S einmay , Rica da
Lea ning and mo i a ion. Which mo i a ion is impo an and how o os e i
Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any,
Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ;
New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 93-109. - (Do munde Symposium de Empi ischen Bildungs o schung; 9)
Quellenangabe/ Re e ence:
S einmay , Rica da: Lea ning and mo i a ion. Which mo i a ion is impo an and how o os e i - In:
Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.];
McEl any, Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in
compe i ion?! Müns e ; New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 93-109 - URN: u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345098 -
DOI: 10.25656/01:34509
h ps://nbn- esol ing.o g/u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345098
h ps://doi.o g/10.25656/01:34509
in Koope a ion mi / in coope a ion wi h:
h p://www.waxmann.com
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Rica da S einmay
Lea ning and mo i a ion
Which mo i a ion is impo an and how o os e i
Bo h laype sons and expe s widely ega d mo i a ion as a key de e minan
o academic pe o mance, seeing i as bo h a p e equisi e and an educa ional
goal in i s own igh (Spina h, 2022). In a wo ld cha ac e ized by apid change,
sus ained mo i a ion o acqui e new knowledge is essen ial o ac i e pa ici‐
pa ion in socie y. Fu he mo e, mo i a ion is hough o be ela i ely amenable
o in luence, making i a po en ially powe ul le e in educa ional se ings. This
aises an impo an empi ical ques ion: Does he commonly held belie in he
impo ance o mo i a ion o academic achie emen hold up unde scien i ic
sc u iny?
1. The powe o mo i a ion in explaining in e indi idual di e ences
in academic achie emen
In academic li e a u e, mo i a ion e e s o he en i e y o p ocesses ha go ‐
e n he ini ia ion, di ec ion, and in ensi y o beha io . I encompasses bo h
in e nal s a es (such as needs o goals) and ex e nal in luences ha d i e o
guide beha io (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). Empi ical e idence sup‐
po s a ela ionship be ween mo i a ion and academic achie emen . Me a-anal‐
yses consis en ly demons a e posi i e associa ions be ween hese cons uc s
(e.g., Ce asoli e al., 2014; Howa d e al., 2021; Wi hwein e al., 2013). How‐
e e , i is c ucial o no e ha “mo i a ion” is an umb ella e m ha encom‐
passes a a ie y o cons uc s ( o a de ailed o e iew see Spina h, 2022). These
cons uc s a e ypically ca ego ized in o h ee main g oups: goal o ien a ions,
achie emen mo i es, and expec ancy- alue a iables (Ellio & Chu ch, 1997;
Mu phy & Alexande , 2000; Pin ich e al., 2003). O hese, cons uc s wi hin
he expec ancy- alue ca ego y—such as abili y sel -concep s, sel -e icacy, in‐
e es , and in insic mo i a ion—show he s onges co ela ions wi h academic
achie emen , wi h medium o high e ec sizes (Ce asoli e al., 2014; Howa d e
al., 2021; Mölle e al., 2009; Mul on e al., 1991; Schie ele e al., 1993; S ajko ic
e al., 2018; S einmay e al., 2018). Achie emen mo i es, gene ally concep u‐
94 Rica da S einmay
alized as ai -like disposi ions subdi ided in o “hope o success” and “ ea o
ailu e” a e also associa ed wi h academic pe o mance (Bjø nebekk e al., 2013;
S einmay e al., 2019b; S einmay & Spina h, 2009). Hope o success co ela es
posi i ely wi h academic ou comes, while ea o ailu e shows a nega i e co e‐
la ion. Goal o ien a ions, howe e , end o exhibi only small co ela ions wi h
academic achie emen ; speci ically, wo k-a oidance goals a e nega i ely asso‐
cia ed wi h pe o mance (pa icula ly in ma hema ics), whe eas app oach-pe ‐
o mance and lea ning goals ha e small posi i e co ela ions wi h achie emen
(Noo dzij e al., 2021; an Ype en e al., 2015; Wi hwein e al., 2013). Figu e 1
illus a es he a ying co ela ions be ween di e en mo i a ional cons uc s
and academic achie emen .
