Le u la, Ma e e; S eyn, Renie
A icle
A ican business leade ship and e ec i eness:
Pe spec i es om Sou h A ican leade s
Adminis a i e Sciences
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MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Le u la, Ma e e; S eyn, Renie (2025) : A ican business leade ship and
e ec i eness: Pe spec i es om Sou h A ican leade s, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387,
MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 3, pp. 1-23,
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Recei ed: 21 Janua y 2025
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Published: 27 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Le u la, M., & S eyn, R.
(2025). A ican Business Leade ship
and E ec i eness: Pe spec i es om
Sou h A ican Leade s. Adminis a i e
Sciences,15(3), 83. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/admsci15030083
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A icle
A ican Business Leade ship and E ec i eness: Pe spec i es
om Sou h A ican Leade s
Ma e e Le u la * and Renie S eyn
School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, Mid and 1686, Sou h A ica; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Leade ship is o en amed wi hin Wes e n pa adigms, wi h limi ed ocus on
A ican business leade ship. This s udy, pa o a b oade esea ch p ojec , aims o concep-
ualise A ican business leade ship and i s e ec i eness, p o iding an in eg a ed unde -
s anding om a ious pe spec i es. This a icle examines Sou h A ican leade s’ iews
on A ican business leade ship and i s impac . Using an in e p e i is app oach, semi-
s uc u ed in e iews we e conduc ed wi h senio leade s om di e en acial g oups
in Sou h A ica. The da a we e analysed h ough g ounded heo y, wi h a h ee-s ep
coding p ocess o iden i y hemes ele an o A ican business leade ship, pa icula ly
in sub-Saha an A ica. This s udy ound ha A ican leade ship is cha ac e ised by en-
ep eneu ial spi i , agili y, and he alue o ‘Ubun u’, in con as o he s uc u ed and
egula ed na u e o Wes e n leade ship. Cul u e’s ole in leade ship e ec i eness was
deba ed, wi h some a ibu ing success o pe sonal ai s. Co up ion and po e y we e
iden i ied as signi ican ba ie s. The esea ch unde sco es he in luence o cul u e on leade -
ship s yles, e ealing di e se opinions on he e ec i eness o A ican leade ship in business.
These indings highligh he impo ance o conside ing cul u al ac o s, co up ion, and
po e y when e alua ing leade ship e ec i eness in A ican con ex s.
Keywo ds: leade ship s yles; e ec i eness; cul u e; Ubun u; A ocen ici y; FRLT
1. In oduc ion
This s udy is a key componen o an ex ensi e esea ch p ojec aimed a de elop-
ing a mul i-dimensional concep ual amewo k o A ican business leade ship and i s
e ec i eness. The esea ch is d i en by se e al key ac o s:
•
The e olu ion o leade ship ypologies has heigh ened in e es in how cul u al di -
e ences a ec leade ship s yles and hei e ec i eness. Ex ensi e s udies unde he
Global Leade ship and O ganiza ional Beha iou E ec i eness (GLOBE) p ojec in
a ious coun ies (House e al.,2004,2014) ha e unde sco ed he signi ican impac o
cul u al dis inc ions on leade ship.
•
Leade ship is a complex cons uc bes unde s ood in i s speci ic ope a ional con ex
(Robe & Vandenbe ghe,2020;Walumbwa e al.,2011). The e o e, he emphasis on
cul u al sensi i i y o leade ship app oaches is c i ical.
•
Wes e n pa adigms, which ha e la gely shaped global leade ship discou se, o en
o e look aspec s unique o A ica (Bolden & Ki k,2009;Le u la & S eyn,2017). These
pa adigms ail o cap u e he indigenous and cul u al nuances in leade ship and i s
e ec i eness (Booysen,2001;Eyong,2017;Le u la & S eyn,2017). Recen leade ship
esea ch ends con inue o be domina ed by pe spec i es om he global no h
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15030083
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 2 o 23
(Fische & Si kin,2023). This could be an ou come o he pauci y o empi ical li e a u e
on A ican leade ship.
These obse a ions aise c i ical ques ions abou he inclusi i y o he adi ional
leade ship cons uc , p edominan ly in o med by Wes e n pa adigms. This has spu ed
signi ican in e es in unde s anding leade ship in i s p ac ised con ex , ecognising he
ole o cul u al di e ences in shaping leade ship e ec i eness (A olio e al.,2009;House
e al.,2004;Humph eys e al.,2010;Jones e al.,2012;Lee,2011;Posne ,2012;Walumbwa
e al.,2011). A ica, wi h i s uniqueness, has a ac ed a en ion in his ega d (Adewale,
2020;G oble & Singh,2018;Li ell & Nkomo,2005;Mbigi,2007;Mboup,2008;Muchi i,
2011;Van de Col ,2003).
Mo eo e , he indus ial con ex and globalisa ion ha e bi hed oppo uni ies o
mul ina ional o ganisa ions’ expansion in o di e se ma ke s, esul ing in a su ge o expa i-
a es in leade ship oles in A ica (Naude & Vogel,2018). This g ow h in he globalisa ion o
indus ial o ganisa ions calls o a be e unde s anding o cul u al di e ences in leade ship
and o ganisa ional p ac ices (Ly,2020), hus unde sco ing he impo ance o leade s being
cognisan o di e en cul u al expec a ions o leade ship e ec i eness.
The GLOBE p ojec has highligh ed he signi ican ole o c oss-cul u al di e ences
in leade ship and e ec i eness and has ein o ced he iew o A ica as a dynamic egion
wi h indigenous dimensions and p ac ices ha should be inco po a ed in o he leade ship
cons uc (Adewale,2020;Bolden & Ki k,2005;Booysen,2001;Eyong,2017;G oble &
Singh,2018). Some esea che s ha e no ed ha A o-cen ic aspec s ha could enhance
leade ship e ec i eness ac oss cul u es ha e been la gely o e looked (Van Knippenbe g
e al.,2013). Fo example, esea che s ha e a gued ha , in he sub-Saha an egion, key
aspec s such as humani y, inclusi i y, a commi men o se ing o he s, and he philosophy
o Ubun u a e c ucial elemen s o he leade ship na a i e (Bolden & Ki k,2009;Laloo,
2022;Mangaliso,2001;Mbigi,2000;Ndlo u,2016). These alues a e pa icula ly signi ican
gi en ha leade s o en in e nalise cul u al alues and p ac ices o e ime, highligh ing he
mu ual in luence o cul u e and leade ship (Tkeshelash ili,2009). Consequen ly, any s udy
o leade ship ha ails o conside i s cul u al con ex is incomple e (Ly,2020).
