Learning and motivation. Which motivation is important and how to foster it

S einmay , Rica da Lea ning and mo i a ion. Which mo i a ion is impo an and how o os e i Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any, Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ; New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 93-109. - (Do munde Symposium de Empi ischen Bildungs o schung; 9) Quellenangabe/ Re e ence: S einmay , Rica da: Lea ning and mo i a ion. Which mo i a ion is impo an and how o os e i - In: Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any, Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ; New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 93-109 - URN: u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345098 - DOI: 10.25656/01:34509 h ps://nbn- esol ing.o g/u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345098 h ps://doi.o g/10.25656/01:34509 in Koope a ion mi / in coope a ion wi h: h p://www.waxmann.com Nu zungsbedingungen Te ms o use Dieses Dokumen s eh un e olgende C ea i e Commons-Lizenz: h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.de - Sie dü en das We k bzw. den Inhal un e olgenden Bedingungen e iel äl igen, e b ei en und ö en lich zugänglich machen sowie Abwandlungen und Bea bei ungen des We kes bzw. Inhal es an e igen: Sie müssen den Namen des Au o s/Rech einhabe s in de on ihm es geleg en Weise nennen. Dieses We k bzw. de Inhal da nich ü komme zielle Zwecke e wende we den. Die neu en s andenen We ke bzw. Inhal e dü en nu un e Ve wendung on Lizenzbedingungen wei e gegeben we den, die mi denen dieses Lizenz e ages iden isch ode e gleichba sind. 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Kon ak / Con ac : peDOCS DIPF | Leibniz-Ins i u ü Bildungs o schung und Bildungsin o ma ion In o ma ionszen um (IZ) Bildung E-Mail: [email p o ec ed] In e ne : www.pedocs.de Rica da S einmay Lea ning and mo i a ion Which mo i a ion is impo an and how o os e i Bo h laype sons and expe s widely ega d mo i a ion as a key de e minan o academic pe o mance, seeing i as bo h a p e equisi e and an educa ional goal in i s own igh (Spina h, 2022). In a wo ld cha ac e ized by apid change, sus ained mo i a ion o acqui e new knowledge is essen ial o ac i e pa ici‐ pa ion in socie y. Fu he mo e, mo i a ion is hough o be ela i ely amenable o in luence, making i a po en ially powe ul le e in educa ional se ings. This aises an impo an empi ical ques ion: Does he commonly held belie in he impo ance o mo i a ion o academic achie emen hold up unde scien i ic sc u iny? 1. The powe o mo i a ion in explaining in e indi idual di e ences in academic achie emen In academic li e a u e, mo i a ion e e s o he en i e y o p ocesses ha go ‐ e n he ini ia ion, di ec ion, and in ensi y o beha io . I encompasses bo h in e nal s a es (such as needs o goals) and ex e nal in luences ha d i e o guide beha io (Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2018). Empi ical e idence sup‐ po s a ela ionship be ween mo i a ion and academic achie emen . Me a-anal‐ yses consis en ly demons a e posi i e associa ions be ween hese cons uc s (e.g., Ce asoli e al., 2014; Howa d e al., 2021; Wi hwein e al., 2013). How‐ e e , i is c ucial o no e ha “mo i a ion” is an umb ella e m ha encom‐ passes a a ie y o cons uc s ( o a de ailed o e iew see Spina h, 2022). These cons uc s a e ypically ca ego ized in o h ee main g oups: goal o ien a ions, achie emen mo i es, and expec ancy- alue a iables (Ellio & Chu ch, 1997; Mu phy & Alexande , 2000; Pin ich e al., 2003). O hese, cons uc s wi hin he expec ancy- alue ca ego y—such as abili