African business leadership and effectiveness: Perspectives from South African leaders

Lerutla, Matete; Steyn, Renier Article African business leadership and effectiveness: Perspectives from South African leaders Administrative Sciences Provided in Cooperation with: MDPI – Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Basel Suggested Citation: Lerutla, Matete; Steyn, Renier (2025) : African business leadership and effectiveness: Perspectives from South African leaders, Administrative Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 3, pp. 1-23, https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15030083 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/321227 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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African Business Leadership and Effectiveness: Perspectives from South African Leaders. Administrative Sciences,15(3), 83. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/admsci15030083 Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/). Article African Business Leadership and Effectiveness: Perspectives from South African Leaders Matete Lerutla * and Renier Steyn School of Business Leadership, University of South Africa, Midrand 1686, South Africa; [email protected] *Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Leadership is often framed within Western paradigms, with limited focus on African business leadership. This study, part of a broader research project, aims to conceptualise African business leadership and its effectiveness, providing an integrated understanding from various perspectives. This article examines South African leaders’ views on African business leadership and its impact. Using an interpretivist approach, semistructured interviews were conducted with senior leaders from different racial groups in South Africa. The data were analysed through grounded theory, with a three-step coding process to identify themes relevant to African business leadership, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. This study found that African leadership is characterised by entrepreneurial spirit, agility, and the value of ‘Ubuntu’, in contrast to the structured and regulated nature of Western leadership. Culture’s role in leadership effectiveness was debated, with some attributing success to personal traits. Corruption and poverty were identified as significant barriers. The research underscores the influence of culture on leadership styles, revealing diverse opinions on the effectiveness of African leadership in business. These findings highlight the importance of considering cultural factors, corruption, and poverty when evaluating leadership effectiveness in African contexts. Keywords: leadership styles; effectiveness; culture; Ubuntu; Afrocentricity; FRLT 1. Introduction This study is a key component of an extensive research project aimed at developing a multi-dimensional conceptual framework for African business leadership and its effectiveness. The research is driven by several key factors: • The evolution of leadership typologies has heightened interest in how cultural differences affect leadership styles and their effectiveness. Extensive studies under the Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) project in various countries (House et al.,2004,2014) have underscored the significant impact of cultural distinctions on leadership. • Leadership is a complex construct best understood in its specific operational context (Robert & Vandenberghe,2020;Walumbwa et al.,2011). Therefore, the emphasis on cultural sensitivity for leadership approaches is critical. • Western paradigms, which have largely shaped global leadership discourse, often overlook aspects unique to Africa (Bolden & Kirk,2009;Lerutla & Steyn,2017). These paradigms fail to capture the indigenous and cultural nuances in leadership and its effectiveness (Booysen,2001;Eyong,2017;Lerutla & Steyn,2017). Recent leadership research trends continue to be dominated by perspectives from the global north Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci15030083 Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 2 of 23 (Fischer & Sitkin,2023). This could be an outcome of the paucity of empirical literature on African leadership. These observations raise critical questions about the inclusivity of the traditional leadership construct, predominantly informed by Western paradigms. This has spurred significant interest in understanding leadership in its practised context, recognising the role of cultural differences in shaping leadership effectiveness (Avolio et al.,2009;House et al.,2004;Humphreys et al.,2010;Jones et al.,2012;Lee,2011;Posner,2012;Walumbwa et al.,2011). Africa, with its uniqueness, has attracted attention in this regard (Adewale, 2020;Grobler & Singh,2018;Littrell & Nkomo,2005;Mbigi,2007;Mboup,2008;Muchiri, 2011;Van der Colff,2003). Moreover, the industrial context and globalisation have birthed opportunities for multinational organisations’ expansion into diverse markets, resulting in a surge of expatriates in leadership roles in Africa (Naude & Vogel,2018). This growth in the globalisation of industrial organisations calls for a better understanding of cultural differences in leadership and organisational practices (Ly,2020), thus underscoring the importance of leaders being cognisant of different cultural expectations of leadership effectiveness. The GLOBE project has highlighted the significant role of cross-cultural differences in leadership and effectiveness and has reinforced the view of Africa as a dynamic region with indigenous dimensions and practices that should be incorporated into the leadership construct (Adewale,2020;Bolden & Kirk,2005;Booysen,2001;Eyong,2017;Grobler & Singh,2018). Some researchers have noted that Afro-centric aspects that could enhance leadership effectiveness across cultures have been largely overlooked (Van Knippenberg et al.,2013). For example, researchers have argued that, in the sub-Saharan region, key aspects such as humanity, inclusivity, a commitment to serving others, and the philosophy of Ubuntu are crucial elements for the leadership