Stress management in South Africa

S ümp e , D. J.W. A icle S ess managemen in Sou h A ica Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: S ümp e , D. J.W. (1985) : S ess managemen in Sou h A ica, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 16, Iss. 2, pp. 61-70, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 16i2.1075 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217890 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ S ess managemen in Sou h A ica D.J.W. S Omp e Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Cape Town, Cape Town A dis inc ion is made be ween eus ess and dis ess, and he complexi y o s ess phenomena is emphasized. Accep- ance o co po a e social esponsibili y is posed as he mos undamen al o m o s ess managemen a he social and communi y le el. Sound managemen p ac ices a e iewed as basic o heal h-enhancing o ganiza ions. Occupa ional di e ences a e highligh ed. S ess managemen aining is discussed in e ms o who needs aining, indi idual s. g oup app oaches, and objec i es. Knowledge acquisi ion and sel -assessmen a e in oduced. B ie discussions o speci ic skills aining ollow: Relaxa ion, physical exe cise, a ional-emo i e hinking, goal se ing, ime managemen , pe sonal and ca ee de elopmen counselling, and p e en i e heal h managemen . Las ly, employee counselling p og ammes a e men ioned. The ole o ollow-up e alua ion is emphasized. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1985, 16: 61 - 70 Onde skeid wo d ge e ussen 'goeie' en 'sleg e' spanning en die kompleksi ei an spanning e skynsels wo d beklem- oon. Aan aa ding an ko po a iewe sosiale e an woo delik- heid wo d geoppe as die mees undamen ele o m an spanninghan e ing op sosiale en gemeenskaps lak. Gesonde bes uu sp ak yke wo d beskou as g ondliggend aan gesondheid-be o de ende-o ganisasies. Be oeps e skille wo d oegelig. Opleiding in die han e ing an spanning wo d besp eek in e me an wie di benodig, indi iduele s. g oepsbenade ings, en oogme ke. Ve k yging an kennis en sel e alue ing wo d genoem. Ko besp ekings an opleiding in bepaalde aa dighede olg: On spanning, liggaamsoe- ening, asioneel-emo iewe denke, doelwi s elling, ydsbenu - ing, oo lig ing by pe soonlike en loopbaanon wikkeling en oo komende gesondheidso g. Laas ens, wo d we kneme - oo lig ingp og amme e meld. Die ol an op olg-e aluasie wo d beklem oon. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1985, 16: 61- 70 Expanded e sion o pape p esen ed a he 28 h Con en ion o Ins i u e o Pe sonnel Managemen (Sou he n A ica), Sun Ci y, Bopu ha swana, 3 Oc obe 1984. D.J.W. S iimp e Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Cape Town, P i a e Bag, Rondebosch, 7700 Republic o Sou h A ica Accep ed Feb ua y 1985 Tha he bi ds o wo y and ca e ly abo e you head, his you canno change. Bu ha hey build nes s in you hai , his you can p e en . -Chinese p o e b. In oduc ion Much o wha is said and w i en abou s ess is based on dubious assump ions. We a e o en iewed as passi e ic ims who ha e minimal abili y o cope. We a e assumed no o be able o aJce ad an age o he oppo uni ies p esen ed by la e 20 h cen u y echnology, indus y and business, bu a e supposedly unde cons an h ea om hei dange ous side- e ec s. The consequences o assump ions like hese a e a helpless, hopeless a i ude o s ess a oidance and a cynical endency o ejec all deep in ol emen , s i ing, and en husiasm as i hese somehow ep esen decadence. Assump ions o he con a y can also be made, namely ha he as majo i y o people ha e an inhe en mo i e o be compe en in hei in e ac ions wi h he wo ld a ound hem; ha hey ha e he po en ial o de elop a gene al o ien a ion ha iews li e as meaning ul, p edic able and manageable; as well as ha hey ha e he po en ial o de elop as ha dy pe sonali ies who can in e ac wi h hei en i onmen wi h a sense o commi men , a belie in pe sonal con ol, and an expec a ion o challenge (see S iimp e , 1983b). Social class ad an ages and p i ileged occupa ional expe iences con ibu e o he ac ualim ion o hese po en iali ies, bu he po en ial need no be denied; and c ea ion o op imal condi ions is by no means con a y o o ganiza ional and social objec i es. When people ace li e wi h compe ence and ha diness, much o s ess should a he be desc ibed as 'eus ess' (G eek eu -= good; Klausne , 1968): A posi i e, pleasan , acili a ing esponding o demands. Such 'wo king wi h joy' is physically heal hy, psychologically in igo a ing and ca ee - enhancing, as well as highly bene icial o one's employing o ganiz.a ion. On he o he hand, i is possible o ca y on oo long and o wea onesel ou o he poin o dange ous exhaus ion and dis ess (o 'bad' s ess). The e a e also o e whelming, uncon ollable ci cums ances which can d ag indi iduals, g oups and whole communi ies down in o dis ess ha can des oy physical, psychological, and social heal h. I is his kind o dis es.s ha is o en equa ed o 's ess', an un o una e usage I shall y o a oid in his a icle. P e en ion o such exhaus ion, as well as alle ia ion, amelio a ion and ea men when i has occu ed a he pe sonal o g oup le el, a e he objec i es o dis ess managemen p og ammes. In pa , i is a ma e o pe sonal esponsibili y bu o en he pe son 62 needs suppo and assis ance om p o essionals; hence he in e es o pe sonnel managemen in his opic. Howe e , i is no only indi iduals who seek eus ess and y o a oid dis ess. Whole o ganiza ions could ha e ela ed aims: To c ea e op imal condi ions o eus ess o indi idual membe s and g oups, and o minimize condi ions o dis ess. In pa , he goal would be a ou able condi ions o p oduc- i i y and imp o ed pe o mance. Na u ally, some dis ess is ine i able in any job and e e y wo king pe son is bound o expe ience such unpleasan ness soone o la e ; bu a 'heal h enhancing o ganiza ion will a emp o ensu e ha jobs a e no ypically consis en ly o e loaded wi h po en ial s esso s' (Simpson, 1983). The o he side o he coin is o he o gani- za ion o shoulde social esponsibili y, o demons a e ha , in addi ion o being conce ned wi h he physical and psycho- logical wellness o employees as indi iduals and g oups, i also has a deep conce n o he wel a e o socie y and o he communi y. S ess -a e y complex ma e The expe ience o s ess, whe he bad o good, and e e y hing ela ed o s ess, is -like