While hese indings indica e ha mo i a ional cons uc s sha e a meaning‐
ul p opo ion o a iance wi h academic pe o mance, bi a ia e co ela ions
alone p o ide an incomple e pic u e. Mo i a ion is ela ed o o he powe ‐
ul p edic o s such as in elligence (Be gold & S einmay , 2016) and pe son‐
ali y (S einmay e al., 2011). These a e also ela ed o academic ou comes
and he associa ions a e some imes e en s onge (see Ro h e al., 2015, o a
me a-analysis on he associa ion be ween in elligence and g ades). Thus, some
esea che s e en a gue ha mo i a ion lacks p edic i e powe o academic
achie emen beyond wha is explained by in elligence (e.g. Gagné & S Pè e,
2002). Consequen ly, es ablishing he impo ance o mo i a ion o academic
success equi es demons a ing i s inc emen al alidi y—namely, he ex en o
which mo i a ion con ibu es o he explana ion o academic pe o mance o e
and abo e o he key p edic o s.
Figu e 1: Co ela ions be ween di e en mo i a ional cons uc s and academic achie emen (goals:
Noo dzij e al., 2021; an Ype en e al., 2015; Wi hwein e al., 2013; achie emen mo i es: Bjø nebekk
e al., 2013; S einmay e al., 2019b; S einmay & Spina h, 2009; expec ancy- alue cons uc s: Ce asoli
e al., 2014; Howa d e al., 2021; Mölle e al., 2009; Mul on e al., 1991; Schie ele e al., 1993; S ajko ic
e al., 2018; S einmay e al., 2018). Goals pe ain o lea ning goals, pe o mance-a oidance and -ap‐
p oach goals and wo k a oidance.
Lea ning and mo i a ion 95
Figu e 2: G aphical illus a ion o he inc emen al alidi y o mo i a ion in p edic ing academic achie e‐
men abo e and beyond in elligence.
Figu e 2 illus a es his c i ical concep in unde s anding he ole o mo i a ion
in academic pe o mance. As depic ed, some a iance in academic achie emen
is unaccoun ed o by bo h cons uc s. Some a iance in academic achie emen
is only explained by in e indi idual di e ences in in elligence, some only by
in e indi idual di e ences in mo i a ion and some by bo h. In se e al s ud‐
ies, we explo ed he inc emen al alidi y o mo i a ion beyond in elligence,
pe sonali y, o a combina ion o bo h when p edic ing academic achie emen
(Laue mann e al., 2020; S einmay & Spina h, 2007, 2009; S einmay e al.,
2011, 2018, 2019; S einmay & Meißne , 2013). One such s udy (S einmay &
Spina h, 2009) exempli ies his ela ionship. Figu e 3 displays he main esul s.
Figu e 3: G aphical illus a ion o he commonali y analysis esul s pe o med by S einmay and
Spina h (2009).
In Figu e 3, he medium g ey po ions o he ba s in he esul s ep esen he
unique a iance in academic achie emen a ibu ed o mo i a ion alone, e en
96 Rica da S einmay
a e con olling o in elligence. Simila indings ha e been obse ed when
con olling o pe sonali y alone o bo h in elligence and pe sonali y (S ein‐
may & Spina h, 2007; S einmay e al., 2011). In all s udies mo i a ion ac‐
coun ed o a iance in academic achie emen which was no accoun ed o by
he o he cons uc s. As indica ed by he ligh g ey po ions o he ba s, some
mo i a ional cons uc s p edic academic achie emen in conjunc ion wi h in‐
elligence. This sha ed a iance—pa icula ly s ong o he cons uc “hope
o success” in he displayed s udy—sugges s an in e ac ion e ec be ween in‐
elligence and achie emen mo i es. Suppo ing his, o he s udies (Be gold &
S einmay , 2018; Hu e -Thamm e al., 2023) demons a ed ha in elligence was
posi i ely ela ed o school g ades only when accompanied by a ce ain le el o
achie emen mo i a ion, highligh ing an in e play be ween hese cons uc s in
p edic ing academic success.
Besides i s inc emen al alidi y in explaining a iance in academic achie e‐
men , he impo ance o mo i a ion is also unde lined by i s powe o explain
change in academic achie emen . When asked abou hei child’s academic
s uggles, many pa en s a ibu e i o a lack o mo i a ion, belie ing ha e‐
newed mo i a ion could lead o imp o ed pe o mance. Resea ch suppo s his
pe cep ion (see Lespe ance e al., 2022). Ac oss se e al s udies, mo i a ional
cons uc s ha e been shown o p edic changes in academic achie emen , mea‐
su ed by bo h school g ades and s anda dized achie emen es s (S einmay
e al., 2018, 2019; S einmay & Spina h, 2009). This is pa icula ly no ewo hy
gi en ha indi idual di e ences in academic pe o mance end o s abilize o e
ime, limi ing he po en ial o change. Rema kably, he e ec o mo i a ional
cons uc s on changes in academic achie emen was up o ou imes g ea e
han he e ec o in elligence, unde sco ing mo i a ion’s c i ical ole in os e ‐
ing academic g ow h (S einmay e al., 2019b; S einmay & Spina h, 2009).