narrative (Bolden & Kirk,2009;Laloo, 2022;Mangaliso,2001;Mbigi,2000;Ndlovu,2016). These values are particularly significant given that leaders often internalise cultural values and practices over time, highlighting the mutual influence of culture and leadership (Tkeshelashvili,2009). Consequently, any study of leadership that fails to consider its cultural context is incomplete (Ly,2020). As Jackson (2004) emphasises, Africa is a unique, complex, and socio-culturally diverse continent. Understanding cultural backgrounds and their impact on behaviour is crucial for enhancing leadership effectiveness, particularly when managing across cultures (Van Knippenberg et al.,2013), especially within Africa. Therefore, understanding the dynamics within Africa is paramount when addressing leadership issues. Despite the call by scholars to incorporate indigenous philosophies into leadership practice, this limitation remains prevalent. Not only is there a scarcity of empirical research on African leadership conducted by Africans, but there is also no integrated definition or conceptualisation of African business leadership (Bolden & Kirk,2009;Lerutla & Steyn, 2017). Further, previous research has demonstrated that the body of knowledge on leadership in Africa is underdeveloped (Lerutla & Steyn,2017). Given the paucity of empirical data on African leadership, the researcher concludes that the probability of many leaders and organisations basing their leadership perspectives on Western paradigms is high. In line with this observation, a shift towards a more Afro-centric view of leadership is needed, one that will align Africa’s cultural depth and values with a global context. This study aims to contribute to the leadership body of knowledge, focusing on the sub-Saharan region. Further, as part of its endeavour to contribute to developing and defining African leadership theories, it seeks to enhance the understanding of leadership in this region. This is achieved by highlighting critical factors that are deemed necessary to advance effective leadership practices for those leading in the sub-Saharan region. The empirical insights from this study will advance leadership development, offering insights Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 3 of 23 relevant in both the African context and globally. The current study builds upon prior research, including into defining leadership in Africa (Lerutla & Steyn,2017), exploring African business leadership and perspectives from young aspiring leaders (Lerutla & Steyn, 2021), and investigating leadership styles and their effectiveness across cultures (Lerutla & Steyn,2022). The theoretical foundation of this study is the full-range leadership theory (FRLT), a classical theory originating from the United States. The research adopts an interpretivist paradigm and employs a qualitative methodology for data collection. Data interpretation follows a grounded analytical approach, involving a three-step coding process. 2. Theoretical Framework The framework applied for this study is the Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), a theory that emerged from James Burns’ work in 1978. The FRLT continues to dominate the narrative in empirical studies on what constitutes effective leadership. A systemic literature review conducted revealed that the majority of the research on understanding leadership effectiveness has applied this framework. This theory posits that leaders fall into either the transformational or the transactional category, thus placing these two styles on opposite ends of a spectrum (Burns,1978). Subsequent research by Bass (1990) expanded on this work, suggesting that the most effective leaders exhibit qualities of both transformational and transactional leadership, thus emphasising the continuum of leadership. Further research by Avolio and Bass (2005) led to the inclusion of a third element in the FRLT, that of the laissez-faire style. The three elements are thus the transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire styles (Avolio et al.,2009;Bass et al.,2003). 2.1. Transactional Leadership Transactional leadership revolves around leader–follower relationships based on transactions between leaders and subordinates (Bass & Stogdill,1990). This style of leadership focuses on managerial and supervisory roles in relation to input, output, and reward for achieving what is expected of employees (Avolio & Bass,2005;Burns,1978;Khan et al., 2016). The three components associated with transactional leadership are contingent reward, management by exception (active), and management by exception (passive) (Lerutla & Steyn,2022). This is a style of leadership that tends to focus on the differences between the leader and the followers and that places emphasis on getting specific tasks completed (Bass,1990;Odumeru & Ifeanyi,2013). With a transactional leadership style, employees are rewarded for meeting predefined standards, while deviations from these norms are addressed proactively or passively, depending on the situation (Avolio & Bass,2005;Bass & Avolio,1994;Rowald & Schlotz, 2009). According to Avolio and Bass (2005), this leadership style primarily applies to managerial and supervisory roles, employing rewards and recognition to foster compliance among followers (Avolio & Bass,2005;Khan et al.,2020). Additionally, attributes associated with this style include emphasising differences between leaders and followers, preserving the status quo, and prioritising task completion (Bass,1990;Odumeru & Ifeanyi,2013). These attributes have been shown to have a positive impact on employee performance (Gemeda & Lee,2020;Sundi,2013;MacKenzie et al.,2001;Parry & Proctor-Thomson,2002), employee motivation (Chaudhry & Javed,2012), and rewards (Xenikou,2017). However, some report that this style has an insignificant effect on employee performance (Baig et al.,2021) and a non-positive correlation with organisational commitment, where the relationship with the organisation is more transactional and less committed (Lee,2005). Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 4 of 23 2.2. