© 2023 Published by VŠB-TU Os a a. All igh s ese ed. ER-CEREI, Volume 26: 87–98 (2023).
ISSN 1212-3951 (P in ), 1805-9481 (Online)
The gende pay gap in he amily business
Gab iela POLÁKOVÁ a, Te ezie KRESTOVÁ a
*
, Ka eřina STANOVSKÁ a
a Depa men o Managemen , Facul y o Economics, VSB – Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu
2172/15, Os a a, Czech Republic.
Abs ac
The gende pay gap has pe sis ed o a long ime and women s ill ace p oblems o lowe wages ega dless o
quali ica ion, expe ience, and expe ise. This p oblem has an impac on hei inancial well-being, li ing s anda ds
o hei amilies, and in he u u e also on hei lowe pensions.
The aim o his pape is o ind ou whe he he e is a pay disc imina ion be ween women and men in he same
posi ions in he amily business. I so, wha is he impac on eal wages and wha a e he main ac o s in luencing
and ela ed o ea nings. We conduc ed esea ch wi h employees in he same posi ions. Da a on he gende pay gap
was analysed, aking in o conside a ion s a is ics om he amily business and na ional ones. The mul iple eg es-
sion analyse was pe o med o iden i y and quan i y he main ac o s in luencing ea nings.
We ind ha women's ea nings a e lowe han expec ed based on hei job i le, pe sonal expe ience, and quali ica-
ions. Bu he esul o gende pay gap in he amily business p o ed o be a mo e a ou able and he di e ence
is lowe han he Czech na ional GPG is. In addi ion o educa ion and gende , he ole o b eadwinne also signi i-
can ly a ec s ea nings in he amily business.
Ou indings will ad ance ou unde s anding o main ac o s o gende pay gap and i s e ec s on li ing s anda ds
o amilies and economics.
Keywo ds
Gende pay gap, disc imina ion, amily business, emune a ions, sex bias
JEL Classi ica ion: D31, J16, J31, J71
*
e ezie.k es o a@ sb.cz (co esponding au ho )
This pape was suppo ed by he S uden G an Compe i ion o he Facul y o Economics, VSB-Technical Uni e si y o
Os a a (p ojec egis a ion numbe : SP2023/025). All suppo is g ea ly acknowledged and app ecia ed.
88 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023
The gende pay gap in he amily business
Gab iela POLÁKOVÁ, Te ezie KRESTOVÁ, Ka eřina STANOVSKÁ
1. In oduc ion
This is a cu en opic ha was e en awa ded he
Nobel P ize o Economics in 2023. Claudia Goldin
won he Nobel P ize o he esea ch on he Gende
Pay Gap. Especially in he Czech Republic, which is
one o he lowes coun ies in he GPG, i makes sense
o engage in ele an esea ch.
The e ol ing oles o women and men in he labo
ma ke ha e been his o ically in luenced by ac o s
such as social s a us, educa ional oppo uni ies, and
economic independence. Gende -based job seg ega-
ion, oo ed in his o ical ca egi ing oles o women,
con inues o con ibu e signi ican ly o he pe sis en
issue o unequal pay. Kim e al. (2023) a i m ha
p o essions like social wo k s ill su e om lowe pay
compa ed o simila occupa ions. Du ing imes o wa ,
women en e ed he labo o ce ou o necessi y, illing
posi ions adi ionally held by men. While pos -Wo ld
Wa II saw p og ess in women's economic emancipa-
ion, esponsibili ies o amily and household du ies
emain p edominan ly emale. Gende dispa i ies in
occupa ional seg ega ion, pay, educa ion, and wo k
expe ience pe sis , as e idenced by Abegaz e al.
(2023) and Sa o e al. (2019).
The Czech labo ma ke , shaped by his o ical and
socie al ac o s, e ains gende -speci ic cha ac e is ics
e en a e signi ican e en s like he 1989 e olu ion.
Economic heo ies explo e a ious in luences on he
gende pay gap, including age, educa ion, mo he -
hood, and ma ke seg ega ion. The gende pay gap
se es as a c ucial indica o o economic inequali y,
impac ing wo king condi ions, ca ee ad ancemen ,
and household s anda ds o li ing. Blau (2019) high-
ligh s he ole o wage s uc u es, while A ms ong
(2009) emphasizes he impac o ca ee in e up ions
on women's ea nings. Ra e y (2019) discusses
disc imina ion's e ec s on skill u iliza ion and unde -
skilling, while Cook e al. (2019) emphasize he
posi i e in luence o women on pay decisions.