2. E alua ing he ela i e impo ance o mo i a ional cons uc s in
academic achie emen
Gi en he di e se a ay o mo i a ional cons uc s i is c ucial o empi ically
iden i y which a e mos p edic i e o academic success. Since he speci ic cha ‐
ac e is ics o a sample can in luence he obse ed co ela ions, i is ad isable o
examine mul iple mo i a ional cons uc s wi hin a single sample o ule ou he
possibili y ha di e ences in co ela ions a e a ibu able o he sample’s cha ‐
ac e is ics. Fu he mo e, expec ancy- alue cons uc s a e o en domain-speci ‐
ically ope a ionalized, while achie emen mo i es a e gene ally ea ed as mo e
s able, ai -like cha ac e is ics assessed in a b oade con ex . Since con ex ual‐

Lea ning and mo i a ion 97
iza ion a ec s he associa ion be ween cons uc s (c . Michel e al., 2022), i is
essen ial o assess bo h mo i a ional cons uc s and achie emen ou comes a
equi alen le els o speci ici y. To ensu e he gene alizabili y o indings ac oss
academic domains, i is also ecommended o c oss- alida e esul s in mul iple
a eas. Ano he challenge in mo i a ional esea ch is mul icollinea i y among
cons uc s. Ce ain cons uc s, such as abili y sel -concep s, sel -e icacy, and
expec a ions o success, o en o e lap o he ex en ha hey a e nea ly indis‐
inguishable empi ically (e.g., Ma sh e al., 2019). Simila ly, in insic alues,
in insic mo i a ion, and in e es a e also closely ela ed o each o he bu also
o expec ancy a iables. App op ia e s a is ical echniques, such as commonal‐
i y analysis and ela i e weigh analysis, a e he e o e necessa y o disen angle
he speci ic con ibu ions o hese cons uc s ( o speci ics on ela i e weigh
analysis see Johnson & LeB e on, 2004; Tonidandel & LeB e on, 2011). Las bu
no leas , o de elop e ec i e educa ional policies and implemen meaning ul
school e o ms, i is essen ial o ga he s ong empi ical e idence on whe he
di e en mo i a ional cons uc s can accoun o a ia ions in school pe o ‐
mance beyond he e ec s o o he impo an a iables, such as in elligence and
p io achie emen . Excluding hese la e ac o s isks o e s a ing he ole o
mo i a ion in academic success.
Taking in o accoun hese hough s, S einmay e al. (2019) sough o add ess
hese me hodological conside a ions by examining a ious mo i a ional con‐
s uc s alongside p io pe o mance and in elligence, wi h all a iables assessed
a compa able le els o speci ici y. We e alua ed cons uc s om expec ancy-
alue heo y, including alues and abili y sel -concep s, as well as achie emen
mo i es (hope o success and ea o ailu e), achie emen goals (lea ning-
app oach, pe o mance-app oach, pe o mance-a oidance), and wo k a oid‐
ance. Each a iable was measu ed ac oss di e en academic domains (gene al
academic abili y, ma h, and Ge man), enabling c oss- alida ion ac oss sub‐
jec a eas and ensu ing consis en speci ici y le els. A ela i e weigh analy‐
sis, which quan i ies he ela i e impo ance o each p edic o in explaining
a iance in a c i e ion (LeB e on & Tonidandel, 2008), was employed due o
he high in e co ela ions among mo i a ional cons uc s. The ela i e weigh
ε can be in e p e ed as an indica o o he ela i e impo ance o each mo i a‐
ional cons uc compa ed o o he p edic o s and i s hough o ep esen he
sha e o explained a iance in he speci ic g ade by his speci ic mo i a ional
cons uc . In he s udy by S einmay e al. (2019), p io ma h g ades eme ged
as he mos signi ican p edic o o subsequen ma h g ades (explaining 45 % o
he unique a iance), ollowed by ma h sel -concep (19 % ). S uden s’ ma h ask
alues (9 % ), lea ning goals (5 % ), wo k a oidance (7 % ), ea o ailu e, and hope
o success (6 % ) did no signi ican ly di e in hei con ibu ions. No ably,
98 Rica da S einmay
pe o mance goals and in elligence did no signi ican ly p edic achie emen
when analyzed alongside p io g ades. Simila pa e ns we e obse ed o o e ‐
all school achie emen and language a s g ades. He e again, among all mo i‐
a ional a iables abili y sel -concep s and alues we e he s onges p edic o s
( o mo e de ails see S einmay e al., 2019b). In a simila s udy, conside ing
u he a iables such as g i – he consis ency o in e es s and pe sis ence in
he pu sui o long- e m goals (Duckwo h e al., 2007) – and pe sonali y –
ope a ionalized as he Big Fi e o pe sonali y (Cos a & McC ae, 1995) – S ein‐
may e al. (2018) also ound expec ancy- alue a iables o be s onges p e‐
dic o s o academic achie emen among all conside ed mo i a ional a iables.