As Jackson (2004) emphasises, A ica is a unique, complex, and socio-cul u ally di-
e se con inen . Unde s anding cul u al backg ounds and hei impac on beha iou is
c ucial o enhancing leade ship e ec i eness, pa icula ly when managing ac oss cul u es
(Van Knippenbe g e al.,2013), especially wi hin A ica. The e o e, unde s anding he
dynamics wi hin A ica is pa amoun when add essing leade ship issues.
Despi e he call by schola s o inco po a e indigenous philosophies in o leade ship
p ac ice, his limi a ion emains p e alen . No only is he e a sca ci y o empi ical esea ch
on A ican leade ship conduc ed by A icans, bu he e is also no in eg a ed de ini ion o
concep ualisa ion o A ican business leade ship (Bolden & Ki k,2009;Le u la & S eyn,
2017). Fu he , p e ious esea ch has demons a ed ha he body o knowledge on leade -
ship in A ica is unde de eloped (Le u la & S eyn,2017). Gi en he pauci y o empi ical
da a on A ican leade ship, he esea che concludes ha he p obabili y o many leade s
and o ganisa ions basing hei leade ship pe spec i es on Wes e n pa adigms is high. In
line wi h his obse a ion, a shi owa ds a mo e A o-cen ic iew o leade ship is needed,
one ha will align A ica’s cul u al dep h and alues wi h a global con ex .
This s udy aims o con ibu e o he leade ship body o knowledge, ocusing on he
sub-Saha an egion. Fu he , as pa o i s endea ou o con ibu e o de eloping and
de ining A ican leade ship heo ies, i seeks o enhance he unde s anding o leade ship
in his egion. This is achie ed by highligh ing c i ical ac o s ha a e deemed necessa y
o ad ance e ec i e leade ship p ac ices o hose leading in he sub-Saha an egion. The
empi ical insigh s om his s udy will ad ance leade ship de elopmen , o e ing insigh s
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 3 o 23
ele an in bo h he A ican con ex and globally. The cu en s udy builds upon p io
esea ch, including in o de ining leade ship in A ica (Le u la & S eyn,2017), explo ing
A ican business leade ship and pe spec i es om young aspi ing leade s (Le u la & S eyn,
2021), and in es iga ing leade ship s yles and hei e ec i eness ac oss cul u es (Le u la &
S eyn,2022).
The heo e ical ounda ion o his s udy is he ull- ange leade ship heo y (FRLT), a
classical heo y o igina ing om he Uni ed S a es. The esea ch adop s an in e p e i is
pa adigm and employs a quali a i e me hodology o da a collec ion. Da a in e p e a ion
ollows a g ounded analy ical app oach, in ol ing a h ee-s ep coding p ocess.
2. Theo e ical F amewo k
The amewo k applied o his s udy is he Full Range Leade ship Theo y (FRLT), a
heo y ha eme ged om James Bu ns’ wo k in 1978. The FRLT con inues o domina e he
na a i e in empi ical s udies on wha cons i u es e ec i e leade ship. A sys emic li e a u e
e iew conduc ed e ealed ha he majo i y o he esea ch on unde s anding leade ship
e ec i eness has applied his amewo k. This heo y posi s ha leade s all in o ei he he
ans o ma ional o he ansac ional ca ego y, hus placing hese wo s yles on opposi e
ends o a spec um (Bu ns,1978). Subsequen esea ch by Bass (1990) expanded on his
wo k, sugges ing ha he mos e ec i e leade s exhibi quali ies o bo h ans o ma ional
and ansac ional leade ship, hus emphasising he con inuum o leade ship. Fu he
esea ch by A olio and Bass (2005) led o he inclusion o a hi d elemen in he FRLT, ha
o he laissez- ai e s yle. The h ee elemen s a e hus he ansac ional, ans o ma ional,
and laissez- ai e s yles (A olio e al.,2009;Bass e al.,2003).
2.1. T ansac ional Leade ship
T ansac ional leade ship e ol es a ound leade – ollowe ela ionships based on ans-
ac ions be ween leade s and subo dina es (Bass & S ogdill,1990). This s yle o leade ship
ocuses on manage ial and supe iso y oles in ela ion o inpu , ou pu , and ewa d o
achie ing wha is expec ed o employees (A olio & Bass,2005;Bu ns,1978;Khan e al.,
2016). The h ee componen s associa ed wi h ansac ional leade ship a e con ingen e-
wa d, managemen by excep ion (ac i e), and managemen by excep ion (passi e) (Le u la
& S eyn,2022). This is a s yle o leade ship ha ends o ocus on he di e ences be ween
he leade and he ollowe s and ha places emphasis on ge ing speci ic asks comple ed
(Bass,1990;Odume u & I eanyi,2013).
Wi h a ansac ional leade ship s yle, employees a e ewa ded o mee ing p ede ined
s anda ds, while de ia ions om hese no ms a e add essed p oac i ely o passi ely,
depending on he si ua ion (A olio & Bass,2005;Bass & A olio,1994;Rowald & Schlo z,
2009). Acco ding o A olio and Bass (2005), his leade ship s yle p ima ily applies o
manage ial and supe iso y oles, employing ewa ds and ecogni ion o os e compliance
among ollowe s (A olio & Bass,2005;Khan e al.,2020). Addi ionally, a ibu es associa ed
wi h his s yle include emphasising di e ences be ween leade s and ollowe s, p ese ing
he s a us quo, and p io i ising ask comple ion (Bass,1990;Odume u & I eanyi,2013).
These a ibu es ha e been shown o ha e a posi i e impac on employee pe o mance
(Gemeda & Lee,2020;Sundi,2013;MacKenzie e al.,2001;Pa y & P oc o -Thomson,2002),
employee mo i a ion (Chaudh y & Ja ed,2012), and ewa ds (Xenikou,2017). Howe e ,
some epo ha his s yle has an insigni ican e ec on employee pe o mance (Baig
e al.,2021) and a non-posi i e co ela ion wi h o ganisa ional commi men , whe e he
ela ionship wi h he o ganisa ion is mo e ansac ional and less commi ed (Lee,2005).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 4 o 23
2.2. T ans o ma ional Leade ship
T ans o ma ional leade ship is buil on he p emise ha a leade ’s abili y o inspi e and
mo i a e o he s leads o ex ao dina y achie emen s (A olio & Bass,2005;Bass,1990;Bass
e al.,2003;Odume u & I eanyi,2013). This s yle emphasises wo king o he g ea e good,
signi ican ly boos ing bo h ollowe s’ mo i a ion and hei mo al commi men o he o gani-
sa ion, and yielding supe io social di idends (Khan e al.,2020). The e a e ou componen s
associa ed wi h his leade ship s yle, namely idealised in luence, inspi a ional mo i a ion,
in ellec ual s imula ion, and indi idualised conside a ion (Le u la & S eyn,2022).