y sel -concep s, sel -e icacy, in‐ e es , and in insic mo i a ion—show he s onges co ela ions wi h academic achie emen , wi h medium o high e ec sizes (Ce asoli e al., 2014; Howa d e al., 2021; Mölle e al., 2009; Mul on e al., 1991; Schie ele e al., 1993; S ajko ic e al., 2018; S einmay e al., 2018). Achie emen mo i es, gene ally concep u‐ 94 Rica da S einmay alized as ai -like disposi ions subdi ided in o “hope o success” and “ ea o ailu e” a e also associa ed wi h academic pe o mance (Bjø nebekk e al., 2013; S einmay e al., 2019b; S einmay & Spina h, 2009). Hope o success co ela es posi i ely wi h academic ou comes, while ea o ailu e shows a nega i e co e‐ la ion. Goal o ien a ions, howe e , end o exhibi only small co ela ions wi h academic achie emen ; speci ically, wo k-a oidance goals a e nega i ely asso‐ cia ed wi h pe o mance (pa icula ly in ma hema ics), whe eas app oach-pe ‐ o mance and lea ning goals ha e small posi i e co ela ions wi h achie emen (Noo dzij e al., 2021; an Ype en e al., 2015; Wi hwein e al., 2013). Figu e 1 illus a es he a ying co ela ions be ween di e en mo i a ional cons uc s and academic achie emen . While hese indings indica e ha mo i a ional cons uc s sha e a meaning‐ ul p opo ion o a iance wi h academic pe o mance, bi a ia e co ela ions alone p o ide an incomple e pic u e. Mo i a ion is ela ed o o he powe ‐ ul p edic o s such as in elligence (Be gold & S einmay , 2016) and pe son‐ ali y (S einmay e al., 2011). These a e also ela ed o academic ou comes and he associa ions a e some imes e en s onge (see Ro h e al., 2015, o a me a-analysis on he associa ion be ween in elligence and g ades). Thus, some esea che s e en a gue ha mo i a ion lacks p edic i e powe o academic achie emen beyond wha is explained by in elligence (e.g. Gagné & S Pè e, 2002). Consequen ly, es ablishing he impo ance o mo i a ion o academic success equi es demons a ing i s inc emen al alidi y—namely, he ex en o which mo i a ion con ibu es o he explana ion o academic pe o mance o e and abo e o he key p edic o s. Figu e 1: Co ela ions be ween di e en mo i a ional cons uc s and academic achie emen (goals: Noo dzij e al., 2021; an Ype en e al., 2015; Wi hwein e al., 2013; achie emen mo i es: Bjø nebekk e al., 2013; S einmay e al., 2019b; S einmay & Spina h, 2009; expec ancy- alue cons uc s: Ce asoli e al., 2014; Howa d e al., 2021; Mölle e al., 2009; Mul on e al., 1991; Schie ele e al., 1993; S ajko ic e al., 2018; S einmay e al., 2018). Goals pe ain o lea ning goals, pe o mance-a oidance and -ap‐ p oach goals and wo k a oidance. Lea ning and mo i a ion 95 Figu e 2: G aphical illus a ion o he inc emen al alidi y o mo i a ion in p edic ing academic achie e‐ men abo e and beyond in elligence. Figu e 2 illus a es his c i ical concep in unde s anding he ole o mo i a ion in academic pe o mance. As depic ed, some a iance in academic achie emen is unaccoun ed o by bo h cons uc s. Some a iance in academic achie emen is only explained by in e indi idual di e ences in in elligence, some only by in e indi idual di e ences in mo i a ion and some by bo h. In se e al s ud‐ ies, we explo ed he inc emen al alidi y o mo i a ion beyond in elligence, pe sonali y, o a combina ion o bo h when p edic ing academic achie emen (Laue mann e al., 2020; S einmay & Spina h, 2007, 2009; S einmay e al., 2011, 2018, 2019; S einmay & Meißne , 2013). One such s udy (S einmay & Spina h, 2009) exempli ies his ela ionship. Figu e 3 displays he main esul s. Figu e 3: G aphical illus a ion o he commonali y analysis esul s pe o med by S einmay and Spina h (2009). In Figu e 3, he medium