Howe e , in bo h s udies, expec ancy- a iables we e mo e s ongly associa ed
wi h academic achie emen han alue a iables. These indings held ega dless
o whe he p io pe o mance and in elligence we e con olled (see also S ein‐
may & Spina h, 2009; S einmay e al., 2011, 2018). Thus, ega ding he ques‐
ion o which mo i a ional cons uc s a e pa icula ly in luen ial in shaping
academic pe o mance hese s udies demons a ed ha domain-speci ic abili y
sel -concep s, especially in ma h, a e c i ical p edic o s o academic achie e‐
men . Howe e , when i comes o achie emen - ela ed choices—such as oca‐
ional o academic pa hways— alues, pa icula ly in insic alues, become as
signi ican as abili y sel -concep s (S einmay & Spina h, 2010). Consequen ly,
in he ollowing discussion, I will ocus on expec ancy- alue cons uc s, which
a e bo h cen al o academic achie emen - ela ed c i e ia.
3. How o os e ideal expec ancies and alues
Be o e os e ing expec ancy cons uc s, i is essen ial o i s de e mine he de‐
si ed le el o de elopmen . The ques ion whe he indi iduals should s i e o a
ealis ic o an op imis ically biased sel - iew has especially been discussed wi h
ega d o abili y sel -concep s. Unlike in insic mo i a ion, which is b oadly
bene icial i i is high, he op imal sel -concep is less s aigh o wa d. Should
one aim o a sel -pe cep ion ha aligns wi h ac ual abili ies, o is a posi i ely
biased (o e es ima ed) sel - iew mo e ad an ageous? I so, shall I o e es ima e
mysel jus a li le o g ea ly? The esul s o empi ical esea ch on sel -es ima‐
ion biases and academic pe o mance a e mixed, wi h some s udies inding
posi i e e ec s and o he s inding nega i e ones. These inconsis encies may
a ise om heo e ical and s a is ical issues ha o en con ound sel -es ima‐
ion bias wi h sel - iew e ec s (Humbe g e al., 2018, 2019). Recen wo k by
Paschke e al. (2020, 2023) cla i ies ha posi i ely iewing one’s compe en‐
cies—i espec i e o ac ual abili y le els—can ha e a a o able impac on aca‐
demic achie emen .
Lea ning and mo i a ion 99
I a posi i e sel -concep (and in insic mo i a ion) is bene icial, wha os‐
e s such an ou look? Se e al models explain he de elopmen o abili y sel -
concep s ac oss di e en domains, including he I/E model (Ma sh, 1986), he
big- ish-li le-pond e ec (e.g. Ma sh e al., 2004), and he si ua ed expec ancy-
alue model (e.g. Eccles & Wig ield, 2020). Acco ding o he la e model, so‐
cialize s’ belie s and beha io s—pa icula ly hose o eache s (c . S einmay
e al., 2019a)—a ec s uden s’ sel -concep s, which a e empi ically equi alen
o expec a ions o success, and also alues. Howe e , he p ac ical signi icance
o eache expec ancy e ec s on s uden s’ de elopmen has occasionally been
ques ioned due o hei ela i ely small size (Jussim, 2017; Jussim & Ha be ,
2005). Bu mos s udies ha e concen a ed on school pe o mance, hus, his
c i ique may o e look he possibili y ha eache expec a ions in luence nu‐
me ous o he impo an aspec s o s uden s’ li es beyond academic achie e‐
men , o example abili y sel -concep s and alues, as hypo hesized by he si ‐
ua ed expec ancy- alue model. The s udy by Be gold and S einmay (2023) in‐
es iga ed how eache s’ expec a ions ega ding s uden s’ abili ies impac a ‐
ious s uden ou comes, including expec ancy- alue cons uc s. The longi udi‐
nal s udy in ol ed 1,092 nin h-g ade s uden s om oca ional ack schools
in Ge many. S uden s comple ed assessmen s o hei ma h and eading com‐
pe encies, abili y sel -concep s, in insic mo i a ion, academic and oca ional
aspi a ions, and subjec i e well-being. Teache s a ed s uden s’ abili ies in ma h
and Ge man using a se en-poin scale based on na ional pe o mance dis ibu‐
ions. Ou analysis e ealed unique e ec s o ma h eache s’ expec a ions on
s uden s’ change in ma h pe o mance, abili y sel -concep s, and educa ional
aspi a ions. Though he e ec o ma h eache s’ expec a ions on in insic mo‐
i a ion was ma ginally insigni ican (p = .07), in insic mo i a ion a base‐
line p edic ed changes in ma h pe o mance. Ge man bu no ma h eache s’
expec ancies a ec ed s uden s’ li e sa is ac ion. Teache judgmen s hus a ec
many s uden ou comes a he same ime, among hem expec ancy- alue con‐
s uc s, unde sco ing hei p ac ical impo ance o s uden s’ li es. Fu he ‐
mo e, hey seem o be mo e impo an o expec ancies han o in insic alues.