Building ela ionships wi h ollowe s, p o iding indi idualised conside a ion, em-
powe ing o he s, enhancing hei sel -e icacy, and suppo ing hei pe sonal g ow h a e
p io i ies o ans o ma ional leade s (B ee aa & Zache ,2019;Ndlo u e al.,2018;
Odume u & I eanyi,2013). Pe sonal a ibu es o ans o ma ional leade s include being
cha isma ic, inspi a ional, isiona y, and in ellec ually s imula ing. O he esea che s ha e
epo ed ha , gi en hei conside a ion o indi idual needs, demons a ion o espec
owa ds ollowe s, and encou agemen o ollowe s o hink c ea i ely, ans o ma ional
leade s ha e been able o build us be ween hemsel es and o he s (Ndlo u e al.,2018;
Khan e al.,2020). These leade s se e as ole models, p o iding men o ship and coach-
ing o help ollowe s achie e hei pe sonal ca ee goals (Abasilim,2013;Bass & A olio,
1994;A olio & Bass,2005). T ans o ma ional leade ship is also associa ed wi h upholding
mo al and e hical s anda ds, cong uen beha iou , and empa hy (Odume u & I eanyi,2013;
Xenikou,2017).
Resea ch indica es ha ans o ma ional leade ship enhances employee sa is ac ion,
job pe o mance (Baig e al.,2021;Bakke e al.,2023;Gemeda & Lee,2020;Judge &
Piccolo,2004;Wang e al.,2011), employee commi men o he o ganisa ion (Block,2003;
Eliyana & Muzakki,2019;Haque & As on,2016;Ledimo,2014), and employee us in
o ganisa ional change, compa ed o o he leade ship s yles (Yasi e al.,2016). Addi ionally,
ans o ma ional leade ship is associa ed wi h c ea ing a wo k clima e whe e subo dina es
a e en husias ic abou hei wo k, leading o imp o ed esul s, bo h o he o ganisa ion
and indi idual employees (Haque & As on,2016).
T ans o ma ional leade ship has become he mos esea ched leade ship heo y in he
las wo decades, se ing as a co ne s one o mode n leade ship esea ch. Mo e han 30% o
empi ical a icles published ci e his leade ship s yle as he mos sui able o con empo a y
o ganisa ions (Abasilim,2013;No house,2016). I is ound o be mo e e ec i e han o he
leade ship s yles (Khumalo,2019) and is conside ed he mos ideal o m o o ganisa ional
leade ship (Judge & Piccolo,2004;Robbins & Judge,2017;Wang e al.,2011).
2.3. Laissez-Fai e Leade ship
Laissez- ai e leade ship is ega ded as he mos passi e and ine ec i e o m o lead-
e ship (Tosunoglu & Ekmekci,2016). I is cha ac e ised by a oiding and abdica ing e-
sponsibili ies and is conside ed he leas e ec i e leade ship s yle (Bass & Bass,2008).
Laissez- ai e leade ship is o en seen as a non-leade ship, unidimensional cons uc and
is deemed a des uc i e leade ship app oach when compa ed o mo e ac i e o ms o
ans o ma ional and ansac ional leade ship (G eiman,2009;Robe & Vandenbe ghe,
2020;Skogs ad e al.,2014;Tosunoglu & Ekmekci,2016).
Beha iou s associa ed wi h his leade ship s yle include a oiding decision-making
and e aining om using au ho i y (A olio & Bass,2005;No house,2016). O e all, i is
linked o nega i e leade ship (Skogs ad e al.,2014), diminishing us in he o ganisa ion
(B ee aa & Zache ,2019), nega i ely impac employee pe o mance (Baig e al.,2021;
Gemeda & Lee,2020), and discou aging employee commi men o mu ual o ganisa ional
goals (Xu e al.,2012). Due o he nume ous nega i e consequences associa ed wi h his
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 5 o 23
leade ship s yle, i emains an unde s udied a ea o leade ship (Robe & Vandenbe ghe,
2020;Tosunoglu & Ekmekci,2016).
3. Resea ch Me hods
3.1. Resea ch App oach
Based on he in e p e i is pa adigm, he esea ch holds an on ological pe spec i e ha
eali y is ela i e (Mye s,2009). In line wi h he esea ch pa adigm, a quali a i e esea ch
me hod was selec ed as he mos ele an o his s udy, as his me hod would enable
a deepe unde s anding o he phenomenon in ques ion o de e mine i he expe iences
con ibu e o he concep ual unde s anding o he cons uc (Miles e al.,2020). The
insigh s gained om he pa icipan s’ li ed expe iences (Babbie,2010;Bu ns & G o e,
2003) con ibu ed owa ds de eloping a amewo k on A ican leade ship, how i could be
applied in business, and i s e ec i eness.
3.2. Sampling
This s udy explo es he pe cep ions o senio leade s based on hei li ed expe iences
in leade ship oles wi hin he A ican con ex . The e o e, non-p obabili y, pu pose ul sam-
pling was adop ed as he app op ia e sampling me hod. This sampling app oach allowed
he esea che o iden i y po en ial pa icipan s be o e he s udy commenced (Johnson e al.,
2020), based on he in en o he s udy (Maes ipie i e al.,2019), and salien cha ac e is ics
necessa y o enhance he sampling quali y (Rossman & Rallis,2016). To ha end, he
ideal popula ion was delibe a ely chosen o ensu e he quali y, c edibili y, and eliabili y
o he da a (Gen les e al.,2016;Maes ipie i e al.,2019;Oppong,2013). Pa icipa ion
eligibili y was based on he desi ed ou comes and he key cha ac e is ics necessa y o
deeply engage wi h he esea che on he cons uc . Consequen ly, only leade s in senio
and op managemen posi ions wi hin Sou h A ican (a coun y wi hin sub-Saha an A ica)
o ganisa ions we e included. These leade s comp ised Chie execu i e o ice s (CEOs),
managing execu i es, and unc ional leade s. To ensu e equi able ep esen a ion, leade s
om a ious acial and gende g oups we e selec ed.