all human unc ioning - a ma e o a la ge numbe and a ie y o componen s in dynamic in e ac ion. The main eason why he li e a u e on s ess and eachings abou s ess managemen a e so con using, is ou S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1985, l6(l) endency o o e simpli y by a ending o a single componen in isola ion, o a mos o a small numbe o componen s. S ess phenomena can be nei he unde s ood no con olled in h ee, o i e, o en easy s eps. We a e o en like he blind men in he Indian legend who each de ined an elephan in e ms o only ha pa o he elephan he had had oppo uni y o explo e. T ouble could, howe e , s a when we y o become elephan handle s on he basis o such limi ed unde - s anding o a a he massi e animal. A he same ime, le us no be oo ha sh on some would-be elephan handle s. I is ha d o a consul an (in e nal o ex e nal) o sell an unpackageable, unp og ammable s uc u e o concep s ha equi es cons an e ision and adap a ion o each clien and each si ua ion. The e is an unde s andable need o single ou manageable componen s. Bu a piecemeal app oach should be labelled as such and should no be p e- sen ed as i i is he las wo d o g ea es de elopmen on ~ managemen . On he con a y, p oblems o his magni ude demand scien i ic and p o essional humili y ha will encou age us o con inue he sea ch o unde s anding and o mo e and be e ways o dealing wi h hem. Figu e I p esen s a model ha indica es classes o .compo- nen s o o ganiza ional s ess (see labelled ec angles), wi h examples lis ed unde each heading. I also indica es in e ac- ions be ween componen s, wi h solid a ows indica ing di ec ................................................................................................................................. I. CULTURAL ANTECEDENTS SYSTEMS SITUATIONS - eligious poli ical condi ions poh 1cal economic economic condi ions e hnic condi ion o communi y demog aphic place o esidence ' C (e.g. sho age o high.le el human esou ces) lack o mobili y 5. CONDITIONING 6. COPl'.'ooG VARIABLES REGRESSIVE INDIVIDUAL 2. ORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS dependenq Physical hypochond 1a"''"' INDIVIDUAL INTERPERSONAL INTER-GROUP ORGANIZATIONAL iene ic p ed1spos1 ion smoking in ac ness o e load esponsibili y con lic con1 ol sys ems d inking i ness unde load o people d ui abuse gene al heallh job secu i y lack o suppo design absen1ee1sm acial 1ension gende unemploymcnl managcmenl s yle lu no e ·~ ole con lic con lic low p oduCll 111)" P< sonali y ole ambigui1y media ion eligious ension echnology THERAPEUTIC ype a/b . AVOIDANCE .............................................. ha diness .. "'el -es eem educ11on o exposu e locus o con ol 3. REACTIONS wi hd awal elaxa ion esponse ole ance o ambigui y (e.g. p og essi e mus_cula mo i ·a11on FIGHT-FLIGHT GENERAL elaxa ion. med11a11on . !e.g. achie emen . . bio eedback. yoga.) powe . a ilia ion) inc eased hea a e. b ea hing. ADAPTATION SITUATIONAL ad enalin, no ad enalin. e c SYNDROME TRANSFORMATIONAL Family His o2 heallh enhancemen amily o o igin ................................................ (e.g. exe cise. die ) nuclea amily ~ ... ~ educa ion and 1 a1mng occupa ional h1s1o y 4. CONSEQUENCES ca ee de elopmen e hmc backg ound goal -se ing h e e 'CRIS SHORT-TERM LONG-TERM a 1onakmo 1 e hinking ~ Physical Psychological Physical Psychological a igue emo ional s ain exhaus ion dissa is ac ion ension (e.g. ange , iob. ca ee . li e) headaches pessimism. dep ession] diseases o bu nou low back pain cogni i e s ain adap a ion (e.g. ulce . (e.g. p oblem hype ension, o concen1 a1e) hea disease) Figu e 1 Componen s o o ganiza ional s ess and hei in e ac ions. s. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1985, 16(2) in luences o one componen leading o ano he , and b oken- line a ows indica ing p ocesses which condi ion, i.e. s eng- hen o weaken, in e ac ions. I ha e discussed he de ail o his model elsewhe e (S iimp e , 1983b; 1983c) and in end o use he model he e only as a ame o e e ence and as a eminde o main ain as b oad a iew o o ganiza ional s ess as possible. Co po a e social esponsibili y and s ess When one begins o hink o how o enhance eus ess and how o dec ease dis ess, i is oolish, i no down igh dange ous, o s a hinking o indi iduals in he i s place. One has o s a wi h he whole o a socie y and wi h he communi ies wi hin i , app oaching he ma e in a holis ic o gene al sys ems way. The i s ec angle in Figu e 1 e e s o 'cul u al an eceden s' o s ess, in he sense ha he o al en i onmen o ms he backd op o e e y hing an indi idual expe iences. The ela i e 'heal h' o a socie y, in e ms o social, poli ical, economic and educa ional condi ions, will con ibu e o he balance o eus ess -dis ess expe ienced by i s membe s. In e ms o a communi y, one could use he concep o solida i y, an a i ude o esponsibili y owa ds one ano he , a eeling o con idence and op imism owa ds asks o be accomplished, and he abili y o i s social sys ems o sa is y he needs o membe s (S iimp e , 1975). A lack o solida i y esul s om ac o s such as poo o limi ed leade ship, high incidence o poo ly in eg a ed o b oken amilies, po e y in gene al, poo housing, ew ec ea ional ac i i ies and acili ies, high incidence o ju enile and adul delinquency, as well as poo and dis up ed ne wo ks o communica ion and in e - pe sonal suppo . High le els o agg ession and hos ili y wi hin he communi y and agains ou side s a e cha ac e is ics o a communi y ha lacks solida i y. Ob iously, solida i y con i- bu es immensely o he eus ess o ien a ion, while lack o solida i y is a e ile condi ion o dis ess. Un o una ely he e is no way o denying ha he wo ld o indus ial wo ke s, pa icula ly ha o blacks, ypically shows no o e y ew o he posi i e cha ac e is ics o solida i y which people highe up he o ganiza ional ladde conside as hei bi h igh . Co po a e social esponsibili y demands ha companies conside b oade social issues and alloca e esou ces o b oade social pu poses. I should like o quo e om Bloom's (1984) alk o he U.S. Business Council ea lie : ' his app oach is plainly co ec because ac i e in ol emen can be jus i ied on he basis ha i is pa en ly ob ious ha i is in ou in e es s o ope a e in a s able and heal hy socie y, a socie y which is no jeopa dised by he de e io