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership is built on the premise that a leader’s ability to inspire and motivate others leads to extraordinary achievements (Avolio & Bass,2005;Bass,1990;Bass et al.,2003;Odumeru & Ifeanyi,2013). This style emphasises working for the greater good, significantly boosting both followers’ motivation and their moral commitment to the organisation, and yielding superior social dividends (Khan et al.,2020). There are four components associated with this leadership style, namely idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration (Lerutla & Steyn,2022). Building relationships with followers, providing individualised consideration, empowering others, enhancing their self-efficacy, and supporting their personal growth are priorities for transformational leaders (Breevaart & Zacher,2019;Ndlovu et al.,2018; Odumeru & Ifeanyi,2013). Personal attributes of transformational leaders include being charismatic, inspirational, visionary, and intellectually stimulating. Other researchers have reported that, given their consideration for individual needs, demonstration of respect towards followers, and encouragement of followers to think creatively, transformational leaders have been able to build trust between themselves and others (Ndlovu et al.,2018; Khan et al.,2020). These leaders serve as role models, providing mentorship and coaching to help followers achieve their personal career goals (Abasilim,2013;Bass & Avolio, 1994;Avolio & Bass,2005). Transformational leadership is also associated with upholding moral and ethical standards, congruent behaviour, and empathy (Odumeru & Ifeanyi,2013; Xenikou,2017). Research indicates that transformational leadership enhances employee satisfaction, job performance (Baig et al.,2021;Bakker et al.,2023;Gemeda & Lee,2020;Judge & Piccolo,2004;Wang et al.,2011), employee commitment to the organisation (Block,2003; Eliyana & Muzakki,2019;Haque & Aston,2016;Ledimo,2014), and employee trust in organisational change, compared to other leadership styles (Yasir et al.,2016). Additionally, transformational leadership is associated with creating a work climate where subordinates are enthusiastic about their work, leading to improved results, both for the organisation and individual employees (Haque & Aston,2016). Transformational leadership has become the most researched leadership theory in the last two decades, serving as a cornerstone of modern leadership research. More than 30% of empirical articles published cite this leadership style as the most suitable for contemporary organisations (Abasilim,2013;Northouse,2016). It is found to be more effective than other leadership styles (Khumalo,2019) and is considered the most ideal form of organisational leadership (Judge & Piccolo,2004;Robbins & Judge,2017;Wang et al.,2011). 2.3. Laissez-Faire Leadership Laissez-faire leadership is regarded as the most passive and ineffective form of leadership (Tosunoglu & Ekmekci,2016). It is characterised by avoiding and abdicating responsibilities and is considered the least effective leadership style (Bass & Bass,2008). Laissez-faire leadership is often seen as a non-leadership, unidimensional construct and is deemed a destructive leadership approach when compared to more active forms of transformational and transactional leadership (Greiman,2009;Robert & Vandenberghe, 2020;Skogstad et al.,2014;Tosunoglu & Ekmekci,2016). Behaviours associated with this leadership style include avoiding decision-making and refraining from using authority (Avolio & Bass,2005;Northouse,2016). Overall, it is linked to negative leadership (Skogstad et al.,2014), diminishing trust in the organisation (Breevaart & Zacher,2019), negatively impact employee performance (Baig et al.,2021; Gemeda & Lee,2020), and discouraging employee commitment to mutual organisational goals (Xu et al.,2012). Due to the numerous negative consequences associated with this Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 5 of 23 leadership style, it remains an understudied area of leadership (Robert & Vandenberghe, 2020;Tosunoglu & Ekmekci,2016). 3. Research Methods 3.1. Research Approach Based on the interpretivist paradigm, the research holds an ontological perspective that reality is relative (Myers,2009). In line with the research paradigm, a qualitative research method was selected as the most relevant for this study, as this method would enable a deeper understanding of the phenomenon in question to determine if the experiences contribute to the conceptual understanding of the construct (Miles et al.,2020). The insights gained from the participants’ lived experiences (Babbie,2010;Burns & Grove, 2003) contributed towards developing a framework on African leadership, how it could be applied in business, and its effectiveness. 3.2. Sampling This study explores the perceptions of senior leaders based on their lived experiences in leadership roles within the African context. Therefore, non-probability, purposeful sampling was adopted as the appropriate sampling method. This sampling approach allowed the researcher to identify potential participants before the study commenced (Johnson et al., 2020), based on the intent of the study (Maestripieri et al.,2019), and salient characteristics necessary to enhance the sampling quality (Rossman & Rallis,2016). To that end, the ideal population was deliberately chosen to ensure the quality, credibility, and reliability of the data (Gentles et al.,2016;Maestripieri et al.,2019;Oppong,2013). Participation eligibility was based on the desired outcomes and the key characteristics necessary to deeply engage with the researcher on the construct. Consequently, only leaders in senior and top management positions within South African (a country within sub-Saharan Africa) organisations were included. These leaders comprised Chief executive officers (CEOs), managing executives, and functional leaders. To ensure equitable representation, leaders from various racial and gender groups were selected. Participation was voluntary, with acceptance based on an email detailing the purpose of the study and ethical considerations. Interviews were conducted virtually, with individual participants. The duration of the interviews ranged between 50 and 80 min, and the interviews were transcribed using the MS Teams meeting feature. A total of eleven interviews were held with volunteer participants, although the final data used were from ten participants, with this reduction being due to a failed recording. The final sample size was concluded at a point of data saturation (Flick,2018;Omona,2013), when no new information was seen to be emerging. Once this was confirmed, no further interviews were pursued. 