T anspa ency in emune a ion is c ucial, ye many
Czech companies p ohibi wage sha ing. Legisla ion
aimed a p omo ing pay equali y, as ad oca ed by
Chichilnisky (2009) and suppo ed by Zhang (2014),
can help add ess dispa i ies. Mo he hood signi ican ly
impac s women's wages and ca ee s, wi h socie al
pe cep ions o en hinde ing p o essional ad ancemen .
Policies suppo ing pa en hood, such as accessible
childca e, can mi iga e hese challenges, as demon-
s a ed by Budig e al. (2016). Goldin e al (2017)
s a ed ha he gende ea nings gap is a shi ing s a is-
ic. I widens wi h age, especially in he 15 o 20 yea s
a e school lea ing. I expands mo e o hose who
a e ma ied and e en mo e o hose wi h young
child en.
Pay inequali y ex ends beyond gende o encom-
pass a ious demog aphics, wi h implici social biases
con ibu ing o dispa i ies. Add essing hese complex
issues equi es a comp ehensi e app oach o ensu e
equali y and imp o e socie al well-being (He wig e
al., 2023).
The objec i e o his s udy is o in es iga e po en-
ial pay disc imina ion be ween women and men
occupying simila posi ions wi hin amily-owned
businesses. I such disc imina ion exis s, we aim o
assess i s implica ions on ac ual wages and iden i y
key ac o s in luencing hese dispa i ies. Ou esea ch
in ol ed su eying employees in iden ical oles.
The emainde o he pape is o ganised as ollows.
In he nex sec ion, we p esen a li e a u e e iew
ocusing on gende pay gap. The hi d sec ion esea ch
me hodology is desc ibed. In he ou h sec ion, he
esul s a e p esen ed. The i h and six h sec ions
p o ide he discussion and conclusion.
2. Li e a u e e iew
His o ically, he posi ion o women and men in he
labou ma ke has changed and is ela ed o he social
s a us o women, he possibili y o ob aining and
subsequen ly applying hei educa ion and he legi i-
macy o being economically sel -su icien and inde-
penden o men. In he pas , women go jobs based on
hei ca egi ing skills. He e we can see he beginnings
o gende seg ega ion o wo k which is s ill a signi i-
can cause o unequal pay e en oday. Also, nowadays
i is con i med by Kim e al. (2023) who decla e ha
he social wo k p o ession pays less han o he occu-
pa ions wi h simila educa ional and aining equi e-
men s and s ill penalizes women wi h lowe pay.
Du ing he wa , women we e p agma ically al-
lowed o en e he labou ma ke and we e ec ui ed
in o male-domina ed p o essions due o he lack o
male labou . A e he Second Wo ld Wa , he eco-
nomic emancipa ion o women and hei pa icipa ion
in he labou ma ke was gene ally suppo ed. Howe -
e , aking ca e o he amily and household emains a
G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business
89
woman's domain o his day. His o ically, inequali y
be ween men and women has been ela ed o seg ega-
ion in o di e en occupa ions, unequal pay, as well as
di e ences in educa ion le els and oppo uni ies o
gain wo k expe ience. Abegaz e al. (2023) deals wi h
he issue o seg ega ion o emale wo ke s in o low-
paying i ms and show signi ican gende wage and
p oduc i i y gaps. Sa o e al. (2019) poin ed ou ha
job seg ega ion by gende is one o he main causes o
he gende pay gap.
The Czech labou ma ke e ained hese speci ics
e en a e he 1989 e olu ion, and some o hem
pe sis ill now. Economic heo ies moni o he in lu-
ence o gende , age, educa ion, numbe o yea s o
se ice, he in luence o mo he hood and o he ca ee
b eaks, he in luence o ma ke seg ega ion, he
in luence o legisla i e ac i i y and legal no ms, he
ins i u ional in luence o ade unions on he gende
pay gap.