a- ion o condi ons in i s en i onmen . Le us be clea - he e can be no p o i s o business and no u u e o people in a disin eg a ing communi y, a communi y cha ac e ised by unemploymen , ci il diso de o c ime, anywhe e in he wo ld.' Social policy codes usually exp ess in en ions and commi - men s in his connec ion, apa om hose conce ning employmen p ac ices. Companies can make signi ican con ibu ions owa ds he quali y o wo ke s' li es ou side he wo k en i onmen , o ins ance h ough housing subsidies, bu sa ies and o he educa ional assis ance, li e acy and nume acy aining, medical aid unding and legal counselling. They can also suppo cha i able and philan opic p ojec s ha can bene i whole communi ies. Bloom (1984) also made a poin o poli ical in ol emen , ha companies should speak ou on ma e s o na ional impo ance, such as emo als, de en ions and bannings. Wi h 63 he acial and poli ical condi ions in Sou h A ica in ' iolen equilib ium' (The io s, 1984) and wi h he as majo i y o hei e~ployees o en being o he unp i ileged class, compa ues canno a o d a emp s a poli ical neu ali y - no o poli ical easons in he i s place, bu o he sake o he o al wellness o hei wo k- o ce. In he case o lowe le el employees, such indi ec con i- bu ions may be mo e wo hwhile han any di ec a emp s a s ess managemen . I a choice has o be made, gene al quali y o li e o such an indi idual, his/he amily, iends and communi y, a e a mo e undamen al, emb acing, and las ing han many o he hings which, o ins ance, execu i es who ake a good li e ou side wo k o g an ed, may conside a sign o special ca ing by he company. And i con ibu ions o communal good a e wha a company chooses, in p e e ence o s ess managemen aining, i will s ill be on he side o he angels! Ac i i ies o his kind a e no immedia ely isible and subs an ial because hey a e long- e m in es men s. In e en- ion a his le el is he e o e much ha de o sell o op managemen (o o sha eholde s) han e.g. a pa icula aining o counselling p og amme. I akes a a -sigh ed and cou a- geous managemen o become in ol ed a his le el. Ye i is he mos undamen al o m o 's ess managemen ', and absolu ely essen ial in Sou h A ica. Sound managemen p ac ices When one looks a any lis o o ganiza ional s esso s (e.g. in Figu e 1), i is qui e ob ious ha many o hem ough no o be deal wi h in a symp oma ic way. O ganiza ional s es- so s esul om unsound people-managemen p ac ices and he emedy should be sough in imp o ing he psychological and social heal h o he o ganiza ion as a whole. Au ho s like A gy is, Bennis, Like , McG ego and Schein ha e desc ibed heal hy, as opposed o unheal hy o ganiza ions. To lis bu a ew cha ac e is ics om Fo dyce & Weil's (1979: 13-16) lis o indica ions o o ganiza ional heal h: The e is a no iceable sense o eam playing in planning, in pe o mance and discipline -in sho , a sha ing o esponsibili y. The judgemen o people lowe down in he o ganiza ion is espec ed. -The ange o p oblems ackled includes pe sonal needs and human ela ionships. -Collabo a ion is eely en e ed in o. Con lic s a e conside ed impo an o decision-making and pe sonal g ow h. -Leade ship is lexible, shi ing in s yle and pe son o sui he si ua ion. Poo pe o mance is con on ed, and a join esolu ion sough . Manage s' o ien a ion is o 'wo k he p oblem', no o ' ind he culp i '. An o ganiza ion cha ac e ized by beha iou o his kind will be much mo e conduci e o indi idual eus ess han o dis ess, and dis ess will be much mo e eadily managed in such an en i onmen han in one augh wi h au ho i a ia- nism, ejec ion, mis us , p ejudice, hos ili y, exploi a ion and he like. A s udy a he Uni e si y o Michigan (Caplan, Cobb, F ench, Van Ha ison & Pinneau, 1975) compa ed dis esw s among 23 di e en occupa ions. The majo dis esso s o p o essional and whi e-colla wo ke s esul ed om ac o s like oo li le delega ion and oo li le decen aliz.a ion o asks and decision-making. Fo blue-colla wo ke s, he majo 64 s esso s ended o go in he opposi e di ec ion, e.g. lack o job complexi y and unde -u iliza ion o abili ies. Coope 's conclusion om his s udy was: 'This may indica e he eason why he e is a g owing mo emen in Wes e n Eu ope and No h Ame ica o g ea e indus ial democ acy a wo k (e.g. au onomous wo k g oups, g oup decision-making, job e-design e c.). I may be ha g ea e mo emen in he di ec ion o dele- ga ing decision-making downwa d in a wide a ie y o jobs would no only alle ia e s ess among whi e-colla and p o essional wo ke s bu also encou age g ea e u iliza ion o abili ies and enhance job sa is ac ion among blue-colla wo ke s.' (Coope , 1980: 50) Fo easons such as hese, I wan o pose o ganiza ional de elopmen , de elopmen o sound pe sonnel p ac ices (in- cluding he design and e-design o wo k), and sound indus- ial ela ions as he mos undamen al ways o managing s ess wi hin any o ganiza ion. An o ganiza ion ha is well- un in i s o ali y will c ea e eus ess in i s membe s and g oups, and will in he na u al way o hings elimina e many dis ess ul condi ions. Pa o he o ien a ion desc ibed abo e would be a e- e alua ion o he human esou ces o a i m, no only in humanis ic e ms bu also in inancial e ms, as a capi al asse . Unlike he case wi h machines and o he equipmen , he wea and ea on people by wo k, and he need o main enance a e oo o en simply igno ed. Re-e alua ion implies an accep- ance o he eali y o dis ess in o ganiza ional li e (Coope , 1984). This, in um, would p epa e he o ganiza ion so ha speci ic s ess managemen in e en ions will seem like he logical nex s ep. On he o he hand, a s ess managemen aining p og amme ins alled in o an o ganiza ion ha malignan ly gene a es dis ess h ough unsound managemen will be ejec ed like a o eign body o a ansplan om a s ange . Occupa ional di e ences The concep o 's ess' is o en popula ly associa ed wi h highe le els o managemen , as i i is ' he boss' disease' o ' he di ec o s' disease'. O cou se, people expe ience dis ess o a ious kinds a all le els o employmen and in a wide a ie y o occupa ions. 'Wo k p essu e a ec s all wo ke s and . . . he sou ces and mani es a ions o s ess a y om occupa ion o occupa ion' (Coope , 1980: 49). A he lowe o ganiz.a ional le els 'blue-colla s ess' is o en ela ed o he mo e physical condi ions o wo k, o bo edom, ambigui y abou job u u e, and o he ela i ely conc e e ac o s (Caplan e al., 1975; Poul on, 1978; Shos ak, 1980). 