3.3. Data Collection Data were collected using semi-structured interviews. All interviews were conducted and recorded via Microsoft Teams, allowing for digital transcription. The interview guide and questions were based on insights drawn from the theoretical principles of the FRLT as well as findings from previous studies, which formed part of the broader research project. The former studies are published and accessible in Lerutla and Steyn (2017), Lerutla and Steyn (2021), and Lerutla and Steyn (2022). Conforming to best practices (Mikuska,2017), the research questions were tested with peers and the research supervisor to ensure that the questions were not ambiguous. The theoretical underpinning, use of previously analysed data, and testing of the questions increased confidence that the topic would be addressed objectively and in sufficient detail (Majid et al.,2017;Mikuska,2017). While five questions Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 6 of 23 were predetermined, the conversational nature of the interview allowed for follow-up questions and probing, as the researcher engaged more deeply with each participant. The five predetermined questions are listed below, followed by anticipated follow-up questions: 1. How would you describe your own leadership style, and why would you deem your leadership style effective? 2. What, in your mind and experience, is typical of an effective leader? (What behaviours are typical of an effective leader and why?) 3. Based on your experience, does the cultural background of leaders (Black or White) influence leadership style and effectiveness, and if so, what are those differences? (In your experience, do you find African leaders to be less effective or more effective than Western leaders? How do African leaders behave differently from Western leaders?) 4. What, in your view, is African business leadership? (How would you define African business leadership?) (What would you consider to be differentiating factors between African leadership and Western leadership?) 5. Would you consider African leadership more effective than Western leadership, and if so, why? These questions were posed to all the interviewees. Depending on the flow of the conversation for each participant, the questions were not necessarily presented in sequential order. 3.4. Data Analysis The data were analysed through a three-step coding process, according to the grounded analytical approach. The data analysis method applied was adopted from Delve and Limpaecher (2022) and Chametzky (2016). • Step 1, open coding, focused on identifying the main concerns from the data. During the interviews, participant’s responses were captured on a spreadsheet and codes were identified for each response. This process allowed for ease of comparison as the coding process progressed. Repetitive codes from the responses to each question were consolidated. The outline and report of the codes extrapolated from the different research questions are outlined in the Findings section. • Step 2, axial coding, focused on finding connections between the codes formulated in step 1. During this step, the codes from the previous process were compared with each other to find relationships or connections and were then condensed into broad categories. • Step 3, selective coding, focused on bringing all the information together to capture the essence of the research. During this step, overarching themes that recurred throughout the data analysis process were captured. These overarching themes were used to inform the final narrative in answering the research question. 3.5. Scientific Rigour Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research is considered to be inherently subjective and sensitive to the biases of both researchers and participants (Connelly,2016; Denzin & Lincoln,2011). Researchers have, therefore, argued for a necessity to establish the trustworthiness or quality of the data reported from qualitative investigations (Daniel, 2019;Denzin & Lincoln,2011;Flick,2018;Gentles et al.,2016). In order to address the matter of scientific rigour, this research adhered to the principles of credibility (validity), dependability (reliability), transferability (external validity), and confirmability (objectivity) in qualitative research. Details of how each component of qualitative rigour was adhered to are outlined below: Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 7 of 23 Credibility—The credibility of this study was addressed through triangulation, where the coding data and spreadsheet were shared with the supervisor to ensure that there was no researcher bias in the codes. The supervisor reviewed the codes to ensure that any possible blind spots were identified, posing clarity questions that resulted in refining the codes. Dependability—The dependability of this study was addressed by providing clear descriptions of the study methods and reflecting, in detail, the research steps that were followed. In addition, rich and direct text citations from the data were shared to illustrate how the various codes were arrived at. Transferability—The transferability of this study was addressed through a detailed description of the context in which the research was performed—the research process, the sampling method followed, how the data were analysed, and how the findings were shaped. In this way, future researchers can determine if the findings of this study can be applied or transferred to other contexts or populations. Conformability—The conformability of this study was catered to through the triangulation process, as described in the credibility section above. Furthermore, documentation