen -up
a ousal ha esul s om dis ess; bu by inc easing i ness and
by con ibu ing
o
heal hie emo ional unc ioning i can help
he indi idual
o
wo k wi h mo e igou and equanimi y, hus
also con ibu ing
o
eus ess.
The so-called ' igh - ligh mechanism'
is
he body's esponse
o h ea
and
consis s
o
a mus e ing
o
all esou ces in
p epa a ion o he s enuous ac i i y equi ed by
an
eme -
gency. U ode ela i ely p imi i e condi ions such a ousal
is
dissipa ed by igh
o
ligh
bu
ci iliza ion has emo ed he
p edominan ly physical o ien a ion om
ou
li es. In nume-
ous p esen -day
wo k
si ua ions h ea s, anging om he
b u al
o
he
sub le, a ouse he igh - ligh mechanism; bu
nei he igh
no
ligh
is
an
app op ia e esponse
o
such
dis ess in he o ice
o
ac o y. Consequen ly, he e
is
ha dly
any elie
om
he in ense physiological a ousal ha
is
pa
o
ou
daily ou ine. This
'unna u al'
si ua ion hen calls o
in oduc ion
o
a i icial exe cise as
an
ou le
and
o
p e en
a ha m ul build-up
o
consequences
o
dis ess (see Figu e
I).
The
na u e
o
exe cise
is
a ma e
o
pe sonal as e, needs
and oppo uni ies. Fi ness p og ammes need no be limi ed o
he pe quisi e
o
an
execu i e gymnasium bu could be made
a ailable in a ious o ms
o
all employees. In ac , in
combina ion wi h con ibu ions
o
ec ea ion acili ies, his
is
an
a ea whe e companies
can
do
a g ea deal o lowe le el
employees
and
e en o he communi ies in which hey li e.
I
is
also in e es ing
ha
he ac i e app oach
o
handling
dis ess
by
means
o
exe cise holds so much appeal o he
67
Sou h A ican go-ge e s I men ioned abo e.
I
is
no
ye as
o e whelming as he Ame ican scene whe e, •
A
imes i
seemed as i Judaeo-Ch is ian ci iliza ion
had
been o e un
by pagan-ae obic ibes' (Sheppa d, 1981); bu he popula i y
o
a ious o ms
o
exe cise among execu i es and wo ke s
whi es and blacks augu s
well
o dis ess managemen
and
he gene al enhancemen
o
heal h.
Since ew pe sonnel manage s ha e aining in exe cise
science and
in
iew
o
some co ona y and o he medical isks,
a well- ained biokine icis should be in ol ed whene e
physical exe cise
is
in oduced as pa
o
a s ess managemen
p og amme. Ob iously, i canno be mo e
han
alked
abou
in a wo kshop kind
o
p og amme.
Ra ional-emo i e hinking
Feelings and he way people hink should also be b ough in o
he p ocess
o
dis ess-eus ess managemen . T aining in
a ional-emo i e hinking p o ides
one
ehicle o doing so.
E hel Roskies (1983; Roskies & A a d, 1982) adap ed Albe
Ellis' a ional-emo i e indi idual psycho he apy
o
a
g oup
echnique
o
helping people
o
adjus ,
o
modula e, nega i e
emo ions. The objec i e
is
o
ob ain con ol o e he ange ,
anxie y, guil , and dep ession ha cons i u e so much
o
e en
a psychologically heal hy pe son's dis ess. Use
o
his echni-
que would equi e he skills
o
a counselling psychologis
and
should no be a emp ed by a non-psychologis .
In he i s place, i equi es explana ion and unde s anding
ha eelings a e p oduced by he people who expe ience hem
and
no by ex e nal ci cums ances. People expe ience inap-
p op ia ely s ong eelings because hey hold i a ional
expec a ions abou hemsel es ('I should always be pe ec '),
o he people ('O he s should always lo e me'), and he wo ld
in gene al ('The wo ld should be a anged o
my
con e-
nience'). When such i a ional belie s a e us a ed, hey lead
o
inapp op ia e nega i e eelings;
on
he
o he
hand,
aban-
doning hem allows people
o
handle hose ine i able up-
ending expe iences wi h g ea e composu e.
In Roskies' p ocedu e pa icipan s as a
g oup
silen ly i s
ecall a si ua ion in which (s)he was e y upse ,
and
hen
ec ea e as ealis ically as possible he eeling (s)he expe ienced
a
he ime. Nex , he pe son has o shi he eelings
o
a
lowe le el, e.g. disappoin men , us a ion
o
i i a ion
ins ead
o
ou igh ange
and
u y. Once (s)he has adjus ed
he eelings, he pe son
is
asked
o
ecall he
/his
'in e nal
deba e', i.e. wha (s)he said
o
he /himsel
o
change he
i a ional hinking
and
he eby he inapp op ia e eelings.