'Subo dina e se ice ole' dis ess (Shami , 1980) is qui e a di e en kind o lowe le el dis ess, expe ienced by people in posi ions a he in e ace be ween an o ganiza ion and i s clien ele, o ins ance wai e s, sales cle ks, ecep ionis s, and bank elle s. A supe iso y and manage ial le els dis ess is cha ac e ized by a a ie y o psychological ac o s ha a e no p esen in ei he o hese kinds o wo k (S iimp e , 1983b). In manage ial and supe iso y anks, mo eo e , job le el seems o be in e sely ela ed o dis ess, as well as o gene al heal h (Howa d, 1976). O he occupa ional g oups a e, o cou se, also subjec o dis ess. Ai a ic con olle s ha e almos become pa o he s ess olklo e, as a esul o hei ension - illed and o e loaded wo k li es (C ump, Coope & Maxwell, 1981; Hen y, 1981). As he e m was used ini ially, 'bu nou ' was a consequence o dis ess among human se ice p o essionals like social wo ke s, psychologis s, psychia is s, nu ses'. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1985, 16(2) policemen and p ison pe sonnel (Maslach & Jackson, 1982)· he e he deep emo ional in ol emen wi h people seems ~ be he mos p ominen ea u e. O he occupa ional g oups could also be men ioned (Coope & Ma shall, 1980). Wha is impo an , is o keep an open mind o he di e si y o s esso s and dis ess expe iences ha esul om a ious kinds o occupa ion. E en when some o he eac ions and consequences (Figu e l) seem simila . he con ex o he o al expe ience and he ways a ailable o p e en and/o amelio- a e i , demand a en ion o his di e si y. No single in e en- ion is likely o wo k o all occupa ional g oups. Up o a poin , s ess managemen p og ammes, he e o e, ha e o be occupa ion-speci ic. Indi idual-o ien a ed s ess managemen aining Who needs s ess managemen aining? Pa icipa ion in any s ess managemen ac i i y should always be olun a y. Since pe sonal s ess managemen is always, in he inal ins ance, a ma e o sel -managemen , he mo i a- ion o pa icipa ion should be ha o he pa icipan . Sub- o dina es canno be assigned o such a p og amme, and e en a mild o sub le sugges ion ha a pe son needs i , should be a oided. I employee a endance is in any way equi ed by he company, he acili a o can jus as well gi e up. Pa icipan s ha e o accep he p emise ha s ess may be impo an in hei li es, pa icula ly a wo k. Hence he only way o p esen a p og amme wi h any hope o success is ' o le people know wha he p og am is all abou ( he objec i e); why hey may wan o a end ( he a ionale); and wha hey migh expec o gain; and hen le he indi idual decide' (Ma eson & I ance ich, 1982b:71 I). Indi idual di e ences (Rec angles 5 and 6 in Figu e l) will a ec such decisions. E en hough no one can deny he omnip esence o s esso s, and e en hough a psychologis may be con inced ha e e yone exposed o a pa icula job si ua ion mus expe ience i as dis ess ul, he e will p obably always be some ha dy indi iduals who ind ha si ua ion 'no mal', e en in igo a ing and exhila a ing (S iimp e , 1983b). A he same ime, he e a e achie emen -mo i a ed people who a e cons an ly seeking he ad ice and aid o expe s who can help hem o imp o e hei pe o mance and who may welcome some s ess managemen echniques o p o-ac i e pu poses. Fo such easons, all people who, on he basis o wha has been p esen ed o hem, eel ha he p og amme migh be help ul should ha e access o i . When an o ganiza ion begins conside ing in oduc ion o s ess managemen , a equen ques ion is whe e o s a . Many op- ligh companies ha e chosen o in ol e manage ial and supe iso y pe sonnel i s . Mo e socialis ically inclined commen a o s ind aul wi h such a p io i y. on he g ounds ha since he physical, psychological and social condi ions o wo k a lowe le els a e much less a ou able, o dina y wo ke s should ge alle ia ion i s . O cou se, his is a complica ed ma e , pa icula ly since he kinds o dis ess di e a di e en le els, and hence he emedy equi ed. Ma eson & I ance ich (1982b) exp essed he opinion ha , all else being equal, supe iso y and managemen pe sonnel should be selec ed i s . Thei easons we e, i s , ha hey ca y signi ican esponsibili y o people, a s esso ha esea ch has consis en ly shown o be wo se han esponsibili y o hings; and, second, ha i supe io s unde s and dis ess be e , hey will be in a be e posi ion o help employees iden- i y and deal wi h dis ess. Simpson (l 983) added ano he cogen eason: 'execu i es ha e a g ea e impac on he econo- mic well being o an o ganisa ion and hence. any incompe ence s. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1985, 16(2) as a esul o s ess a an execu i e le el will p obably ha e mo e signi ican esul s on he o ganisa ion's bo om line'. Nex , Ma eson and I ance ich ad ised ha one should iden i y g oups o employees in high-dis ess jobs, o ins ance hose wi h: 'unusually p olonged deadline p essu es; ch onic wo k o e load; cons an change in equi emen s, p ocedu es, schedules o e en supe iso s; equen physical dange ; minimum oppo uni ies o in e ac wi h o he s and hus build social-suppo ne wo ks; o highly au oma ed and epe i i e asks.' (Ma eson & l ance ich, 1982b: 771) Thi dly, hese au ho s e e ed o g oups o employees who a e pa icula ly suscep ible o dis ess, ega dless o hei ac ual wo k, o ins ance, e y young and inexpe ienced employees, olde employees on a ca ee pla eau bu s ill making a wo h- while con ibu ion, ecen ly ans e ed people, and 'mino i y' g oup membe s (as an example, hey men ioned 'in some cases, emales'; black manage s would also be a good example in his coun y). Las ly, pe sonnel and p oduc i i y c i e ia, like abno mal le els o u no e and absen eeism, acciden s, escala ing cos s o p oduc ion dec emen s, may lag dis ess in wo k g oups, i hese canno be explained in e ms o causes no ela ed o dis ess. Indi idual s. g oup p og ammes The causes o dis ess may be so speci ic o an indi idual ha an indi idual s ess managemen p og amme, o he na u e o pe sonal counselling, may be equi ed. Fo ins ance, in he case o senio manage s, psychological p oblems can ha dly be deal wi h in a g oup se ing. Ano he example may be dis ess ela ed o ca ee -de elopmen , whe e a leas a la ge po ion o he counselling p ocess has o be indi idualized. P oblems a ound he mid-ca ee