The gende pay gap is a e y impo an indica o
o he posi ion o women and men on he labou
ma ke as i cap u es he quali y o hei economic
pa icipa ion and he ex en o which women, o men,
a e disad an aged in e ms o wo king condi ions,
chances o ca ee ad ancemen and as a esul o
assumed s anda ds o esponsibili y o ca e and
unpaid wo k in he home (Akchu in e al., 2013). The
di e ence be ween he hou ly o mon hly wages o
men and women is he esul o gende inequali ies in
he labou ma ke and a he same ime has long- e m
nega i e consequences o gende equali y, as i
undamen ally ansla es in o di e ences in li e ime
ea nings and pensions be ween men and women.
Gende di e ences in pay ha e a undamen al impac
on he li ing s anda d o households, he eminiza ion
o po e y, he li ing s anda ds o child en, he up-
b inging o child en, hei aspi a ions and u u e
success in li e, as well as he pe o mance o he
economy (Křížko á e al., 2017).
The gende pay gap is in luenced by g ade classi i-
ca ion p ocedu es, employee e alua ions, compensa-
ion sys ems and p ocedu es o de e mining compen-
sa ion, and employee s abiliza ion measu es. Blau
(2019) emphasizes he ole o wage s uc u e in
de e mining he gende pay gap, highligh ing how
di e ences in labou ma ke skills and sec o ewa ds
con ibu e o he gap. A wide sala y ange can lead o
disc imina ion. A ms ong (2009) s a ed ha a wide
sala y ange, especially whe e p og ession is based on
leng h o expe ience, will a ou men who a e much
less likely o ha e any ca ee in e up ions and he e-
o e can p og ess highe and as e in hei ca ee s.
In e up ion o wo k o ca e o child en and o he
dependen household membe s a ec s women's
wages, sala ies, and wo k expe ience. Hul in e al.
(2003) claim in hei wo k ha i he e a e mo e
emale manage s, he e is a lowe le el o gende
seg ega ion and ha emale manage s pay mo e
a en ion o issues o gende equali y, including equal
pay. Song e al. (2019) poin ed ou ha gende pay
equi y is a desi able socie al alue and an impo an
s a egy o ill e e y le el o he o ganiza ional s uc-
u e wi h gende -di e se alen o mee he o ganiza-
ion's goals and mission. Yamamo o e al. (2019)
examines how educa ional a ainmen in luences
occupa ional choice o men and women in u ban and
u al a eas. Ra e y (2019) analyses he e ec s o
disc imina ion based on ace, e hnici y, na ionali y,
eligion, gende , age, disabili y and sexual o ien a ion
on skills unde u iliza ion and unde -skilling in 30
Eu opean coun ies. Ra e y (2019) a gues ha
people who expe ienced a ious o ms o disc imina-
ion in he wo kplace we e mo e likely o epo
o e quali ica ion, de ined as skills o mo e demand-
ing oles han equi ed o hei job. In his s udy,
K onbe g (2019) showed ha men ecei e mo e me i
ewa ds han women o he same pe o mance. La az
e al. (2019) a gue ha i men ea n mo e pe hou on
a e age han women, he pay gap be ween men and
women will emain. They said ha he as majo i y
o di ec o s and execu i es wo king o la ge compa-
nies a e men, which is a he oo o he p oblem.
Ba gain e al. (2019) sugges ha he gende pay gap
a he bo om o he wage dis ibu ion can be e ec i e-
ly educed by a minimum wage. Howe e , aising he
minimum wage has o he economic consequences.
Maume e al. (2019) poin o he ac ha e en hough
Eu opean coun ies ha e manda ed quo as o he
ep esen a ion o women on boa ds o di ec o s and
ha e en hough women a e inc easingly en e ing he
anks o managemen , gende gaps in execu i e
compensa ion pe sis . Cook e al. (2019) epo ed ha
he mo e di ec in luence women ha e on pay deci-
sions, he smalle he pay gap is.
The easons o he di e ences in sala ies and
wages can also be ound in he choice o ields o
s udy. Gi ls end no o wo y ha hey won' be able
o handle echnical ields, bu a he hey used o be
mo e in e es ed in he humani ies. In gene al, humani-
ies ields used o be o en a less paid. The e o e,
gi ls deciding on hei u u e ield and ocus should
p agma ically also ake hese consequences in o
accoun . I should be no ed ha su icien income in
he economically ac i e age a ec s he alue o
pension in he senio age. Income has an impac on
how we will li e o he es o ou li es.