A e some p ac ice, g oups
o
wo
o
h ee sha e hei expe-
iences. Homewo k consis s
o
h ee sho p ac ice sessions
a day du ing which he indi idual goes h ough he abo e
sequence
o
a ional-emo i e hinking, hen eco ds
he
sel -
s a emen s. Back in he g oup, discussion
o
homewo k,
assignmen s
and
o he applica ions allow membe s
and
he
g oup leade
o
sugges mo e a ional sel -s a emen s.
The use
o
image y
o
modula e eelings g adually changes
o
modi ica ion
o
eelings
on
he spo , hus sho ening
he
du a ion
o
inapp op ia e eelings,
and
e en ually a e some
weeks' p ac ice e en sho -ci cui ing such dis up i e eac ions
al oge he .
Goal se ing
Lack
o
di ec ion
is
o en a componen
o
dis ess
and
some
aining in pe sonal goal se ing should
be
pa
o
a s ess
managemen p og amme. O en he pa icipan s ha e skill
and
expe ience
o
goal se ing as pa
o
hei occupa ional epe -
oi e,
bu
ha e seldom applied hese
o
hei
own
li es.
68
Sessions
on
goal se ing should
be
p eceded
by
g oup
discussions
and
o he
assignmen s aimed
a
helping he indi-
idual
o
cla i y pe sonal alues. A hough -p o oking a icle
o
wo (Shepa d, 1983) could se he ball olling.
I
he pe son
is
ma ied, he spouse should
one
way
o
ano he be in ol ed
in such assessmen s.
I
may e en be wo h asking some
ul ima e ques ions, like:
'ls
his
wo h
dying o ?'
o
'ls
his
wo h
ge ing di o ced
o ?'
o
'ls
his wo h losing
my
son
o ?'
(S iimp e , 1983b).
Goals should be explici , objec i e,
and
measu able bu
also
ealis ic
and
a ainable. A goal could, o ins ance,
be
no
longe
o
go
on
a pa icula kind
o
ip,
o
pa icula places,
and
o
delega e hose esponsibili ies
o
such
and
such
subo dina es;
o
o
spend e e y Sa u day
a e noon
pa ici-
pa ing in a pa icula ac i i y,
o
ange
o
ac i i ies, chosen
o eus ess-inducing easons;
o
o
ake genuine non-business
aca ions
a
se imes. A la e phase in his p ocess
is
es ablishmen
o
a hie a chy
o
goals, i.e. se ing p io i ies.
Goal se ing should, in pa , be conduc ed in counselling
and
g oup
si ua ions, bu should also become
pa
o
he
indi idual's day- o-day li e, so
ha
he spouse, child en,
iends, supe io s,
and
colleagues could become di ec ly
in ol ed. As expe ience wi h managemen
by
objec i es has
indica ed, he pe son should commi
him/he sel
o
a goal in
collabo a ion wi h someone else, i.e. publicly a he
han
p i a ely.
An
a icle by Kolb
and
Boya zis (1984)
on
'Goal-se ing
and
sel -di ec ed beha io change'
may
be wo h eading in
his con ex .
One
o
he ac i i ies
ha
should low om goal-se ing
exe cises should
be
planning o a limi ed se
o
speci ic
objec i es o back-home applica ions
o
lea nings du ing he
cou se.
I
a
all possible, he e should also be some ollow-
up
ac i i y a a la e s age
o
enhance compliance.
Time managemen
In
combina ion wi h goal se ing
and
as a logical ou g ow h
o
i , ime managemen aining should be in oduced.
The
p opo ion
o
ime de o ed
o
such aining would depend
on
pa icipan s' needs.
Time
managemen
is
one
o
he p o-
cesses ha can be used, pa icula ly by manage s,
o
accomp-
lish asks in
an
e icien
and
e ec i e way, hus educing much
o
he o e load
ha
is
a
majo
dis esso ; in ac , he
e ec i eness
may
lead
o
eus ess eelings.
Ins ead
o
en e ing in o de ail, I wan
o
e e
o
a icles
by
Alexande (1981), Ashkenas & Scha e (1982), and Schule
(1979), al hough much mo e has been w i en. Films may
also
be use ul in his con ex
and
he Time Li e Video p og amme,
'Time Managemen o Manage s',
is
wo h conside ing (a ail-
able om Highgold In e na ional). The aining skills in ol ed
he e a e
mo e
in
he
na u e
o
managemen consul ing
han
hose
o
a psychologis .