g ey po ions o he ba s in he esul s ep esen he unique a iance in academic achie emen a ibu ed o mo i a ion alone, e en 96 Rica da S einmay a e con olling o in elligence. Simila indings ha e been obse ed when con olling o pe sonali y alone o bo h in elligence and pe sonali y (S ein‐ may & Spina h, 2007; S einmay e al., 2011). In all s udies mo i a ion ac‐ coun ed o a iance in academic achie emen which was no accoun ed o by he o he cons uc s. As indica ed by he ligh g ey po ions o he ba s, some mo i a ional cons uc s p edic academic achie emen in conjunc ion wi h in‐ elligence. This sha ed a iance—pa icula ly s ong o he cons uc “hope o success” in he displayed s udy—sugges s an in e ac ion e ec be ween in‐ elligence and achie emen mo i es. Suppo ing his, o he s udies (Be gold & S einmay , 2018; Hu e -Thamm e al., 2023) demons a ed ha in elligence was posi i ely ela ed o school g ades only when accompanied by a ce ain le el o achie emen mo i a ion, highligh ing an in e play be ween hese cons uc s in p edic ing academic success. Besides i s inc emen al alidi y in explaining a iance in academic achie e‐ men , he impo ance o mo i a ion is also unde lined by i s powe o explain change in academic achie emen . When asked abou hei child’s academic s uggles, many pa en s a ibu e i o a lack o mo i a ion, belie ing ha e‐ newed mo i a ion could lead o imp o ed pe o mance. Resea ch suppo s his pe cep ion (see Lespe ance e al., 2022). Ac oss se e al s udies, mo i a ional cons uc s ha e been shown o p edic changes in academic achie emen , mea‐ su ed by bo h school g ades and s anda dized achie emen es s (S einmay e al., 2018, 2019; S einmay & Spina h, 2009). This is pa icula ly no ewo hy gi en ha indi idual di e ences in academic pe o mance end o s abilize o e ime, limi ing he po en ial o change. Rema kably, he e ec o mo i a ional cons uc s on changes in academic achie emen was up o ou imes g ea e han he e ec o in elligence, unde sco ing mo i a ion’s c i ical ole in os e ‐ ing academic g ow h (S einmay e al., 2019b; S einmay & Spina h, 2009). 2. E alua ing he ela i e impo ance o mo i a ional cons uc s in academic achie emen Gi en he di e se a ay o mo i a ional cons uc s i is c ucial o empi ically iden i y which a e mos p edic i e o academic success. Since he speci ic cha ‐ ac e is ics o a sample can in luence he obse ed co ela ions, i is ad isable o examine mul iple mo i a ional cons uc s wi hin a single sample o ule ou he possibili y ha di e ences in co ela ions a e a ibu able o he sample’s cha ‐ ac e is ics. Fu he mo e, expec ancy- alue cons uc s a e o en domain-speci ‐ ically ope a ionalized, while achie emen mo i es a e gene ally ea ed as mo e s able, ai -like cha ac e is ics assessed in a b oade con ex . Since con ex ual‐ Lea ning and mo i a ion 97 iza ion a ec s he associa ion be ween cons uc s (c . Michel e al., 2022), i is essen ial o assess bo h mo i a ional cons uc s and achie emen ou comes a equi alen le els o speci ici y. To ensu e he gene alizabili y o indings ac oss academic domains, i is also ecommended o c oss- alida e esul s in mul iple a eas. Ano he challenge in mo i a ional esea ch is mul icollinea i y among cons uc s. Ce ain cons uc s, such as abili y sel -concep s, sel -e icacy, and expec a ions o success, o en o e lap o he ex en ha hey a e nea ly indis‐ inguishable empi ically (e.g., Ma sh e al., 2019). Simila ly, in insic alues, in insic mo i a ion, and in e es a e also closely ela ed o each o he bu also o expec ancy a iables. App op ia e s a is ical echniques, such as commonal‐ i y analysis and ela i e weigh analysis, a e he e o e necessa