Gende di e ences in wage nego ia ions ha e been
o e ed as a common explana ion o why he gende
gap in pay pe sis s (Demi o ic e al., 2023). The key is
o be able o nego ia e a good s a ing sala y. I is
impo an wha sala y a woman s a s a , because hen
90 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023
he sala y inc eases only by a ce ain small pe cen age
o he same posi ion. Any jumping in a pay inc ease
may become jus a d eam wish. Duman (2023) ound
ha pay inequali ies a e a gued o be mo e p e alen
o empo a y jobs. Hence, la ge wage penal ies o
women in such posi ions a e expec ed.
Also, gende socializa ion may be a cause o gi ls'
lowe nego ia ing powe . The causes can be ound in
he upb inging in childhood when hey a e b ough up
no o be agg essi e, no o explici ly say wha hey
wan . Women may belie e ha people a ound hem
see ha hey wo k hones ly and in ensi ely and ha
he ewa d should he e o e all in o hei lap, bu his
usually does no coincide wi h eali y.
The Czech companies o en p ohibi he sha ing o
wage and sala y in o ma ion. Employees end o ha e
non-disclosu e ag eemen s in hei employmen
con ac s. So, hey don' know i someone is ea ning
mo e and can' aise inequali ies. I is no always
anspa en . When we conside he p ac ical legal
unen o ceabili y o hese non-disclosu es in employ-
men con ac s, i only has a psychological e ec .
Legally, i is di icul o en o ce. I he ewa d sys em
in he o ganiza ion is ai , i should be anspa en . I is
also a cul u al ma e . Equali y in emune a ion will be
helped by he inc ease in anspa ency ensh ined in he
Eu opean di ec i e and he amendmen o he Labo
Code. The aim o his legisla ion is o s eng hen he
igh s o employees o equal emune a ion o wo k o
equal alue and o in oduce he igh o in o ma ion
on he a e age sala y o a compa able posi ion wi h
he same employe . This would c ea e an obliga ion
o employe s o compile analyses o pay and wage
di e ences be ween men and women o na ional
au ho i ies and o hei employees. Those who a e
disc imina ed agains in pay will ha e an oppo uni y
o ind ou and p o e he disc imina ion. Chichilnisky
(2009) explains he gende pay gap as a esul o a
Nash equilib ium in luenced by incomple e in o -
ma ion abou women's wo k, leading o lowe p oduc-
i i y and wages o women. The pape sugges s ha
upda ed amily law and app op ia e con ac s can help
esol e his si ua ion. Zhang (2014) inds ha i ms
wi h high capi al in ensi y and ola ile s ock pe o -
mance end o ha e highe pay gaps among execu-
i es. On he o he hand, echnology-in ensi e i ms
and hose acing inancial dis ess end o ha e lowe
pay gaps. The s udy also sugges s ha de ia ions om
he op imal pay gap ange can impai i m alue.
Pa en hood has a majo impac on wages and sala-
ies as well as on women's ca ee s in he Czech
Republic. The e a e s ill many employe s who pe -
cei e pa en hood as incompa ible wi h a ca ee o ull-
ime employmen , based on s a is ically un ounded
assump ions o mo he s' equen absence om wo k
o e oneous s e eo ypes ega ding a lack o leade ship
and managemen skills which a e a ed as psychologi-
cally and ime-consuming, and he e o e s e eo ypical-
ly des ined o men. Ebe ha d e al. (2023) con i m
ha pa en hood ha e a signi ican impac on engage-
men in he labou o ce. Pa en s may decide o look
o jobs wi h speci ic cha ac e is ics, and in some
cases, hey may decide o no pa icipa e in he labou
ma ke . No only because o he elimina ion o dis-
c imina ion bu also due o he demog aphic de elop-
men in he Czech Republic, mo he hood should be
mo e suppo ed and app ecia ed. Women should no
be penalized in hei sala ies o wages and in hei
oppo uni ies o success o hei con ibu ions o he
s a e. Child en, ca e abou hem, hei upb inging and
educa ion a e he basis o he s a e's pe spec i e and
i s economic g ow h. Child en a e he po en ial and
u u e o he s a e. Budig e al. (2016) show ha
policies ha suppo pa en hood also suppo women's
labou ma ke pa icipa ion. The ala ming sho age o
public and p i a e childca e ins i u ions and hei low
capaci ies o ce mo he s o s ay unnecessa ily long on
pa en al "lea e", some imes up o 4 yea s o age.