Pa icipa ion was olun a y, wi h accep ance based on an email de ailing he pu pose
o he s udy and e hical conside a ions. In e iews we e conduc ed i ually, wi h indi-
idual pa icipan s. The du a ion o he in e iews anged be ween 50 and 80 min, and
he in e iews we e ansc ibed using he MS Teams mee ing ea u e. A o al o ele en
in e iews we e held wi h olun ee pa icipan s, al hough he inal da a used we e om
en pa icipan s, wi h his educ ion being due o a ailed eco ding. The inal sample
size was concluded a a poin o da a sa u a ion (Flick,2018;Omona,2013), when no new
in o ma ion was seen o be eme ging. Once his was con i med, no u he in e iews
we e pu sued.
3.3. Da a Collec ion
Da a we e collec ed using semi-s uc u ed in e iews. All in e iews we e conduc ed
and eco ded ia Mic oso Teams, allowing o digi al ansc ip ion. The in e iew guide
and ques ions we e based on insigh s d awn om he heo e ical p inciples o he FRLT as
well as indings om p e ious s udies, which o med pa o he b oade esea ch p ojec .
The o me s udies a e published and accessible in Le u la and S eyn (2017), Le u la and
S eyn (2021), and Le u la and S eyn (2022). Con o ming o bes p ac ices (Mikuska,2017),
he esea ch ques ions we e es ed wi h pee s and he esea ch supe iso o ensu e ha he
ques ions we e no ambiguous. The heo e ical unde pinning, use o p e iously analysed
da a, and es ing o he ques ions inc eased con idence ha he opic would be add essed
objec i ely and in su icien de ail (Majid e al.,2017;Mikuska,2017). While i e ques ions
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 6 o 23
we e p ede e mined, he con e sa ional na u e o he in e iew allowed o ollow-up
ques ions and p obing, as he esea che engaged mo e deeply wi h each pa icipan . The
i e p ede e mined ques ions a e lis ed below, ollowed by an icipa ed ollow-up ques ions:
1.
How would you desc ibe you own leade ship s yle, and why would you deem you
leade ship s yle e ec i e?
2.
Wha , in you mind and expe ience, is ypical o an e ec i e leade ? (Wha beha iou s
a e ypical o an e ec i e leade and why?)
3.
Based on you expe ience, does he cul u al backg ound o leade s (Black o Whi e)
in luence leade ship s yle and e ec i eness, and i so, wha a e hose di e ences? (In
you expe ience, do you ind A ican leade s o be less e ec i e o mo e e ec i e han
Wes e n leade s? How do A ican leade s beha e di e en ly om Wes e n leade s?)
4.
Wha , in you iew, is A ican business leade ship? (How would you de ine A ican
business leade ship?) (Wha would you conside o be di e en ia ing ac o s be ween
A ican leade ship and Wes e n leade ship?)
5.
Would you conside A ican leade ship mo e e ec i e han Wes e n leade ship, and i
so, why?
These ques ions we e posed o all he in e iewees. Depending on he low o
he con e sa ion o each pa icipan , he ques ions we e no necessa ily p esen ed in
sequen ial o de .
3.4. Da a Analysis
The da a we e analysed h ough a h ee-s ep coding p ocess, acco ding o he
g ounded analy ical app oach. The da a analysis me hod applied was adop ed om
Del e and Limpaeche (2022) and Chame zky (2016).
•
S ep 1, open coding, ocused on iden i ying he main conce ns om he da a. Du ing
he in e iews, pa icipan ’s esponses we e cap u ed on a sp eadshee and codes
we e iden i ied o each esponse. This p ocess allowed o ease o compa ison as
he coding p ocess p og essed. Repe i i e codes om he esponses o each ques ion
we e consolida ed. The ou line and epo o he codes ex apola ed om he di e en
esea ch ques ions a e ou lined in he Findings sec ion.
•
S ep 2, axial coding, ocused on inding connec ions be ween he codes o mula ed
in s ep 1. Du ing his s ep, he codes om he p e ious p ocess we e compa ed wi h
each o he o ind ela ionships o connec ions and we e hen condensed in o b oad
ca ego ies.
•
S ep 3, selec i e coding, ocused on b inging all he in o ma ion oge he o cap u e he
essence o he esea ch. Du ing his s ep, o e a ching hemes ha ecu ed h oughou
he da a analysis p ocess we e cap u ed. These o e a ching hemes we e used o
in o m he inal na a i e in answe ing he esea ch ques ion.
3.5. Scien i ic Rigou
Unlike quan i a i e esea ch, quali a i e esea ch is conside ed o be inhe en ly sub-
jec i e and sensi i e o he biases o bo h esea che s and pa icipan s (Connelly,2016;
Denzin & Lincoln,2011). Resea che s ha e, he e o e, a gued o a necessi y o es ablish
he us wo hiness o quali y o he da a epo ed om quali a i e in es iga ions (Daniel,
2019;Denzin & Lincoln,2011;Flick,2018;Gen les e al.,2016). In o de o add ess he
ma e o scien i ic igou , his esea ch adhe ed o he p inciples o c edibili y ( alidi y),
dependabili y ( eliabili y), ans e abili y (ex e nal alidi y), and con i mabili y (objec i i y)
in quali a i e esea ch. De ails o how each componen o quali a i e igou was adhe ed
o a e ou lined below:
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 7 o 23
C edibili y—The c edibili y o his s udy was add essed h ough iangula ion, whe e
he coding da a and sp eadshee we e sha ed wi h he supe iso o ensu e ha he e
was no esea che bias in he codes. The supe iso e iewed he codes o ensu e ha
any possible blind spo s we e iden i ied, posing cla i y ques ions ha esul ed in e ining
he codes.
Dependabili y—The dependabili y o his s udy was add essed by p o iding clea
desc ip ions o he s udy me hods and e lec ing, in de ail, he esea ch s eps ha we e
ollowed. In addi ion, ich and di ec ex ci a ions om he da a we e sha ed o illus a e
how he a ious codes we e a i ed a .
T ans e abili y—The ans e abili y o his s udy was add essed h ough a de ailed
desc ip ion o he con ex in which he esea ch was pe o med— he esea ch p ocess,
he sampling me hod ollowed, how he da a we e analysed, and how he indings we e
shaped. In his way, u u e esea che s can de e mine i he indings o his s udy can be
applied o ans e ed o o he con ex s o popula ions.