of all research activities would be stored safely and shared when required, without compromising the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants. 3.6. Ethical Consideration Permission to conduct the research was granted by the Research Ethics Review Committee of the Graduate School of Business Leadership under approval number 2023_SBL_DBL_029_FA_0677. Ethical considerations were adhered to by ensuring that all potential participants gave voluntary consent to be part of the study. Each participant received a comprehensive email detailing the purpose of this study and emphasising how confidentiality and anonymity would be handled; the participant withdrawal process, if they opted not to continue with the research interviews; how the data would be stored; who would be involved in the analysis process; and how information would be reported. Adherence to these ethical matters built trust with participants, allowing them to be comfortable sharing their views on the topic under investigation openly and objectively. 4. Findings The findings reported were based on the outcome of the ten successfully conducted interviews. The outline of the findings is structured in line with the analysis steps followed. Firstly, the findings pertaining to the open codes (step 1) for each question are shared, followed by the findings pertaining to axial codes (step 2), which report on the connections between the codes formulated in step 1. Lastly, the findings pertaining to selective coding (step 3) are given, where all the information is tied together to answer the research question. Prior to detailing the findings, the next section shares information about the participants and the sample size. 4.1. Participants As highlighted in the Sampling section, there were 10 final participants. In total, 13 leaders were approached, 11 of whom responded positively. While all eleven were interviewed, one interview (White male) was spoilt due to a failed recording and the interview could not be transcribed. The data used were thus based on the 10 successful interviews. Interviews were terminated after reaching a point of saturation. The details of the participants are presented in Table 1, with participant identity protected through the use of pseudonyms. Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 8 of 23 Table 1. List of participants by gender, race, management level, and staff size. Pseudonym Gender Race Age Management Level Staff Size MT Female Indian 40 Senior Management 25 EK Female White 46 Senior Management 10 MD Male White 58 Top Management 650 RM Female Coloured 55 Senior Management 15 DC Male Indian 56 Top Management 120 HM Male White 65 Top Management 3500 PT Male African 58 Top Management 5500 DM Male White 56 Top Management 65 NS Male African 43 Top Management 250 MP Male White 52 Senior Management 230 The demographic management classification applied above is broadly in line with the South African occupational levels and designated groups as determined by the Department of Employment and Labour (2014,https://www.labour.gov.za/DocumentCenter/Forms/ Employment%20Equity/EEA9%20Forms.pdf, accessed on 30 June 2024). When considering the characteristics of the respondents, a ratio dominance of males in relation to females was observed, along with the higher ratio of White participants in relation to other racial groups. The ratio of males to females interviewed was 60:40, while the overall ratio of White and non-White (African, Indian, and Coloured combined) was 50:50. The age of the leaders ranged from early forties to late fifties, with an average age of approximately 53. 4.2. Analyses of the Text The findings for each step, as outlined below, demonstrate how the codes were arrived at, starting with codes derived from the open coding process and how these codes were consolidated and subsequently aligned with the theoretical principles. 4.2.1. Open Coding In this section, we report on the codes extracted from the data in answering the different research questions. Table 2reflects the codes identified in the replies to the question “What makes an effective leader?” Typical responses from which the codes were arrived at are included in the table. For this question, after consolidating similar codes, there were 24 final open codes, as outlined in Table 2. Table 2. Open codes on the question “What in your mind is a typical effective leader?”. Codes Typical Responses Group 1: Authenticity, Integrity, Trustworthiness, Honesty “Someone who is authentic to their leadership brand” (White female) “A leader who leads with their authentic self and not one who goes out of their way to be someone they are not. You have to build trust within your team that your intentions are genuine” (African male) “They should be very much accountable and should have integrity. Integrity is an attribute that is most appreciated by anybody that works for anybody.” (White male) “An effective leader is a good communicator, leads with integrity and honesty’ (White male).” “A leader should be able to get the buy-in and commitment of people. They should be trusted and experienced as authentic.” (Indian female) “I think that trust and delegation is important; it communicates to people that ‘I trust you’.” (White male) “Transparency builds that trust and with trust you get loyalty and you get people wanting to work for you. You have to build trust within your team that your intentions are genuine.” (African male) Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 15 of 23 questions “What is a typical effective leader?”; “How does cultural background impact leader effectiveness?”; and “In your experience, is there a difference in effectiveness between African business leaders and Western leaders.” Once the connections had been established, broad categories or codes were developed, and these are presented in the next section. Findings Pertaining to a “Typical Effective Leader” From the initial 24 open codes for answering the question of what makes a typical effective leader, 11 sub-codes were deduced. These are presented in Table 7. Table 7. Axial coding on the typical effective leader, impact of culture