Mo he s in he Czech Republic p ac ically ha e no
o he op ion han o s ay on pa en al lea e o se e al
yea s, because he childca e sys em in he Czech
Republic is no su icien ly a ailable. Child en's
g oups o oddle s wi h a e y low capaci y and
usually om he age o 18 mon hs a e only in la ge
ci ies and he condi ion o admission is he pe manen
esidence in he gi en ci y. The lack o his childca e
se ice can also be a eason o pos poning mo he -
hood among women in highe managemen posi ions.
I hese Child ens’ g oups a e no close o he wo k-
place o esidence and he mo he s know ha hei
child en can be placed in he kinde ga en, depending
on he capaci y, om he age o 3 a he ea lies ,
because olde , p eschool-age child en a e accep ed
p e e en ially, hen hey ha e o ake ca e a home and
he e u n o wo k is pos poned un il he child is
admi ed o a kinde ga en. Due o insu icien capaci-
y o he childca e sys em mo he s ha e e y limi ed
possibili ies o be economically ac i e. Then hey
canno aise he amily's li ing s anda ds, and i also
has an impac on lowe ax paymen s o he s a e.
Condi ions and suppo o women's access o em-
ploymen , such as childca e se ices, i.e. su icien
capaci ies o c èches and kinde ga ens play a key
ole. The inancial a ailabili y o ca e acili ies,
especially o he younges babies, is also key. I we
conside ha he p ice o dayca e in c èches is on
a e age 15 imes mo e han he kinde ga en ee is,
his ca e may be inancially una o dable o many
mo he s, and hey may p e e pa en al ca e un il hei
child en a e 3 yea s old. Budig e al. (2016) con i med
ha a highe pe cen age o child en aged 0-3 in public
G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business
91
acili ies educes he gende pay gap. Howe e , pay
disc imina ion does no ha e o conce n only gende .
Jones e al. (2023) ecognises he ole o pa en hood in
con ibu ing o gende inequali ies a wo k. Nzima e
al. (2023) s ess ha he esponsibili y o p o ide ca e
o young child en is one o he obs acles ha in luence
women´s labou o ce pa icipa ion. Thei s udy
highligh s he need o policies and in e en ions
aimed a p o iding subsidised childca e o poo
mo he s ha could elie e he bu den o unpaid wo k
as well as encou age pa icipa ion in paid wo k and
hus na ow he gende -income gap. Goldin (2022)
sol es wha happens when he kids g ow up. To
answe ha ques ion, hey es ima e h ee ea ning gaps:
he “mo he hood penal y,” he “p ice o being e-
male,” and he “ a he hood p emium.” When added
oge he hese h ee p oduce he “pa en al gende
gap”.
Possible a eas o pay inequali y may conce n disa-
bled, olde o e en younge employees, employees o
di e en aces, na ionali ies, e hnici ies and social
g oups. One o he causes o inequali ies is implici
social bias (He wig e al., 2023). The complexi y o
pay disc imina ion and i s connec ion wi h o he
p oblems equi es a comp ehensi e app oach o i s
solu ion.
Goldin e al. (2017) s a ed ha he bigge GPG is
caused by men’s g ea e abili y o mo e o highe
paying i ms and posi ions and hei be e acili y o
ad ance wi hin i ms. Bo h ac o s inc ease wi h
women’s g ea e amily esponsibili ies.
Re ospec i ely, he phenomenon o inequali y in
he emune a ion o women and men nega i ely
a ec s he li es o speci ic men and women, bu also
e y se iously in e e es wi h he exis ence and li ing
s anda ds o amilies and he unc ioning o he en i e
socie y.
The i s esea ch ques ion aimed o answe i
he e exis s some gende pay gap in he analysed
company. T- es s we e used o analyse he ela ionship
and di e ence be ween women´s and men´s ea nings.
The second esea ch ques ion aimed o answe
wha a e he main de e minan s which in luence he
ea nings. Tha is why he mul iple eg ession analysis
was used o p edic he main ac o s which causes he
di e ences in ea nings.