y o disen angle he speci ic con ibu ions o hese cons uc s ( o speci ics on ela i e weigh analysis see Johnson & LeB e on, 2004; Tonidandel & LeB e on, 2011). Las bu no leas , o de elop e ec i e educa ional policies and implemen meaning ul school e o ms, i is essen ial o ga he s ong empi ical e idence on whe he di e en mo i a ional cons uc s can accoun o a ia ions in school pe o ‐ mance beyond he e ec s o o he impo an a iables, such as in elligence and p io achie emen . Excluding hese la e ac o s isks o e s a ing he ole o mo i a ion in academic success. Taking in o accoun hese hough s, S einmay e al. (2019) sough o add ess hese me hodological conside a ions by examining a ious mo i a ional con‐ s uc s alongside p io pe o mance and in elligence, wi h all a iables assessed a compa able le els o speci ici y. We e alua ed cons uc s om expec ancy- alue heo y, including alues and abili y sel -concep s, as well as achie emen mo i es (hope o success and ea o ailu e), achie emen goals (lea ning- app oach, pe o mance-app oach, pe o mance-a oidance), and wo k a oid‐ ance. Each a iable was measu ed ac oss di e en academic domains (gene al academic abili y, ma h, and Ge man), enabling c oss- alida ion ac oss sub‐ jec a eas and ensu ing consis en speci ici y le els. A ela i e weigh analy‐ sis, which quan i ies he ela i e impo ance o each p edic o in explaining a iance in a c i e ion (LeB e on & Tonidandel, 2008), was employed due o he high in e co ela ions among mo i a ional cons uc s. The ela i e weigh ε can be in e p e ed as an indica o o he ela i e impo ance o each mo i a‐ ional cons uc compa ed o o he p edic o s and i s hough o ep esen he sha e o explained a iance in he speci ic g ade by his speci ic mo i a ional cons uc . In he s udy by S einmay e al. (2019), p io ma h g ades eme ged as he mos signi ican p edic o o subsequen ma h g ades (explaining 45 % o he unique a iance), ollowed by ma h sel -concep (19 % ). S uden s’ ma h ask alues (9 % ), lea ning goals (5 % ), wo k a oidance (7 % ), ea o ailu e, and hope o success (6 % ) did no signi ican ly di e in hei con ibu ions. No ably, 98 Rica da S einmay pe o mance goals and in elligence did no signi ican ly p edic achie emen when analyzed alongside p io g ades. Simila pa e ns we e obse ed o o e ‐ all school achie emen and language a s g ades. He e again, among all mo i‐ a ional a iables abili y sel -concep s and alues we e he s onges p edic o s ( o mo e de ails see S einmay e al., 2019b). In a simila s udy, conside ing u he a iables such as g i – he consis ency o in e es s and pe sis ence in he pu sui o long- e m goals (Duckwo h e al., 2007) – and pe sonali y – ope a ionalized as he Big Fi e o pe sonali y (Cos a & McC ae, 1995) – S ein‐ may e al. (2018) also ound expec ancy- alue a iables o be s onges p e‐ dic o s o academic achie emen among all conside ed mo i a ional a iables. Howe e , in bo h s udies, expec ancy- a iables we e mo e s ongly associa ed wi h academic achie emen han alue a iables. These indings held ega dless o whe he p io pe o mance and in elligence we e con olled (see also S ein‐ may & Spina h, 2009; S einmay e al., 2011, 2018). Thus, ega ding he ques‐ ion o which mo i a ional cons uc s a e pa icula ly in luen ial in shaping academic pe o mance hese s udies demons a ed ha domain-speci ic abili y sel -concep s, especially in ma h, a e c i ical p edic o s o academic achie e‐ men . Howe e , when i comes o achie emen - ela ed choices—such as oca‐ ional o academic pa hways— alues, pa icula ly in insic alues, become as signi ican as abili y sel -concep s (S einmay & Spina h, 2010). Consequen