Con o mabili y—The con o mabili y o his s udy was ca e ed o h ough he iangu-
la ion p ocess, as desc ibed in he c edibili y sec ion abo e. Fu he mo e, documen a ion
o all esea ch ac i i ies would be s o ed sa ely and sha ed when equi ed, wi hou com-
p omising he anonymi y and con iden iali y o he pa icipan s.
3.6. E hical Conside a ion
Pe mission o conduc he esea ch was g an ed by he Resea ch E hics Re iew
Commi ee o he G adua e School o Business Leade ship unde app o al numbe
2023_SBL_DBL_029_FA_0677. E hical conside a ions we e adhe ed o by ensu ing ha
all po en ial pa icipan s ga e olun a y consen o be pa o he s udy. Each pa icipan
ecei ed a comp ehensi e email de ailing he pu pose o his s udy and emphasising how
con iden iali y and anonymi y would be handled; he pa icipan wi hd awal p ocess, i
hey op ed no o con inue wi h he esea ch in e iews; how he da a would be s o ed; who
would be in ol ed in he analysis p ocess; and how in o ma ion would be epo ed. Adhe -
ence o hese e hical ma e s buil us wi h pa icipan s, allowing hem o be com o able
sha ing hei iews on he opic unde in es iga ion openly and objec i ely.
4. Findings
The indings epo ed we e based on he ou come o he en success ully conduc ed
in e iews. The ou line o he indings is s uc u ed in line wi h he analysis s eps ollowed.
Fi s ly, he indings pe aining o he open codes (s ep 1) o each ques ion a e sha ed,
ollowed by he indings pe aining o axial codes (s ep 2), which epo on he connec ions
be ween he codes o mula ed in s ep 1. Las ly, he indings pe aining o selec i e coding
(s ep 3) a e gi en, whe e all he in o ma ion is ied oge he o answe he esea ch ques ion.
P io o de ailing he indings, he nex sec ion sha es in o ma ion abou he pa icipan s
and he sample size.
4.1. Pa icipan s
As highligh ed in he Sampling sec ion, he e we e 10 inal pa icipan s. In o al,
13 leade s we e app oached, 11 o whom esponded posi i ely. While all ele en we e
in e iewed, one in e iew (Whi e male) was spoil due o a ailed eco ding and he
in e iew could no be ansc ibed. The da a used we e hus based on he 10 success ul
in e iews. In e iews we e e mina ed a e eaching a poin o sa u a ion. The de ails o
he pa icipan s a e p esen ed in Table 1, wi h pa icipan iden i y p o ec ed h ough he
use o pseudonyms.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 8 o 23
Table 1. Lis o pa icipan s by gende , ace, managemen le el, and s a size.
Pseudonym Gende Race Age Managemen Le el S a Size
MT Female Indian 40 Senio Managemen 25
EK Female Whi e 46 Senio Managemen 10
MD Male Whi e 58 Top Managemen 650
RM Female Colou ed 55 Senio Managemen 15
DC Male Indian 56 Top Managemen 120
HM Male Whi e 65 Top Managemen 3500
PT Male A ican 58 Top Managemen 5500
DM Male Whi e 56 Top Managemen 65
NS Male A ican 43 Top Managemen 250
MP Male Whi e 52 Senio Managemen 230
The demog aphic managemen classi ica ion applied abo e is b oadly in line wi h he
Sou h A ican occupa ional le els and designa ed g oups as de e mined by he Depa men
o Employmen and Labou (2014,h ps://www.labou .go .za/Documen Cen e /Fo ms/
Employmen %20Equi y/EEA9%20Fo ms.pd , accessed on 30 June 2024).
When conside ing he cha ac e is ics o he esponden s, a a io dominance o males
in ela ion o emales was obse ed, along wi h he highe a io o Whi e pa icipan s in
ela ion o o he acial g oups. The a io o males o emales in e iewed was 60:40, while
he o e all a io o Whi e and non-Whi e (A ican, Indian, and Colou ed combined) was
50:50. The age o he leade s anged om ea ly o ies o la e i ies, wi h an a e age age o
app oxima ely 53.
4.2. Analyses o he Tex
The indings o each s ep, as ou lined below, demons a e how he codes we e a i ed
a , s a ing wi h codes de i ed om he open coding p ocess and how hese codes we e
consolida ed and subsequen ly aligned wi h he heo e ical p inciples.
4.2.1. Open Coding
In his sec ion, we epo on he codes ex ac ed om he da a in answe ing he
di e en esea ch ques ions. Table 2 e lec s he codes iden i ied in he eplies o he
ques ion “Wha makes an e ec i e leade ?” Typical esponses om which he codes we e
a i ed a a e included in he able. Fo his ques ion, a e consolida ing simila codes,
he e we e 24 inal open codes, as ou lined in Table 2.
Table 2. Open codes on he ques ion “Wha in you mind is a ypical e ec i e leade ?”.
Codes Typical Responses
G oup 1: Au hen ici y,
In eg i y,
T us wo hiness,
Hones y
“Someone who is au hen ic o hei leade ship b and” (Whi e emale)
“A leade who leads wi h hei au hen ic sel and no one who goes ou o hei way o be someone hey a e
no . You ha e o build us wi hin you eam ha you in en ions a e genuine” (A ican male)
“They should be e y much accoun able and should ha e in eg i y. In eg i y is an a ibu e ha is mos
app ecia ed by anybody ha wo ks o anybody.” (Whi e male)
“An e ec i e leade is a good communica o , leads wi h in eg i y and hones y’ (Whi e male).”
“A leade should be able o ge he buy-in and commi men o people. They should be us ed and
expe ienced as au hen ic.” (Indian emale)
“I hink ha us and delega ion is impo an ; i communica es o people ha ‘I us you’.” (Whi e male)
“T anspa ency builds ha us and wi h us you ge loyal y and you ge people wan ing o wo k o you.
You ha e o build us wi hin you eam ha you in en ions a e genuine.” (A ican male)
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 15 o 23
ques ions “Wha is a ypical e ec i e leade ?”; “How does cul u al backg ound impac
leade e ec i eness?”; and “In you expe ience, is he e a di e ence in e ec i eness be ween
A ican business leade s and Wes e n leade s.” Once he connec ions had been es ablished,
b oad ca ego ies o codes we e de eloped, and hese a e p esen ed in he nex sec ion.