on leader effectiveness, and differences between African and Western business leadership. Typical Effective Leader Qualities Cultural Background and Impact on Leader Effectiveness Views on African Business Leadership (ABL) vs. Western Leadership Consultative Yes ABL tends to demonstrate Inclusive No Humanity Empowering Not necessarily Resilience Participative Entrepreneurship Supportive Adaptive Western leadership tends to be Visionary Abrasive Inspirational Clinical Humane Non-emotive Servanthood Transactional Decisive The analysis of the consolidated codes indicates that effective leadership is attributed to someone who fits the criteria described in the transformational construct of the FRLT and one who demonstrates the qualities of Ubuntu. A transformational leader is a person who stimulates and inspires followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes, using (a) charisma/idealised influence, (b) inspirational motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (d) personalised/individualised attention to followers. The table below reflects the mapping of the 11 sub-codes against the four categories of transformational leadership of the FRLT. These are presented in Table 8. Table 8. Mapping axial of codes against FRLT in relation to what makes a typical effective leader. Charisma/Idealised Influence Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Personal/Individual Attention Inclusive Visionary Empowering Adaptive Participative Inspirational Supportive Consultative Humane The second mapping reflective of Ubuntu in relation to effective leadership was drawn from what Ubuntu entails. As a fundamental philosophy that governs social relations in sub-Saharan Africa, Ubuntu is an expression associated with being human. It is popularly captured in the African aphorism of motho-ke-motho-ka-batho (Sotho dialect) and muntu, umuntu ngabantu (Nguni dialect), simply translated as “I am because we are” or “a person becomes a person through other persons.” While Ubuntu has many behavioural elements, most researchers are of the opinion that Ubuntu is premised on respect for the dignity of people, reciprocity in social relations, communalism, inclusivity, a sense of shared destiny among people, harmony, hospitality, desire for tolerance, and forgiveness (Mangaliso,2001; Mbigi,2000;Muller et al.,2019;Wanasika et al.,2011). From Table 8, the qualities mapped against the Ubuntu philosophy are humane, supportive (respect for the dignity of people), inclusive (reciprocity in social relations), and consultative. Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 16 of 23 Findings Pertaining to Cultural Background and Impact on Leader Effectiveness The analysis highlighted three categories as reflected in Table 7. While some participants had a clear position that cultural background impacts leader effectiveness, some held a balanced view. Those who held a balanced view voiced the notion that there are other attributes beyond culture that impact leader effectiveness. Findings Pertaining to Differences in Leadership Style and Effectiveness Between African Business Leadership and Western Leadership According to the FRLT, leaders who are non-emotive and who are more focused on obtaining results than on building relationships with followers demonstrate a typical transactional leadership style. This is a style of leadership that is focused on input, output, and reward for achieving what is expected of employees. Reflecting on the data, descriptions such as “Europeans disconnect”, ”hardly any emotional appeal”, and “I expect you to do it and if you do it, I’ll reward you. If you don’t do it, I’ll crucify you. Don’t open your mouth. Don’t speak. Don’t challenge”, informed a conclusion that, according to the participants, Western leadership demonstrates tendencies of the transactional leadership style. These qualities reflect aspects typical of the contingent reward and management-by-exception dimensions of the transactional leadership style. On the other end of the scale, transformational leadership demonstrates qualities such as individualised consideration, empowerment, and respect for followers. Reflecting on the findings, it was concluded, based on statements such as “it’s about the relationship, the engagement and the support you give to that person” and “we need to lead with empathy”, that African business leaders are deemed to be more transformational in their leadership style. In addition, effective leadership is associated with traits aligning with Ubuntu, such as being humane, embracing servanthood, being collective, and being inclusive. Therefore, it was inferred from the analysis that, unlike Western leaders, African business leaders are more transformational in their approach to leadership. 4.2.3. Selective Coding The final step was to transform the data into main codes that capture the essence of the research. The outcome of this step confirmed that a typical effective leader is one who demonstrates a transformational leadership style of the FRLT and displays humanity in their approach, in line with the Ubuntu philosophy. With regard to the impact of cultural background on leader effectiveness, different opinions were expressed. While there was no conviction from the participants as to whether African business leadership is more effective than Western leadership, the analysis indicated that African business leadership is experienced as more transformational than Western leadership. An analysis of these findings is presented in Table 9. Table 9. Selective coding summary. Typical Effective Leader Qualities Cultural Background and Impact on Leader Effectiveness Views on ABL vs. Western Leadership On Whether African Leadership Is More Effective than Western Leadership Transformational and Ubuntu qualities Differences in opinion about the impact of culture on leadership effectiveness Transformational vs. Transactional (Humanity vs. Clinical) No conviction on this matter 5. Discussion African business leadership is deemed to be transformational, and its uniqueness lies in practicing Ubuntu. The qualities associated with this leadership style, with some aligned with the