ly, in he ollowing discussion, I will ocus on expec ancy- alue cons uc s, which a e bo h cen al o academic achie emen - ela ed c i e ia. 3. How o os e ideal expec ancies and alues Be o e os e ing expec ancy cons uc s, i is essen ial o i s de e mine he de‐ si ed le el o de elopmen . The ques ion whe he indi iduals should s i e o a ealis ic o an op imis ically biased sel - iew has especially been discussed wi h ega d o abili y sel -concep s. Unlike in insic mo i a ion, which is b oadly bene icial i i is high, he op imal sel -concep is less s aigh o wa d. Should one aim o a sel -pe cep ion ha aligns wi h ac ual abili ies, o is a posi i ely biased (o e es ima ed) sel - iew mo e ad an ageous? I so, shall I o e es ima e mysel jus a li le o g ea ly? The esul s o empi ical esea ch on sel -es ima‐ ion biases and academic pe o mance a e mixed, wi h some s udies inding posi i e e ec s and o he s inding nega i e ones. These inconsis encies may a ise om heo e ical and s a is ical issues ha o en con ound sel -es ima‐ ion bias wi h sel - iew e ec s (Humbe g e al., 2018, 2019). Recen wo k by Paschke e al. (2020, 2023) cla i ies ha posi i ely iewing one’s compe en‐ cies—i espec i e o ac ual abili y le els—can ha e a a o able impac on aca‐ demic achie emen . Lea ning and mo i a ion 99 I a posi i e sel -concep (and in insic mo i a ion) is bene icial, wha os‐ e s such an ou look? Se e al models explain he de elopmen o abili y sel - concep s ac oss di e en domains, including he I/E model (Ma sh, 1986), he big- ish-li le-pond e ec (e.g. Ma sh e al., 2004), and he si ua ed expec ancy- alue model (e.g. Eccles & Wig ield, 2020). Acco ding o he la e model, so‐ cialize s’ belie s and beha io s—pa icula ly hose o eache s (c . S einmay e al., 2019a)—a ec s uden s’ sel -concep s, which a e empi ically equi alen o expec a ions o success, and also alues. Howe e , he p ac ical signi icance o eache expec ancy e ec s on s uden s’ de elopmen has occasionally been ques ioned due o hei ela i ely small size (Jussim, 2017; Jussim & Ha be , 2005). Bu mos s udies ha e concen a ed on school pe o mance, hus, his c i ique may o e look he possibili y ha eache expec a ions in luence nu‐ me ous o he impo an aspec s o s uden s’ li es beyond academic achie e‐ men , o example abili y sel -concep s and alues, as hypo hesized by he si ‐ ua ed expec ancy- alue model. The s udy by Be gold and S einmay (2023) in‐ es iga ed how eache s’ expec a ions ega ding s uden s’ abili ies impac a ‐ ious s uden ou comes, including expec ancy- alue cons uc s. The longi udi‐ nal s udy in ol ed 1,092 nin h-g ade s uden s om oca ional ack schools in Ge many. S uden s comple ed assessmen s o hei ma h and eading com‐ pe encies, abili y sel -concep s, in insic mo i a ion, academic and oca ional aspi a ions, and subjec i e well-being. Teache s a ed s uden s’ abili ies in ma h and Ge man using a se en-poin scale based on na ional pe o mance dis ibu‐ ions. Ou analysis e ealed unique e ec s o ma h eache s’ expec a ions on s uden s’ change in ma h pe o mance, abili y sel -concep s, and educa ional aspi a ions. Though he e ec o ma h eache s’ expec a ions on in insic mo‐ i a ion was ma ginally insigni ican (p = .07), in insic mo i a ion a base‐ line p edic ed changes in ma h pe o mance. Ge man bu no ma h eache s’ expec ancies a ec ed s uden s’ li e sa is ac ion. Teache judgmen s hus a ec many s uden ou comes a he same ime, among hem expec ancy- alue con‐ s uc s, unde sco ing hei p ac ical impo ance o s uden s’ li es. Fu he ‐ mo e, hey seem o be mo e impo an o expec ancies han o in insic alues. Thus, he ques ion emains which a