Findings Pe aining o a “Typical E ec i e Leade ”
F om he ini ial 24 open codes o answe ing he ques ion o wha makes a ypical
e ec i e leade , 11 sub-codes we e deduced. These a e p esen ed in Table 7.
Table 7. Axial coding on he ypical e ec i e leade , impac o cul u e on leade e ec i eness, and
di e ences be ween A ican and Wes e n business leade ship.
Typical E ec i e Leade Quali ies Cul u al Backg ound and Impac on
Leade E ec i eness
Views on A ican Business Leade ship
(ABL) s. Wes e n Leade ship
Consul a i e Yes ABL ends o demons a e
Inclusi e No Humani y
Empowe ing No necessa ily Resilience
Pa icipa i e En ep eneu ship
Suppo i e
Adap i e Wes e n leade ship ends o be
Visiona y Ab asi e
Inspi a ional Clinical
Humane Non-emo i e
Se an hood T ansac ional
Decisi e
The analysis o he consolida ed codes indica es ha e ec i e leade ship is a ibu ed
o someone who i s he c i e ia desc ibed in he ans o ma ional cons uc o he FRLT
and one who demons a es he quali ies o Ubun u. A ans o ma ional leade is a pe -
son who s imula es and inspi es ollowe s o achie e ex ao dina y ou comes, using (a)
cha isma/idealised in luence, (b) inspi a ional mo i a ion, (c) in ellec ual s imula ion, and
(d) pe sonalised/indi idualised a en ion o ollowe s.
The able below e lec s he mapping o he 11 sub-codes agains he ou ca ego ies o
ans o ma ional leade ship o he FRLT. These a e p esen ed in Table 8.
Table 8. Mapping axial o codes agains FRLT in ela ion o wha makes a ypical e ec i e leade .
Cha isma/Idealised In luence Inspi a ional Mo i a ion In ellec ual S imula ion Pe sonal/Indi idual A en ion
Inclusi e Visiona y Empowe ing Adap i e
Pa icipa i e Inspi a ional Suppo i e
Consul a i e Humane
The second mapping e lec i e o Ubun u in ela ion o e ec i e leade ship was d awn
om wha Ubun u en ails. As a undamen al philosophy ha go e ns social ela ions in
sub-Saha an A ica, Ubun u is an exp ession associa ed wi h being human. I is popula ly
cap u ed in he A ican apho ism o mo ho-ke-mo ho-ka-ba ho (So ho dialec ) and mun u,
umun u ngaban u (Nguni dialec ), simply ansla ed as “I am because we a e” o “a pe son
becomes a pe son h ough o he pe sons.” While Ubun u has many beha iou al elemen s,
mos esea che s a e o he opinion ha Ubun u is p emised on espec o he digni y o
people, ecip oci y in social ela ions, communalism, inclusi i y, a sense o sha ed des iny
among people, ha mony, hospi ali y, desi e o ole ance, and o gi eness (Mangaliso,2001;
Mbigi,2000;Mulle e al.,2019;Wanasika e al.,2011).
F om Table 8, he quali ies mapped agains he Ubun u philosophy a e humane,
suppo i e ( espec o he digni y o people), inclusi e ( ecip oci y in social ela ions),
and consul a i e.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 16 o 23
Findings Pe aining o Cul u al Backg ound and Impac on Leade E ec i eness
The analysis highligh ed h ee ca ego ies as e lec ed in Table 7. While some pa ici-
pan s had a clea posi ion ha cul u al backg ound impac s leade e ec i eness, some held
a balanced iew. Those who held a balanced iew oiced he no ion ha he e a e o he
a ibu es beyond cul u e ha impac leade e ec i eness.
Findings Pe aining o Di e ences in Leade ship S yle and E ec i eness Be ween A ican
Business Leade ship and Wes e n Leade ship
Acco ding o he FRLT, leade s who a e non-emo i e and who a e mo e ocused on
ob aining esul s han on building ela ionships wi h ollowe s demons a e a ypical ans-
ac ional leade ship s yle. This is a s yle o leade ship ha is ocused on inpu , ou pu , and
ewa d o achie ing wha is expec ed o employees. Re lec ing on he da a, desc ip ions
such as “Eu opeans disconnec ”, ”ha dly any emo ional appeal”, and “I expec you o do i
and i you do i , I’ll ewa d you. I you don’ do i , I’ll c uci y you. Don’ open you mou h.
Don’ speak. Don’ challenge”, in o med a conclusion ha , acco ding o he pa icipan s,
Wes e n leade ship demons a es endencies o he ansac ional leade ship s yle. These
quali ies e lec aspec s ypical o he con ingen ewa d and managemen -by-excep ion
dimensions o he ansac ional leade ship s yle.
On he o he end o he scale, ans o ma ional leade ship demons a es quali ies such
as indi idualised conside a ion, empowe men , and espec o ollowe s. Re lec ing on
he indings, i was concluded, based on s a emen s such as “i ’s abou he ela ionship, he
engagemen and he suppo you gi e o ha pe son” and “we need o lead wi h empa hy”,
ha A ican business leade s a e deemed o be mo e ans o ma ional in hei leade ship
s yle. In addi ion, e ec i e leade ship is associa ed wi h ai s aligning wi h Ubun u, such
as being humane, emb acing se an hood, being collec i e, and being inclusi e. The e o e,
i was in e ed om he analysis ha , unlike Wes e n leade s, A ican business leade s a e
mo e ans o ma ional in hei app oach o leade ship.
4.2.3. Selec i e Coding
The inal s ep was o ans o m he da a in o main codes ha cap u e he essence o
he esea ch. The ou come o his s ep con i med ha a ypical e ec i e leade is one who
demons a es a ans o ma ional leade ship s yle o he FRLT and displays humani y in
hei app oach, in line wi h he Ubun u philosophy. Wi h ega d o he impac o cul u al
backg ound on leade e ec i eness, di e en opinions we e exp essed. While he e was
no con ic ion om he pa icipan s as o whe he A ican business leade ship is mo e
e ec i e han Wes e n leade ship, he analysis indica ed ha A ican business leade ship
is expe ienced as mo e ans o ma ional han Wes e n leade ship. An analysis o hese
indings is p esen ed in Table 9.
Table 9. Selec i e coding summa y.