The ollowing de e minan s we e selec ed: gende ,
age, leng h o p ac ice, educa ion, gende , and chil-
d en. The easons o he selec ion o hese ac o s
we e as ollows.
The gende is in his s udy he key ac o . The ea-
son o he gende de e minan is he ac ha he
Czech Republic has an ala ming high le el o GPG,
one o he wo s in he EU.
We can assume ha ea nings could also inc ease
wi h inc easing age. O e ime, employees acqui e
mo e compe ences, gain mo e expe ience and
knowledge, and can ha e a g ea e o e iew in he
ield.
The leng h o expe ience was selec ed as ano he
possible de e minan a ec ing ea nings. We can
assume ha expe ience will g ow wi h a longe leng h
o p ac ice which should p obably be alued wi h
highe ea nings.
The educa ion o employees a ec s hei abili ies,
skills, knowledge, and hei success in he labo
ma ke . We can assume ha highe educa ion should
lead o he acquisi ion o p o essional knowledge
which should be p ope ly alued. On he con as o
his opinion, Vohlídalo á e al. (2023) ound ou : “The
mo e educa ed men and women we compa e wi h each
o he , he highe he di e ences in emune a ion o he
disad an age o women”.
The de e minan "child en" was chosen o e i y
whe he he s a us o pa en hoods and b eadwinne s
a ec decisions on he amoun o emune a ion.
Vohlídalo á e al. (2023) highlighe ed a pa en hood as
a key a iable ha signi ican ly a ec s he amoun o
emune a ion and explains a signi ican p opo ion o
he gende gap in emune a ion.
3. Me hods
The au ho s chose a amily-owned company ha is he
la ges employe in Pře o dis ic in he Czech
Republic, employing 1 655 employees in 2023. In he
analysed company, he esea ch was ocused on he
gende pay gap in he same posi ions o accoun
execu i es and buye s, classi ied in he same sala y
classes and wo king ull- ime. The analysis was
conduc ed in Ap il 2023 and analysed he ea nings o
he mon h o Ma ch 2023. P ima y da a was ob ained
on he basis o comple ed o ms om indi idual
employees wi h he app o al o he Chie Sales
O ice as a di ec supe iso o his sample o e-
sponden s.The analysis e i ies, by di ec ly compa ing
all employees o bo h sexes, whe he a gi en pe son
ea ns compa a i ely less han would be expec ed
based on his/he job unc ion (demands o he job),
pe sonal expe ience (age, leng h o expe ience) and
educa ion. The sample o esponden s (N = 52) con-
sis ed o all employees in he posi ions o accoun
execu i e and buye ep esen ing he same o simila
posi ions. The e we e used desc ip i e s a is ics, he
dis ibu ion o ea nings in qua iles, he p obabili y
densi y unc ion, and he dis ibu ion unc ion o he
no mal dis ibu ion o emale and male ea nings and
wo-sample - es wi h inequali y o a iance o
hypo hesis es ing. The mul iple eg ession analyse

92 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023
was pe o med o ind a model o he unc ional
dependence o ea nings on ac o s such as age, leng h
o p ac ice, gende , educa ion, and pa en hood.
4. Resul s
As men ioned abo e, he au ho s decided o analyse
he di e ences in he emune a ion o women and men
in a amily business. The au ho s collec ed da a on a
g oup o employees o one company. I is a amily-
owned business and a he same ime a la ges em-
ploye in Pře o dis ic in Olomouc Region. Cu en -
ly, he company employs 1,655 employees (2023).
The co e business is he semiconduc o and mili a y
indus y. The a en ion was ocused on he same
posi ions. The e o e, he speci ic g oup o salescle ks
and buye s we e chosen because hey a e he posi ions
o echnical economic wo ke s which a e he mos
nume ous in he company and hei posi ions a e e y
close o each o he . Indi idual esponden s illed ou
he o m in which he ollowing cha ac e is ics we e
moni o ed: posi ion, ea nings, gende , age, leng h o
expe ience, educa ion, and pa en hood. The a ge
g oup consis s o 52 employees in he posi ions o
salescle ks and buye s who we e app oached, and all
illed ou he o m ( e u n a e 100 %).
As he i s s ep, he au ho ocused on answe ing
esea ch ques ion Q1.