Thus, he ques ion emains which a iables addi ionally con ibu e o change
o alue a iables.
The si ua ed expec ancy- alue model (Eccles & Wig ield, 2020) does no only
explain di e ences in in insic alues bu also in o he alues such as u ili y o
a ainmen alues and cos s. Recen ly he e has been a lo o esea ch on in e ‐
en ions, especially minimal in e en ions o change alues bu also expec an‐
cies especially o disad an aged g oups (c . Rosenzweig e al., 2020, 2022).
Mo eo e , he e is also inc eased in e es in domain-speci ic belie s abou he
na u e o abili ies, ollowing esea ch in implici in elligence heo ies / mindse s.
100 Rica da S einmay
Implici belie s abou he na u e o in elligence—whe he iewed as ixed o
malleable—a e also pe inen o unde s anding mo i a ional dynamics. Mind‐
se s e e o an indi idual’s subjec i e belie s abou whe he speci ic a ibu es,
such as in elligence o ma hema ical abili y, a e unchangeable o can be de el‐
oped and imp o ed (e.g., Dweck & Yeage , 2019). The belie ha an a ibu e
is ixed ep esen s a ixed mindse , while he belie ha i can be cul i a ed
e lec s a g ow h mindse . Unlike a ixed mindse , a g ow h mindse is heo ized
o enhance s uden s’ mo i a ion and academic pe o mance, especially among
hose acing challenges. Resea ch indica es ha when eache s iew in elligence
as unchangeable, hei beha io ends o be mo e achie emen -o ien ed, ocus‐
ing on pe o mance ou comes a he han he lea ning p ocess (e.g., LaCosse
e al., 2021; Pa k e al., 2016). Howe e , such pe o mance-o ien ed beha io
has been linked o lowe le els o s uden mo i a ion, as i may c ea e a high-
p essu e en i onmen ha p io i izes esul s o e e o and imp o emen (e.g.,
Ames, 1992; Wi hwein e al., 2021). Fu he mo e, he na u e o he lea ning
en i onmen signi ican ly in luences he way success is pe cei ed and pu sued.
In achie emen -o ien ed lea ning en i onmen s, he emphasis is on demon‐
s a ing one’s compe encies, wi h success o en being de ined in compa ison
o he accomplishmen s o pee s (Ciani e al., 2010; Dweck & Legge , 1988).
This ocus on ela i e pe o mance s eng hens he associa ion be ween indi‐
idual success and ex e nal alida ion. In con as , lea ning-o ien ed en i on‐
men s p io i ize he p ocess o acqui ing knowledge and imp o ing pe sonal
compe encies in hose en i onmen s, success is measu ed by indi idual g ow h
and mas e y, leading o a weake associa ion wi h ex e nal compa isons o
pee - ela i e ou comes (Dweck & Legge , 1988; Meece e al., 2006). The sel -
de e mina ion heo y explains indi idual di e ences in in insic mo i a ion,
among o he s, by di e en eeling o compe ences. Thus, in a lea ning-o ien ed
en i onmen , e en s uden s who ecei e pe o mance eedback (in Ge many
mos ly ope a ionalized by g ades) sugges ing hey a e no pe o ming as well
as hei pee s can emain in insically mo i a ed. He e, i espec i e o a s u‐
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