Typical E ec i e
Leade Quali ies
Cul u al Backg ound and Impac
on Leade E ec i eness
Views on ABL s. Wes e n
Leade ship
On Whe he A ican
Leade ship Is Mo e E ec i e
han Wes e n Leade ship
T ans o ma ional and
Ubun u quali ies
Di e ences in opinion abou he
impac o cul u e on leade ship
e ec i eness
T ans o ma ional s. T ansac ional
(Humani y s. Clinical) No con ic ion on his ma e
5. Discussion
A ican business leade ship is deemed o be ans o ma ional, and i s uniqueness
lies in p ac icing Ubun u. The quali ies associa ed wi h his leade ship s yle, wi h some
aligned wi h he co e alues o Ubun u, as ou lined by Mbigi (2000), include humani y
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 17 o 23
(in e dependence/ he spi i o ha mony), se an hood (se ice o o he s), espec ulness
( espec o he digni y o o he s), esilience, and en ep eneu ship. I is om hese a ibu es
ha A ican leade ship enables uni y (collec i ism), an aspec associa ed wi h A ica. These
indings a e consis en wi h wo k p e iously published by au ho s such as Bolden and
Ki k (2009); Laloo (2022); Me z (2018); and Ndlo u (2016). Simila ly, hemes p e iously
iden i ied by he GLOBE (House e al.,2004) s udy as common in he sub-Saha an clus e
a e su acing. Those aligned wi h he GLOBE indings ( e lec ed in b acke s) we e human-
cen e edness, ca ing, empa hy (human-o ien ed), collabo a i e (pa icipa i e), inclusi e
( eam-o ien ed), adap i e, and suppo i e (in-g oup collec i ism).
The en ep eneu ial na u e o A ican business leade ship enables quicke decision-
making, and he implemen a ion o solu ions is based on wha is a hand. I is in e ed
om he da a ha he limi a ions in in as uc u e and esou ces compel A ican leade s o
be c ea i e, inno a i e, and esilien .
In compa ison, Wes e n leade ship is deemed in lexible, ule-bound, and highly egu-
la ed. The e o e, Wes e n leade s a e deemed o be mo e clinical and ‘non-emo i e’ in hei
leade ship s yle, leading o hei engagemen s wi h ollowe s being cold
and disconnec ed.
Wha is deemed o be leade ship e ec i eness?
The esul s o his s udy e ealed ha , ega dless o pa icipan s’ demog aphics, he e
was consis ency in wha was conside ed o be an e ec i e leade . The indings o his s udy
aligned wi h he p e ious empi ical indings ha indica ed ha leade s in he sub-Saha an
egion display simila leade ship a ibu es, i espec i e o cul u al backg ound (Ja idan
e al.,2020;Le u la & S eyn,2022). The a ibu es associa ed wi h e ec i e leade ship
include being isiona y, inspi a ional, empowe ing, suppo i e, inclusi e, and consul a i e.
These ai s align wi h he ans o ma ional leade ship s yle and con i m epo s om
p e ious s udies. Fo example, esea che s epo ed ha ans o ma ional leade s end o
p io i ise hei ela ionships wi h ollowe s (Ndlo u e al.,2018) and hey empowe o he s
o g ow h (Odume u & I eanyi,2013).
F om an A ican cul u e and A ocen ic leade ship ypology, being humane and
demons a ing se an hood a e ai s ypical o an A ocen ic leade ship s yle, which ha e
been epo ed o posi i ely impac leade ship e ec i eness (Mulle e al.,2019;Mbigi,2007).
P emised on i s abili y o gain commi men om o he s in d i ing change (Louw e al.,
2017), i is in e ed om he quali ies desc ibed abo e ha an e ec i e leade in he A ican
con ex is consul a i e, pa icipa i e, and inclusi e in hei app oach. This leade ship s yle
engende s commi men om o he s.
Al hough no consis en ly epo ed, conce ns we e aised abou issues o co up ion
and i s impac on us le els owa ds leade s and he e ec i eness o leade ship in A ica.
In e es ingly, his ai was e e enced as a b oade ai in A ica and no necessa ily in
ela ion o business leade ship. I was, howe e , no wi hin he scope o his esea ch o
in e oga e his subjec u he .
How do cul u e and ace impac leade ship s yle and e ec i eness?
The e we e di e en opinions among he pa icipan s on whe he cul u al backg ound
has an impac on leade ship s yle and leade ship e ec i eness. While some we e o he
opinion ha cul u e in luences leade ship s yle and he e ec i eness o a leade , o he s
held he iew ha cul u al backg ound has no impac on leade ship e ec i eness. This
di e ence in opinion echoes p e ious indings ha , due o con lic ing global cul u al alue
sys ems, he e a e di e en iews on he ole o cul u e in leade ship e ec i eness (Me z,
2018;Madanchian e al.,2017).
Those who made a connec ion be ween cul u al backg ound and leade e ec i eness
a ibu ed hei esponse o he ollowing:
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 18 o 23
•
Ubun u (humani y), whe e leade s engage wi h o he s wi h empa hy, a quali y al-
legedly no obse ed in Wes e n leade s. Wes e n leade s a e deemed o be ab asi e in
compa ison o A ican leade s, who a e gen le and espec ul owa ds o he s.
•
A icans a e conside ed o place ocus on winning as a collec i e, as opposed o
Wes e n leade s, who end o be mo e indi idually ocused.
An in e es ing and unexpec ed inding om his s udy was ha pa icipan s iewed
ace as ha ing no impac on leade ship s yle and leade ship e ec i eness. This inding
con adic s he GLOBE p ojec , which epo ed a co ela ion be ween leade ship beha iou
(s yle) and ace (House e al.,2014). I is concluded om his inding ha pe cep ions o
wha makes a leade e ec i e in he sub-Saha an egion ha e e ol ed and ha leade ship
e ec i eness anscends acial classi ica ion.
6. Limi a ions
This s udy acknowledges se e al limi a ions. Fi s , i s quali a i e app oach elied on
non-p obabili y, pu posi e sampling, which in oduces conce ns abou inhe en subjec i i y
and po en ial bias in pa icipan selec ion. While subjec i i y and bias canno be comple ely
uled ou , objec i i y in he sampling p ocess was main ained by engaging only wi h hose
who olun ee ed o pa icipa e in he s udy.
Al hough he me hods we e igo ously de ailed o allow sc u iny and eplica ion,
his s udy did no ollow up wi h non- esponden s, which could ha e enhanced he di-
e si y o pe spec i es. Fu he mo e, while he esea ch p o ided aluable insigh s in o
ans o ma ional and A o-cen ic (Ubun u) leade ship, i did no deeply explo e how
con ex ual challenges such as co up ion, esou ce cons ain s, and he po e y mindse
migh in luence leade ship e ec i eness.