ansi ion a e also likely o equi e indi idual a en ion. Simila ly, exe cise p og ammes o people who a e a isk o co ona y hea diseases ha e o be indi idualized, a leas o an ini ial pe iod. In iew o he ela i e in equency o such si ua ions, o he specialized aining and skills equi ed, o con iden iali y, '.15 well as he cos liness o indi idual p oblem managemen , i may make sense o use ou side consul an s o such app oaches. Ve y la ge o ganiza ions may, howe e , ha e wo k enough o his kind o employ counselling o clinical psychologis s, physicians, and biokine icis s. A he same ime, no jus any membe o hese occupa ions will be use ul. Apa om high-le el p o essional aining, i akes an o ien a ion owa ds heal h, a he han pa hology ( he e o e, e.g., counselling a he han clinical psychology), as well as a ce ain amoun o indus ial/o ganiza ional expe ience and insigh - a combina ion ha d o ga he . G oup-based p og ammes ha e a ious ad an ages. The mos ob ious is cos -e ec i eness. The second is ha he same ~ind_o p oblems occu equen ly enough ha people expe- 0:n~g hem can be b ough oge he . The hi d is ha people wi h ~1mila ~ oblems can help, suppo and ein o ce each o he s beha iou in he igh kind o g oup se ing. Las ly, mo i a ion o compliance ends o un highe in g oup app oaches. In o ganiza ions s a us di e ences canno be igno ed and he cons i u ion o g oups may equi e ca e ul conside a ion om his poin o iew. Supe io s and subo dina es should almos ne e be in he same g oup. G oups o pee s a e likely o wo k be e han g oups wi h wide di e ences in ank ep esen ed. People who ha e o wo k oge he daily may also 65 equi e ca e ul o e hough (husband-wi e combina ions sh~ul~ p obably be uled ou al oge he ). I he aining obJec 1 es a e mo e psychological in na u e, di e si y among ~~up membe s may, howe e , be a e y aluable cha ac e - 1s 1c o build in o he g oup. The excep ional si!u~ ion ~he e a na u al wo k g oup should wo~k oge he 1s m dealing wi h ' ole s ess' p oblems. Role con lic and ole ambigui y, as well as ole o e load ha e equen ly been iden i ied as dis esso s. Beha iou ~ consul an s ha e de eloped a a ie y o ole cla i ica ion p ocedu~es o gene a e a discussion o oles and o cla i y he expec a ions o membe s. One example is he ole analysis echnique (Dayal & Thomas, 1968; F ench & Bell, 1978; Lyn on, 1968). Some knowledge o g oup dynamics, as well as skill and expe ien~e o u~ng ela i ely ins uc u ed g oup aining, a e ?b 1ous quali ica ions o a aine , p e e ably o be ob amed unde supe ision. Goals and Objec i es Be o e conside ing con en , any aine would wan o se goals and objec i es. In e ms o ai ly global goals, dis ess managemen p og ammes may be di ec ed a emedia ion, p e en ion o enhancemen o wellness, o a all h ee. On ano he con inuum, hey may ange om a b oad app oach o eaching in o ma ion and skills ha would be use ul in many li e si ua ions, o being di ec ed a speci ic wo k condi ions. A p og amme may also ange om being basically in o ma i e and heo y-based, o being o ien a ed owa ds eaching one o mo e skills. In de e mining he goals o one's p og amme, he needs o he o ganiza ion and o he a ge g oups, as well as he a ailabili y o esou ces, like skilled s a , inancing, and pa icipan ime, ha e o be conside ed. In e ms o ai ly conc e e objec i es, Ma eson and l ance ich sugges ed i s ly, knowledge acquisi ion: 'Any p og am should p esen in o ma ion ha will be use ul o he pa icipan s, in inc easing hei awa eness o s ess, i s ole in hei li es, and how i wo ks o and agains hem' (Ma eson & I ance ich, 1982b: 771). As an example, hey men ioned awa eness and unde s anding o he physiological and biochemical changes ha ake place in one's body unde dis ess: Knowledge o hese changes and hei ela ionship o nega i e heal h ac o s would make one much mo e s ess conscious. Knowledge o beha iou al mani es a ions o dis ess is ano he example: Teaching an ea ly wa ning sys em o help one ecognize he onse o a p oblem and diagnose i p ope ly, whe he in onesel , one's colleagues o one's sub- o dina es (see also Coope , 1984). Ma eson & I ance ich conside ed skill acquisi ion as he second objec i e, p o iding speci ic, 'usable skills ha can be applied in a a ie y o ci cums ances bo h on and o he job' (p. 772) o p e en a dis ess eac ion o o dissipa e he e ec s o dis ess mo e p oduc i ely; o o o mula e i e en mo e gene ally, o each pa icipan s g ea e con ol o e physiological and psychological sys ems which a e eac i e o dis ess (Mu phy, 1984). The p og amme should p o ide o bo h demons a ion and adequa e p ac ice du ing aining, as well as p o ide ways o p epa ing o 'back-home' applica- ions. Thei hi d objec i e was eedback: 'p o iding pa icipan s wi h speci ic in o ma ion abou hei cu en le els o s ess and ce ain o hei beha io pa e ns and pe sonal o ien a- ions ha can se e as a basis o mo e e ec i e s ess managemen ' (p. 772). 66 Gene al knowledge and sel -knowledge Knowledge acquisi ion I has become cus oma y in managemen and o he concen a ed aining p og ammes o equi e p e-cou se eading. P o ided he olume and quali y o eading a e no in hemsel es causes o dis ess, I see no eason why s ess managemen wo kshops o highe le el employees canno s a his way. Ob iously, he eading ma e ial should be adap ed o he eading le el o pa icipan s. Many eadable a icles could se e his pu pose, while books like hose o G eenbe g (1983), I ance ich & Ma eson (1980), Ma eson & I ance ich (1982a), Moss (1981) and Sha e (1982) may be use ul. Reading assignmen s can also be gi en du ing and a e a wo kshop. Al hough lec u ing is a poo way o con eying in o ma ion, lec u es and lec u e es ha e hei place du ing a wo kshop. Films a e abso bing and in e es ing ways o con eying in o - ma ion (some examples a e lis ed in Appendix l). Ideally, heo y inpu s should co e all o he a eas indica ed in Figu e l, bu p ac ical ci cums ances will de e mine he ex en o co e age. Pa icipan s should be in ol ed h ough small g oup discussion and in e ac ion, pe haps in eac ion o a lec u e, a ilm, o a speci ic ques ion. Desc ip ions o pe sonal c i ical incidences, expe ien ial exe cises, ole plays and case s udies could all inc ease pa icipa ion. Sel assessmen Following heo y inpu s (pe haps e en as pa o p e-wo k), pa icipan s should ha e oppo uni