Va ious li e-s yle in e en ions
Counselling in connec ion wi h adul de elopmen al s ages
(S iimp e ,
1984)
and
ca ee de elopmen
is
no
o dina ily
iewed as
pa
o
s ess managemen . Pe haps i
is
one
o
he
sound pe sonnel p ocedu es I ha e men ioned ea lie . Ye
so
much
o
dis ess-eus ess
is
in ol ed wi h pe sonal
and
ca ee de elopmen ha I wan
o
add
i as
one
o
he special
con ibu ions
om
counselling
and
indus ial/ o ganiza ional
psychology. While ime managemen
is
a sho - e m ex ension
o
goal se ing, his kind
o
counselling would be a long- e m
ex ension. Hall (1976)
and
Schein (1978) a e
good
s a ing
poin s o
an
a id eade .
S.-A . lydsk . Bed y sl.
1985,
16(2)
P e en i e heal h
managemen
(which could include
physi-
cal exe cise)
is
ano he
gene al
a ea
o
be
a ended o.
E en
a b ie
wo kshop
should include
some
assessmen
ac i i ies
and
some in o ma ion
on
nu i ion, p e e ably by a die ician.
Smoking, alcoholism
and
addic ion a e also a eas ha
dese e
se ious a en ion (Eise , 1982).
I
may
also make
sense
o
encou age pa icipan s
o
isi hei physicians o assessmen
o
a
leas se um choles e ol
and
blood
p essu e, in
iew
o
he ole
o
hese wo ac o s in co ona y hea disease;
i
would
e en
make
sense
o
a ange
ha
bo h
can
be
done
on
compa-
ny
p emises
o
as
pa
o
a s ess managemen and heal h
p og amme.
Tying i oge he
I
a s ess
managemen
p og amme
is
in oduced in he
o m
o
a
wo kshop,
i could
un
o e
om
hal -a-day o a
week.
Ma eson & l ance ich (1982b) b ie ly desc ibed he con en s
o
a wo-and-a-hal -day wo kshop, which seems like a eason-
able leng h
o
ime, p o ided he e will be a ollow-up
mee ing,
pe haps
o
ano he
hal -a-day. Mu phy's
(1984)
e iew showed
ha ,
in gene al,
p og ammes
which
ha e
employed mo e con ac hou s ha e epo ed g ea e educ ions
in
bo h
physiological measu es
and
sel - epo s
o
dis ess
symp oms. Sp eading
ou
a
p og amme
o e se e al days, o
e en hal -days, o e a pe iod
o
ime
may
ha e ad an ages
o e a con inuous pe iod; a sandwich
p og amme
allows a
mo e immedia e applica ions in he wo k
and
home si ua ions.
Roskies (1983)
and
Roskies &
A a d
(1982) used a leng hy
pe iod
o
weekly mee ings
o
a
Type
A beha iou change
p og amme,
b eaking
up
he
lea nings in o small uni s on
pu pose
o
allow o
mo e
p ac ice
a
home
and
a wo k
in
be ween. As wi h all aining, i
is
a
ma e
o
inding a
balance be ween
he
bene i s
o
massed
and
dis ibu ed
p ac ice.
In gene al, mul imodal
p og ammes
appea
o
be
mo e
e ec i e
han
eaching single skills
(Mu phy,
1984). One
eason
is
ha pa icipan s in a mul imodal p og amme gain
expe ience
o
a ious echniques
and
ha e he oppo uni y
o
choose hose which wo k bes o hem. Examples a e he
choice be ween p og essi e muscula elaxa ion
and
medi a-
ion,
o
he
choice be ween elaxa ion
and
physical exe cise
as ways
o
dealing wi h ension.
Employee
counselling
p og ammes
Las ly, I wan
o
men ion
employee counselling p og ammes
as a way
o
handle dis ess. This kind
o
p og amme p o ides
oppo uni ies
o
assis people
a
all le els
o
o ganiza ions,
bu
p obably
mo e
a
he
non-execu i e le el whe e o he
o ms
o
in e en ion
may
be
mo e
di icul
o
deli e and
less likely
o
gain accep ance.
I
also implies di ec a ack on
eal-li e p oblems.
Fo
such easons, hey seem o
be
some hing
ha
dese es g ea e a en ion in
Sou h
A ica.
I
does
no
mean
by-passing
managemen ,
no
eplacemen
o
he
pe sonnel
depa men 's
mo e
adi ional app oaches. On
he o he
hand,
he
dange
o
building
ano he
empi e should
also be p e en ed.
Companies in
he
U.S.,
Canada,
and
he
U.K. ha e been
in oducing counselling acili ies o a whole ange
o
p oblems
ela ed
o
home
and
wo k,
including e en Alcoholics Ano-
nymous g oups
on
si e (Coope , 1984). Hall & Fle che
(1984)
ha e desc ibed
wha
seems
o
be
a model wo h emula ing, ·
since i p o ides o a g ea a ie y
o
ad ice
and
counselling,
wi hou ying
o
be e e y hing
o
all. They desc ibed Con ol
Da a's
Employee Ad iso y Resou ce
(EAR)
p og amme in
he
U.K.,
which de eloped
ou
o
a simila p og amme
in