core values of Ubuntu, as outlined by Mbigi (2000), include humanity Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 17 of 23 (interdependence/the spirit of harmony), servanthood (service to others), respectfulness (respect for the dignity of others), resilience, and entrepreneurship. It is from these attributes that African leadership enables unity (collectivism), an aspect associated with Africa. These findings are consistent with work previously published by authors such as Bolden and Kirk (2009); Laloo (2022); Metz (2018); and Ndlovu (2016). Similarly, themes previously identified by the GLOBE (House et al.,2004) study as common in the sub-Saharan cluster are surfacing. Those aligned with the GLOBE findings (reflected in brackets) were humancenteredness, caring, empathy (human-oriented), collaborative (participative), inclusive (team-oriented), adaptive, and supportive (in-group collectivism). The entrepreneurial nature of African business leadership enables quicker decisionmaking, and the implementation of solutions is based on what is at hand. It is inferred from the data that the limitations in infrastructure and resources compel African leaders to be creative, innovative, and resilient. In comparison, Western leadership is deemed inflexible, rule-bound, and highly regulated. Therefore, Western leaders are deemed to be more clinical and ‘non-emotive’ in their leadership style, leading to their engagements with followers being cold and disconnected. What is deemed to be leadership effectiveness? The results of this study revealed that, regardless of participants’ demographics, there was consistency in what was considered to be an effective leader. The findings of this study aligned with the previous empirical findings that indicated that leaders in the sub-Saharan region display similar leadership attributes, irrespective of cultural background (Javidan et al.,2020;Lerutla & Steyn,2022). The attributes associated with effective leadership include being visionary, inspirational, empowering, supportive, inclusive, and consultative. These traits align with the transformational leadership style and confirm reports from previous studies. For example, researchers reported that transformational leaders tend to prioritise their relationships with followers (Ndlovu et al.,2018) and they empower others to growth (Odumeru & Ifeanyi,2013). From an African culture and Afrocentric leadership typology, being humane and demonstrating servanthood are traits typical of an Afrocentric leadership style, which have been reported to positively impact leadership effectiveness (Muller et al.,2019;Mbigi,2007). Premised on its ability to gain commitment from others in driving change (Louw et al., 2017), it is inferred from the qualities described above that an effective leader in the African context is consultative, participative, and inclusive in their approach. This leadership style engenders commitment from others. Although not consistently reported, concerns were raised about issues of corruption and its impact on trust levels towards leaders and the effectiveness of leadership in Africa. Interestingly, this trait was referenced as a broader trait in Africa and not necessarily in relation to business leadership. It was, however, not within the scope of this research to interrogate this subject further. How do culture and race impact leadership style and effectiveness? There were different opinions among the participants on whether cultural background has an impact on leadership style and leadership effectiveness. While some were of the opinion that culture influences leadership style and the effectiveness of a leader, others held the view that cultural background has no impact on leadership effectiveness. This difference in opinion echoes previous findings that, due to conflicting global cultural value systems, there are different views on the role of culture in leadership effectiveness (Metz, 2018;Madanchian et al.,2017). Those who made a connection between cultural background and leader effectiveness attributed their response to the following: Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 18 of 23 • Ubuntu (humanity), where leaders engage with others with empathy, a quality allegedly not observed in Western leaders. Western leaders are deemed to be abrasive in comparison to African leaders, who are gentle and respectful towards others. • Africans are considered to place focus on winning as a collective, as opposed to Western leaders, who tend to be more individually focused. An interesting and unexpected finding from this study was that participants viewed race as having no impact on leadership style and leadership effectiveness. This finding contradicts the GLOBE project, which reported a correlation between leadership behaviour (style) and race (House et al.,2014). It is concluded from this finding that perceptions of what makes a leader effective in the sub-Saharan region have evolved and that leadership effectiveness transcends racial classification. 6. Limitations This study acknowledges several limitations. First, its qualitative approach relied on non-probability, purposive sampling, which introduces concerns about inherent subjectivity and potential bias in participant selection. While subjectivity and bias cannot be completely ruled out, objectivity in the sampling process was maintained by engaging only with those who volunteered to participate in the study. Although the methods were rigorously detailed to allow scrutiny and replication, this study did not follow up with non-respondents, which could have enhanced the diversity of perspectives. Furthermore, while the research provided valuable insights into transformational and Afro-centric (Ubuntu) leadership, it did not deeply explore how contextual challenges such as corruption, resource constraints, and the poverty mindset might influence leadership effectiveness. This study forms part of a broader research project aimed at conceptualising African business leadership and effectiveness. As such, it would have been ideal to interview senior leaders outside South Africa. However, another study within the project gathered data from 121 participants across the sub-Saharan region (see Lerutla & Steyn,2021). Insights from both studies will be integrated into the development of an upcoming multidimensional framework of African business leadership and its effectiveness. 