ies o assess hemsel es wi h espec o he in o ma ion p o ided. Acco ding o Ma eson & I ance ich (1982b: 773), sel -assessmen 'heigh ens in ol emen , p o ides a da a base upon which pa icipan s can u he hei unde s anding o how s ess ela es o hem, and gene ally ein o ces bo h lea ning and ans e '. Ma eson & I ance ich also cau ioned ha pa icipan s should always be assu ed o he con iden iali y o such da a and ha hey should eel no di ec o indi ec p essu e o sha e hem wi h anyone. Some o he books lis ed in he p e ious sec ion con ain examples o ques ionnai es ha could be used o such pu poses. Caplan, e al. (1975) p o ided scales ha could be use ul o desc ibe many job dis esso s. The C own-C isp Expe ien ial Index (C own & C isp, 1979) is a somewha clini- cal ins umen bu h ee o i s scales we e used in Coope & A bose's (1984) execu i e s ess su ey o In e na ional Managemen , hus p o iding o some s imula ing c oss- cul u al inpu s as pa o a wo kshop. Coope and A bose also used a lis o p essu es, commonly expe ienced by execu i es, which could simila ly be used o compa e Sou h A icans wi h hei Sou h A ican sample and samples om nine o he coun ies. The Jenkins Ac i i y Su ey (Jenkins, Zyz.anski & Rosenman, 1979) is a handy measu e o Type A beha iou ; a 13-i em sho o m may be use ul in some si ua ions (Jenkins, 1984). (An A ikaans ansla ion is a ailable om me, bu a ee is payable o he Psychological Co po a ion, and I also ha e da a on a a ie y o Sou h A ican samples (S iimp e , 1983a)). O cou se, a a ie y o o he ins umen s dese e se ious conside a ion. Ins umen s should p e e ably 'be sho , easy o unde s and, ideally un o comple e (a leas no a cho e), and possess a good deg ee o ace alidi y' (Ma eson & I ance ich, 1982b: 373). A se ious limi a ion in connec ion wi h all sel -assessmen measu es (apa om eliabili y and alidi y, which canno necessa ily be assumed o scales p o ided in se e al books) is ha o s anda diza ion, pa icula ly o Sou h A ican S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 198S, 16(2) samples. (The e is oom o se e al mas e s and doc o al disse a ions in his a ea alone!) An aspec ha should be emembe ed is ha mos o he a ailable s ess measu es a e subjec o copy igh and as a ma e o p o essional e hics, as well as a ma e o p o ec ion agains p osecu ion, use s should buy hem h ough he Na ional Ins i u e o Pe sonnel Resea ch o ob ain pe mission o duplica ion om au ho s o publishe s. Skills aining The ange o s ess- ela ed skills is oo wide o be co e ed adequa ely in an a icle like his one. Voluminous omes, like he 499-page one edi ed by Meichenbaum & Ja emko (1982), and piles o a icles un o una ely ha e o be waded h ough i one wan s o de elop an adequa e backg ound. A e iew a icle by Mu phy (1984) can p o ide use ul e e ences. I in end o in oduce wha I (please no e he limi a ion) conside among he mos impo an skills, wi h some commen s, bu also wi h eading e e ences ha will hope ully p o ide leads o people in e es ed in addi ional in o ma ion. In gene al, all o hese skills should gene alize om he aining si ua ion o he pe son's whole way o li e, a he han o be o empo a y emedial o he apeu ic signi icance only. Relaxa ion echniques Relaxa ion in some o m o ano he is p obably he mos commonly used dis ess managemen echnique and has been shown o be e ec i e in a ious g oups (Ca ing on, Collings, Benson, Robinson, Wood, Leh e , Wool olk & Cole, 1980). P og essi e muscula elaxa ion was in oduced long be o e he e e en was he concep o s ess o be managed. I s popula i y p obably s ems om i s ob ious ace alidi y, i s ease o use, and i s almos immedia e bene i s. As i is used nowadays, he pe son usually s a s o wi h a ela i ely long o m, equi ing 20 - 25 min. a a ime o wo - ou weeks o egula p ac ice; some 16 o 20 ela i ely small g oups o muscles, like a oo , hen a cal , hen an uppe leg, e c., a e ensed and elaxed al e na i ely, wo king up om he ee o he ace. Fo he nex wo- h ee weeks' p ac ice, body pa s a e combined, e.g. a oo , cal and uppe leg all oge he , educing he numbe o muscle g oups o se en. Then ollows a week o wo whe e he numbe o muscle g oups is educed o only ou . This is ollowed by a s age o ecall only, whe e he indi idual ecalls he eeling o elease in si ua ions which end o cause ension. By his ime he pe son is usually capable o loca ing a eas o ension, hen elaxing hem by simply gi ing him/he sel a command, like 'Relax, calm down', aking a deep, slow b ea h and ocusing on he muscle g oups conce ned. I is o en combined wi h cue-con ol, using s icky colou ed do s (o s a s) o pas e on places and hings a wo k and a home which (s)he equen ly expe iences as ension-inducing; each encoun e wi h a colou ed do hen se es as a cue o he elaxa ion esponse. Al hough hese ins uc ions a e qui e simple, some psychological skill may be necessa y in handling some clien s. Medi a ion is ano he way o e oking wha Benson (1974; Benson & Allen, 1980) has called he ' elaxa ion esponse'· He in oduced he ' espi a o y one me hod', a non-cul ic echnique in which men al epe i ion o he wo d 'one' is linked wi h each ou b ea h, o a pe iod o 10 -20 min. (see Pe e s & Benson, 1978: 124 o ins uc ions). T anscenden al medi a ion is he mo e amilia me hod bu he e a e esea ch indica ions ha he elaxa ion esponse a he co e o he echnique can also be augh in an unembellished o m. Bio eedback aining can be used o induce gene alized s. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1985, 16(2) elaxa ion bu i is p obably mo e app op ia e o use in beha iou al medicine, e.g. o he ea men o ension headaches and mig aine. I s main disad an ages a e ha , unlike p og essi e muscula elaxa ion, i is 'non-po able' (Roskies & A a d, 1982), and equi es special equipmen and special aine aining. Bo h equipmen and ope a o s a e expensi e. Minia u ized uni s a e less expensi e bu no necessa ily eliable and a e s ill mo e cumbe some han no equipmen a all. Imp essed wi h he he apeu ic successes o elaxa ion wi h acu e dis ess, hype ension and o he condi ions, some au ho s and consul an s ha e sugges ed ha a elaxa ion echnique should become pa o e e y pe son's daily a mamen a ium agains dis ess. In Sou h A ica he e is an unusual p eponde ance o Type A beha iou among execu- i es, as well as a e y se ious sho age o high-le el human esou ces which call o a Type A kind o li e-s yle o su i e and succeed (S iimp e , 1983a). A leas o such go-ge e s, i is un ealis ic o hope o con inued egula p ac ice o a elaxa ion-inducing echnique. I is oo passi e an app oach and is eadily ejec ed as incompa ible wi h ' eal li e'. Hence, my sugges ion is ha p og essi e muscula elaxa ion augh as desc ibed abo e, should be used ini ially as a he apeu ic echnique bu a e wa ds i can become a skill a ailable o he indi idual, o be used only when necessa y. O cou se, some ein o cemen p ac ice will be necessa y om ime o ime. Pe haps I should add ha o people who can con inue wi h e.g. medi a ion because i i s hei empe amen , i may p o e o be a e y aluable componen o a di e en li e- s yle. My only conce n is no o each o he una ainable in one's en husiasm o some hing which only a small p opo ion o one's clien s a e likely o accep ully. Physical i ness p og ammes While elaxa ion skills can help an indi idual o handle a pa - icula ension-p o oking expe ience, egula physical exe cise will ha e a mo e gene al p e en a i e and heal h-enhancing aspec . I is he mos na u al way o eleasing he pen -up a ousal ha esul s om dis ess; bu by inc easing i ness and by con ibu ing o heal hie emo ional unc ioning i can help he indi idual o wo k wi h mo e igou and equanimi y, hus also con ibu ing o eus ess. The so-called ' igh - ligh mechanism' is he body's esponse o h ea and consis s o a mus e ing o all esou ces in p epa a ion o he s enuous ac i i y equi ed by an eme - gency. U ode ela i ely p imi i e condi ions such a ousal is dissipa ed by igh o ligh bu ci iliza ion has emo ed he p edominan ly physical o ien a ion om ou li es. In nume- ous p esen -day wo k si ua ions h ea s, anging om he b u al o he sub le, a ouse he igh - ligh mechanism; bu nei he igh no ligh is an app op ia e esponse o such dis ess in he o ice o ac o y. Consequen ly, he e is ha dly any elie om he in ense physiological a ousal ha is pa o ou daily ou ine. This 'unna u al' si ua ion hen calls o in oduc ion o a i icial exe cise as an ou le and o p e en a ha m ul build-up o consequences o dis ess (see Figu e I). The na u e o exe cise is a ma e o pe sonal as e, needs and oppo uni ies. Fi ness p og ammes need no be limi ed o he pe quisi e o an execu i e gymnasium bu could be made a ailable in a ious o ms o all employees. In ac , in combina ion wi h con ibu ions o ec ea ion acili ies, his is an a ea whe e companies can do a g ea deal o lowe le el employees and e en o he communi ies in which hey li e. I is also in e es ing ha he ac i e app oach o handling dis ess by means o exe cise holds so much appeal o he 67 Sou h A ican go-ge e s I men ioned abo e. I is no ye as o e whelming as he Ame ican scene whe e, • A imes i seemed as i Judaeo-Ch is ian ci iliza ion had been o e un by pagan-ae obic ibes' (Sheppa d, 1981); bu he popula i y o a ious o ms o exe cise among execu i es and wo ke s whi es and blacks augu s well o dis ess managemen and he gene al enhancemen o heal h. Since ew pe sonnel manage s ha e aining in exe cise science and in iew o some co ona y and o he medical isks, a well- ained biokine icis should be in ol ed whene e physical exe cise is in oduced as pa o a s ess managemen p og amme. Ob iously, i canno be mo e han alked abou in a wo kshop kind o p og amme. Ra ional-emo i e hinking Feelings and he way people hink should also be b ough in o he p ocess o dis ess-eus ess managemen . T aining in a ional-emo i e hinking p o ides one ehicle o doing so. E hel Roskies (1983; Roskies & A a d, 1982) adap ed Albe Ellis' a ional-emo i e indi idual psycho he apy o a g oup echnique o helping people o adjus , o modula e, nega i e emo ions. The objec i e is o ob ain con ol o e he ange , anxie y, guil , and dep ession ha cons i u e so much o e en a psychologically heal hy pe son's dis ess. Use o his echni- que would equi e he skills o a counselling psychologis and should no be a emp ed by a non-psychologis . In he i s place, i equi es explana ion and unde s anding ha eelings a e p oduced by he people who expe ience hem and no by ex e nal ci cums ances. People expe ience inap- p op ia ely s ong eelings because hey hold i a ional expec a ions abou hemsel es ('I should always be pe ec '), o he people ('O he s should always lo e me'), and he wo ld in gene al ('The wo ld should be a anged o my con e- nience'). When such i a ional belie s a e us a ed, hey lead o inapp op ia e nega i e eelings; on he o he hand, aban- doning hem allows people o handle hose ine i able up- ending expe iences wi h g ea e composu e. In Roskies' p ocedu e pa icipan s as a g oup silen ly i s ecall a si ua ion in which (s)he was e y upse , and hen ec ea e as ealis ically as possible he eeling (s)he expe ienced a he ime. Nex , he pe son has o shi he eelings o a lowe le el, e.g. disappoin men , us a ion o i i a ion ins ead o ou igh ange and u y. Once (s)he has adjus ed he eelings, he pe son is asked o ecall he /his 'in e nal deba e', i.e. wha (s)he said o he /himsel o change he i a ional hinking and he eby he inapp op ia e eelings. A e some p ac ice, g oups o wo o h ee sha e hei expe- iences. Homewo k consis s o h ee sho p ac ice sessions a day du ing which he indi idual goes h ough he abo e sequence o a ional-emo i e hinking, hen eco ds he sel - s a emen s. Back in he g oup, discussion o homewo k, assignmen s and o he applica ions allow membe s and he g oup leade o sugges mo e a ional sel -s a emen s. The use o image y o modula e eelings g adually changes o modi ica ion o eelings on he spo , hus sho ening he du a ion o inapp op ia e eelings, and e en ually a e some weeks' p ac ice e en sho -ci cui ing such dis up i e eac ions al oge he . Goal se ing Lack o di ec ion is o en a componen o dis ess and some aining in pe sonal goal se ing should be pa o a s ess managemen p og amme. O en he pa icipan s ha e skill and expe ience o goal se ing as pa o hei occupa ional epe - oi e, bu ha e seldom applied hese o hei own li es. 68 Sessions on goal se ing should be p eceded by g oup discussions and o he assignmen s aimed a helping he indi- idual o cla i y pe sonal alues. A hough -p o oking a icle o wo (Shepa d, 1983) could se he ball olling. I he pe son is ma ied, he spouse should one way o ano he be in ol