This s udy o ms pa o a b oade esea ch p ojec aimed a concep ualising A ican
business leade ship and e ec i eness. As such, i would ha e been ideal o in e iew senio
leade s ou side Sou h A ica. Howe e , ano he s udy wi hin he p ojec ga he ed da a om
121 pa icipan s ac oss he sub-Saha an egion (see Le u la & S eyn,2021). Insigh s om
bo h s udies will be in eg a ed in o he de elopmen o an upcoming mul idimensional
amewo k o A ican business leade ship and i s e ec i eness.
7. Conclusions
This s udy highligh ed he dis inc na u e o A ican leade ship, especially in business,
e ealing ha i is ma ked by en ep eneu ial spi i , agili y, and commi men o Ubun u.
The impac o cul u e on leade ship e ec i eness was deba ed, highligh ing ha leade ship
e ec i eness is mul i- ace ed. Cul u al upb inging, acial backg ound, and pe sonali y
collec i ely con ibu e o leade ship e ec i eness. Al hough cul u e is no an exclusi e
indica o o leade ship e ec i eness, leade ship in A ica (sub-Saha an A ica) is seen
as ans o ma ional and deemed o be mo e e ec i e han Wes e n leade ship. This is
a ibu ed o he emphasis o sub-Saha an egion leade ship on se an hood, inclusi e-
ness, and ela ionship wi h ollowe s, which a e quali ies ha inspi e o he s and enable
collabo a ion owa ds a common goal.
On he o he hand, i was deduced om he esul s ha Wes e n leade s display
a mo e ansac ional leade ship s yle. Thei ocus is on ou pu s and ules, wi h a ‘non-
emo i e’ app oach o hei ela ionship wi h ollowe s. This leade ship s yle, as e lec ed
in he p eceding sec ions, has he po en ial o a ec ollowe s’ le el o commi men o
o ganisa ions, bu i emains a leade ship s yle ha can ‘ge he wo k done’ while ewa ding
indi iduals o hei con ibu ions.
As wi h he GLOBE indings, a di e en ia ing a ibu e be ween he sub-Saha an
egion and o he s ( o example, F ance, Ge many, and Singapo e) was he high sco e
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 19 o 23
achie ed by he o me on human-o ien ed leade ship. These indings u he emphasised
he impo ance o acknowledging cul u al in luences on leade ship. To ha end, i is c i ical
ha Ubun u, as a key di e en ia o in he sub-Saha an egion, be emb aced when de ining
and measu ing leade ship in A ica.
Despi e he o e all posi i e indings a ound A ican leade ship and he applica ion
he eo o business, he issues aised a ound co up ion we e conce ning. Ques ions
ha emained unanswe ed we e he ex en o which he (a) en ep eneu ial na u e o
A ican leade ship and (b) he po e y mindse in luence o en ice co up leade ship
beha iou . The e o e, beyond he cul u al aspec s o leade ship, o ganisa ions, academics,
and leade ship expe s should conside add essing issues such as co up ion and e hics in
leade ship de elopmen endea ou s wi hin he egion.
The indings o his s udy en ich he scien i ic li e a u e and expand he na a i e
on leade ship in he global con ex by highligh ing wha e ec i e leade ship p ac ices
en ail in he sub-Saha an egion o A ica. The indings unde sco e he signi icance o
inco po a ing cul u al alues, no ably Ubun u, in o discussions on leade ship e ec i eness.
These indings no only p o ide a amewo k o a mul i-dimensional pe spec i e on
leade ship bu will also con ibu e owa ds heo y de elopmen on he concep o A ican
leade ship as a scien i ic cons uc . While p e ious schola s ha e hin ed a elemen s
c ucial o de ining A ican leade ship, such as Ubun u and A ocen ici y, a de ini i e
concep ualisa ion o ABL has been lacking. This emphasis on he in eg a ion o A ican
iews in o he global a ena is use ul o leade s ope a ing in A ica o hose in ending o
expand in o sub-Saha an egion.
Fu u e esea ch could expand he scope o in e iews o include senio leade s om
o he sub-Saha an coun ies. This b oade empi ical wo k could p o ide a mo e comp e-
hensi e unde s anding o A ican business leade ship ac oss a ious con ex s. Expanding
he body o knowledge wi h a mo e A ocen ic iew o leade ship is c ucial o aligning
leade ship p ac ices wi h A ica’s cul u al dep h and alues. Inc eased empi ical esea ch
on leade ship discou se wi hin he A ican con inen will en ich he li e a u e and add ess
he cu en lack o s udies on he opic. The mo e empi ical da a ga he ed, he g ea e
he po en ial o de eloping a leade ship heo y ha is inclusi e o A ican dynamics.
Fu he mo e, he e is a need o in es iga e he impac o co up ion and e hical challenges
on leade ship p ac ices. These indings should be in eg a ed in o a mo e mul idimensional
concep ual amewo k o A ican leade ship ha ully e lec s he egion’s unique cul u al
and socio-economic dynamics.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.L. and R.S.; me hodology, M.L. and R.S.; alida ion,
M.L. and R.S.; o mal analysis, M.L.; in es iga ion, M.L.; da a cu a ion, M.L.; w i ing—o iginal d a
p epa a ion, M.L.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, R.S.; isualiza ion, M.L.; supe ision, R.S. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : Pe mission o conduc he esea ch was g an ed by he
Resea ch E hics Re iew Commi ee o he G adua e School o Business Leade ship unde app o al
numbe 2023_SBL_DBL_029_FA_0677. E hical conside a ions we e adhe ed o by ensu ing ha all
po en ial pa icipan s ga e olun a y consen o be pa o he s udy. Each pa icipan ecei ed a
comp ehensi e email de ailing he pu pose o his s udy and emphasising how con iden iali y and
anonymi y would be handled; he pa icipan wi hd awal p ocess, i hey op ed no o con inue
wi h he esea ch in e iews; how he da a would be s o ed; who would be in ol ed in he analysis
p ocess; and how in o ma ion would be epo ed. Adhe ence o hese e hical ma e s buil us wi h
pa icipan s, allowing hem o be com o able sha ing hei iews on he opic unde in es iga ion
openly and objec i ely.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 20 o 23
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all pa icipan s in ol ed in he
s udy as ou lined in he p eceding pa ag aph.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The o iginal con ibu ions, whe e applicable a e included in he a icle.
Fu he inqui ies can be di ec ed o he co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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