7. Conclusions This study highlighted the distinct nature of African leadership, especially in business, revealing that it is marked by entrepreneurial spirit, agility, and commitment to Ubuntu. The impact of culture on leadership effectiveness was debated, highlighting that leadership effectiveness is multi-faceted. Cultural upbringing, racial background, and personality collectively contribute to leadership effectiveness. Although culture is not an exclusive indicator of leadership effectiveness, leadership in Africa (sub-Saharan Africa) is seen as transformational and deemed to be more effective than Western leadership. This is attributed to the emphasis of sub-Saharan region leadership on servanthood, inclusiveness, and relationship with followers, which are qualities that inspire others and enable collaboration towards a common goal. On the other hand, it was deduced from the results that Western leaders display a more transactional leadership style. Their focus is on outputs and rules, with a ‘nonemotive’ approach to their relationship with followers. This leadership style, as reflected in the preceding sections, has the potential to affect followers’ level of commitment to organisations, but it remains a leadership style that can ‘get the work done’ while rewarding individuals for their contributions. As with the GLOBE findings, a differentiating attribute between the sub-Saharan region and others (for example, France, Germany, and Singapore) was the high score Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 19 of 23 achieved by the former on human-oriented leadership. These findings further emphasised the importance of acknowledging cultural influences on leadership. To that end, it is critical that Ubuntu, as a key differentiator in the sub-Saharan region, be embraced when defining and measuring leadership in Africa. Despite the overall positive findings around African leadership and the application thereof to business, the issues raised around corruption were concerning. Questions that remained unanswered were the extent to which the (a) entrepreneurial nature of African leadership and (b) the poverty mindset influence or entice corrupt leadership behaviour. Therefore, beyond the cultural aspects of leadership, organisations, academics, and leadership experts should consider addressing issues such as corruption and ethics in leadership development endeavours within the region. The findings of this study enrich the scientific literature and expand the narrative on leadership in the global context by highlighting what effective leadership practices entail in the sub-Saharan region of Africa. The findings underscore the significance of incorporating cultural values, notably Ubuntu, into discussions on leadership effectiveness. These findings not only provide a framework for a multi-dimensional perspective on leadership but will also contribute towards theory development on the concept of African leadership as a scientific construct. While previous scholars have hinted at elements crucial to defining African leadership, such as Ubuntu and Afrocentricity, a definitive conceptualisation of ABL has been lacking. This emphasis on the integration of African views into the global arena is useful for leaders operating in Africa or those intending to expand into sub-Saharan region. Future research could expand the scope of interviews to include senior leaders from other sub-Saharan countries. This broader empirical work could provide a more comprehensive understanding of African business leadership across various contexts. Expanding the body of knowledge with a more Afrocentric view of leadership is crucial for aligning leadership practices with Africa’s cultural depth and values. Increased empirical research on leadership discourse within the African continent will enrich the literature and address the current lack of studies on the topic. The more empirical data gathered, the greater the potential for developing a leadership theory that is inclusive of African dynamics. Furthermore, there is a need to investigate the impact of corruption and ethical challenges on leadership practices. These findings should be integrated into a more multidimensional conceptual framework of African leadership that fully reflects the region’s unique cultural and socio-economic dynamics. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.L. and R.S.; methodology, M.L. and R.S.; validation, M.L. and R.S.; formal analysis, M.L.; investigation, M.L.; data curation, M.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.L.; writing—review and editing, R.S.; visualization, M.L.; supervision, R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: Permission to conduct the research was granted by the Research Ethics Review Committee of the Graduate School of Business Leadership under approval number 2023_SBL_DBL_029_FA_0677. Ethical considerations were adhered to by ensuring that all potential participants gave voluntary consent to be part of the study. Each participant received a comprehensive email detailing the purpose of this study and emphasising how confidentiality and anonymity would be handled; the participant withdrawal process, if they opted not to continue with the research interviews; how the data would be stored; who would be involved in the analysis process; and how information would be reported. Adherence to these ethical matters built trust with participants, allowing them to be comfortable sharing their views on the topic under investigation openly and objectively. Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 83 20 of 23 Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study as outlined in the preceding paragraph. Data Availability Statement: The original contributions, where applicable are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Abasilim, U. D. (2013). 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