ed in such assessmen s. I may e en be wo h asking some ul ima e ques ions, like: 'ls his wo h dying o ?' o 'ls his wo h ge ing di o ced o ?' o 'ls his wo h losing my son o ?' (S iimp e , 1983b). Goals should be explici , objec i e, and measu able bu also ealis ic and a ainable. A goal could, o ins ance, be no longe o go on a pa icula kind o ip, o pa icula places, and o delega e hose esponsibili ies o such and such subo dina es; o o spend e e y Sa u day a e noon pa ici- pa ing in a pa icula ac i i y, o ange o ac i i ies, chosen o eus ess-inducing easons; o o ake genuine non-business aca ions a se imes. A la e phase in his p ocess is es ablishmen o a hie a chy o goals, i.e. se ing p io i ies. Goal se ing should, in pa , be conduc ed in counselling and g oup si ua ions, bu should also become pa o he indi idual's day- o-day li e, so ha he spouse, child en, iends, supe io s, and colleagues could become di ec ly in ol ed. As expe ience wi h managemen by objec i es has indica ed, he pe son should commi him/he sel o a goal in collabo a ion wi h someone else, i.e. publicly a he han p i a ely. An a icle by Kolb and Boya zis (1984) on 'Goal-se ing and sel -di ec ed beha io change' may be wo h eading in his con ex . One o he ac i i ies ha should low om goal-se ing exe cises should be planning o a limi ed se o speci ic objec i es o back-home applica ions o lea nings du ing he cou se. I a all possible, he e should also be some ollow- up ac i i y a a la e s age o enhance compliance. Time managemen In combina ion wi h goal se ing and as a logical ou g ow h o i , ime managemen aining should be in oduced. The p opo ion o ime de o ed o such aining would depend on pa icipan s' needs. Time managemen is one o he p o- cesses ha can be used, pa icula ly by manage s, o accomp- lish asks in an e icien and e ec i e way, hus educing much o he o e load ha is a majo dis esso ; in ac , he e ec i eness may lead o eus ess eelings. Ins ead o en e ing in o de ail, I wan o e e o a icles by Alexande (1981), Ashkenas & Scha e (1982), and Schule (1979), al hough much mo e has been w i en. Films may also be use ul in his con ex and he Time Li e Video p og amme, 'Time Managemen o Manage s', is wo h conside ing (a ail- able om Highgold In e na ional). The aining skills in ol ed he e a e mo e in he na u e o managemen consul ing han hose o a psychologis . Va ious li e-s yle in e en ions Counselling in connec ion wi h adul de elopmen al s ages (S iimp e , 1984) and ca ee de elopmen is no o dina ily iewed as pa o s ess managemen . Pe haps i is one o he sound pe sonnel p ocedu es I ha e men ioned ea lie . Ye so much o dis ess-eus ess is in ol ed wi h pe sonal and ca ee de elopmen ha I wan o add i as one o he special con ibu ions om counselling and indus ial/ o ganiza ional psychology. While ime managemen is a sho - e m ex ension o goal se ing, his kind o counselling would be a long- e m ex ension. Hall (1976) and Schein (1978) a e good s a ing poin s o an a id eade . S.-A . lydsk . Bed y sl. 1985, 16(2) P e en i e heal h managemen (which could include physi- cal exe cise) is ano he gene al a ea o be a ended o. E en a b ie wo kshop should include some assessmen ac i i ies and some in o ma ion on nu i ion, p e e ably by a die ician. Smoking, alcoholism and addic ion a e also a eas ha dese e se ious a en ion (Eise , 1982). I may also make sense o encou age pa icipan s o isi hei physicians o assessmen o a leas se um choles e ol and blood p essu e, in iew o he ole o hese wo ac o s in co ona y hea disease; i would e en make sense o a ange ha bo h can be done on compa- ny p emises o as pa o a s ess managemen and heal h p og amme. Tying i oge he I a s ess managemen p og amme is in oduced in he o m o a wo kshop, i could un o e om hal -a-day o a week. Ma eson & l ance ich (1982b) b ie ly desc ibed he con en s o a wo-and-a-hal -day wo kshop, which seems like a eason- able leng h o ime, p o ided he e will be a ollow-up mee ing, pe haps o ano he hal -a-day. Mu phy's (1984) e iew showed ha , in gene al, p og ammes which ha e employed mo e con ac hou s ha e epo ed g ea e educ ions in bo h physiological measu es and sel - epo s o dis ess symp oms. Sp eading ou a p og amme o e se e al days, o e en hal -days, o e a pe iod o ime may ha e ad an ages o e a con inuous pe iod; a sandwich p og amme allows a mo e immedia e applica ions in he wo k and home si ua ions. Roskies (1983) and Roskies & A a d (1982) used a leng hy pe iod o weekly mee ings o a Type A beha iou change p og amme, b eaking up he lea nings in o small uni s on pu pose o allow o mo e p ac ice a home and a wo k in be ween. As wi h all aining, i is a ma e o inding a balance be ween he bene i s o massed and dis ibu ed p ac ice. In gene al, mul imodal p og ammes appea o be mo e e ec i e han eaching single skills (Mu phy, 1984). One eason is ha pa icipan s in a mul imodal p og amme gain expe ience o a ious echniques and ha e he oppo uni y o choose hose which wo k bes o hem. Examples a e he choice be ween p og essi e muscula elaxa ion and medi a- ion, o he choice be ween elaxa ion and physical exe cise as ways o dealing wi h ension. Employee counselling p og ammes Las ly, I wan o men ion employee counselling p og ammes as a way o handle dis ess. This kind o p og amme p o ides oppo uni ies o assis people a all le els o o ganiza ions, bu p obably mo e a he non-execu i e le el whe e o he o ms o in e en ion may be mo e di icul o deli e and less likely o gain accep ance. I also implies di ec a ack on eal-li e p oblems. Fo such easons, hey seem o be some hing ha dese es g ea e a en ion in Sou h A ica. I does no mean by-passing managemen , no eplacemen o he pe sonnel depa men 's mo e adi ional app oaches. On he o he hand, he dange o building ano he empi e should also be p e en ed. Companies in he U.S., Canada, and he U.K. ha e been in oducing counselling acili ies o a whole ange o p oblems ela ed o home and wo k, including e en Alcoholics Ano- nymous g oups on si e (Coope , 1984). Hall & Fle che (1984) ha e desc ibed wha seems o be a model wo h emula ing, · since i p o ides o a g ea a ie y o ad ice and counselling, wi hou ying o be e e y hing o all. They desc ibed Con ol Da a's Employee Ad iso y Resou ce (EAR) p og amme in he U.K., which de eloped ou o a simila p og amme in