iables addi ionally con ibu e o change o alue a iables. The si ua ed expec ancy- alue model (Eccles & Wig ield, 2020) does no only explain di e ences in in insic alues bu also in o he alues such as u ili y o a ainmen alues and cos s. Recen ly he e has been a lo o esea ch on in e ‐ en ions, especially minimal in e en ions o change alues bu also expec an‐ cies especially o disad an aged g oups (c . Rosenzweig e al., 2020, 2022). Mo eo e , he e is also inc eased in e es in domain-speci ic belie s abou he na u e o abili ies, ollowing esea ch in implici in elligence heo ies / mindse s. 100 Rica da S einmay Implici belie s abou he na u e o in elligence—whe he iewed as ixed o malleable—a e also pe inen o unde s anding mo i a ional dynamics. Mind‐ se s e e o an indi idual’s subjec i e belie s abou whe he speci ic a ibu es, such as in elligence o ma hema ical abili y, a e unchangeable o can be de el‐ oped and imp o ed (e.g., Dweck & Yeage , 2019). The belie ha an a ibu e is ixed ep esen s a ixed mindse , while he belie ha i can be cul i a ed e lec s a g ow h mindse . Unlike a ixed mindse , a g ow h mindse is heo ized o enhance s uden s’ mo i a ion and academic pe o mance, especially among hose acing challenges. Resea ch indica es ha when eache s iew in elligence as unchangeable, hei beha io ends o be mo e achie emen -o ien ed, ocus‐ ing on pe o mance ou comes a he han he lea ning p ocess (e.g., LaCosse e al., 2021; Pa k e al., 2016). Howe e , such pe o mance-o ien ed beha io has been linked o lowe le els o s uden mo i a ion, as i may c ea e a high- p essu e en i onmen ha p io i izes esul s o e e o and imp o emen (e.g., Ames, 1992; Wi hwein e al., 2021). Fu he mo e, he na u e o he lea ning en i onmen signi ican ly in luences he way success is pe cei ed and pu sued. In achie emen -o ien ed lea ning en i onmen s, he emphasis is on demon‐ s a ing one’s compe encies, wi h success o en being de ined in compa ison o he accomplishmen s o pee s (Ciani e al., 2010; Dweck & Legge , 1988). This ocus on ela i e pe o mance s eng hens he associa ion be ween indi‐ idual success and ex e nal alida ion. In con as , lea ning-o ien ed en i on‐ men s p io i ize he p ocess o acqui ing knowledge and imp o ing pe sonal compe encies in hose en i onmen s, success is measu ed by indi idual g ow h and mas e y, leading o a weake associa ion wi h ex e nal compa isons o pee - ela i e ou comes (Dweck & Legge , 1988; Meece e al., 2006). The sel - de e mina ion heo y explains indi idual di e ences in in insic mo i a ion, among o he s, by di e en eeling o compe ences. Thus, in a lea ning-o ien ed en i onmen , e en s uden s who ecei e pe o mance eedback (in Ge many mos ly ope a ionalized by g ades) sugges ing hey a e no pe o ming as well as hei pee s can emain in insically mo i a ed. He e, i espec i e o a s u‐ den s’ pe o mance le el, all s uden s ha e he possibili y o inc ease hei com‐ pe encies and hus pe cei e hemsel es as success ul and compe en lea ne s which should weaken he associa ion be ween g ades and in insic alues. In con as , in a pe o mance-o ien ed en i onmen , only s uden s ou pe o ming hei pee migh be mo i a ed which should s eng hen he associa ion be ween pe o mance eedback and in insic mo i a ion. Following hese a ionales, Heyde e al. (2020) in es iga ed whe he ma h- speci ic implici in elligence belie s a ec ed he associa ion be ween s uden s’ in insic mo i a ion and pe o mance eedback (g ades) in ma h in a la ge sample o Ge man ou h g ade s and hei 56 eache s. Findings e ealed ha Lea ning and mo i a ion 107 nology. 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