Resea ch ques ion Q1: Wha a e he di e ences in
ea nings be ween men and women wo king in he
same o simila posi ions in he company?
The sample o esponden s (N = 52) consis ed o
all employees in he posi ions o accoun execu i e
and buye ep esen ing he same o simila posi ions.
The e we e 31 accoun execu i es, o which 11
(35.5%) we e men and 20 we e women (64.5%).
Buye s we e 21, o which 13 (61.9%) we e men and 8
(38.1%) we e women. The a e age age o bo h sexes
was 34 yea s. The a e age leng h o expe ience was
10 yea s. The employee s a is ic is shown in he Table
4-1.
Table 4–1 Employee s a is ics
Func ion
N
%
All
Men
Woman
Men
Woman
Accoun
execu i es
31
11
20
35.5
64.5
Buye s
21
13
8
61.9
38.1
To al
52
24
28
46.2
53.8
Sou ce: own calcula ion
The o al ea nings o men and women a e shown in
he Table 4-2.
Table 4–2 Employee s a is ics
To al ea ning in CZK
Di
(%)
Min
Max
Max-
Min
All ø
M ø
W ø
Accoun
execu i es
31000
39800
8800
36217
38192
35132
-8.0%
Buye s
33200
39800
6600
36369
37079
35214
-5.0%
To al
31000
39800
8800
36278
37589
35155
-6.5%
Sou ce: own calcula ion
The a e age ea ning o bo h sexes is 36 278 CZK,
o which he a e age ea nings o men is 37 589 CZK
and he a e age ea ning o women is 35 155 CZK. On
a e age, women ea n 6.5% less han men in he same
posi ion. O hese, women wo king as accoun execu-
i es a e wo se (- 8 %) han women wo king as
buye s (-5%). The gap (% o male ea nings) means he
pay di e ence be ween he o al ea nings o women
and men as a pe cen age o men's ea nings o he
ele an posi ion. The numbe is nega i e. This means
ha women on a e age ea n less han men (-6.5 %).
The minimum ea ning in he mon h o Ap il 2023 was
CZK 31,000. The maximum ea nings we e 39,800.
The di e ence be ween he maximum and he mini-
mum ea nings was 8,800 CZK.
The ask is o e i y he ollowing hypo hesis. Fo
his pu pose, Welch's es was chosen, see Table 4-3.
H10: A e age ea nings be ween men and women
in he same posi ions a e he same.
H11: A e age ea nings di e be ween men and
women in he same posi ions.
Table 4–3 Two-Sample -Tes wi h Inequali y o Va iance -
Gende Pay Gap
Women
Men
Mean
35155
37589,2
Va iance
2888115
2699269
Obse a ion
28
24
Di
49
S a
-5.2421
P(T<= ) (1)
1.7E-06
c i (1)
1.67655
P(T<= ) (2)
3.4E-06
Sou ce: own calcula ion
The c i ical ield is W = (-∞,-
2.0096>∪<2.0096,∞). The alue o he es s a is ic is
-5.2421. The p- alue is 0.0000034. Thus, he -s a is ic
lies in he c i ical ield and he p- alue is less han he
signi icance le el α = 0.05. The null hypo hesis is
ejec ed, and he al e na i e hypo hesis is con i med.
The - es con i med ha a e age ea nings di e
s a is ically signi ican ly be ween gende s in he same
job posi ions. I can be concluded ha gende in his
G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business
93
sample has a s a is ically signi ican e ec on he
ea nings.
Table 4-4 shows he dis ibu ion o men's and
women's ea nings in qua iles. To al ea nings a e
s anda dized o ull- ime employees. Ea nings a e
so ed by size in ascending o de . Qua iles di ide his
dis ibu ion in o qua e s. Thus, Qua ile 1 con ains he
lowes 25 % o ea nings, while Qua ile 4 con ains he
highes 25 % o ea nings. The s a ed amoun o money
indica es he uppe limi o he espec i e qua ile. In
he second qua ile, his igu e co esponds o he
median: i.e., he mean alue below and abo e i .
Table 4–3 Ea nings dis ibu ion: numbe o employees pe
qua ile
Lowes
qua e o
34 880 CZK
2nd lowes
qua e o
(median)
2nd highes
qua e o
37 850
CZK
Highes
qua e o
39 800
CZK
To al
Q y
%
Q y
%
Q y
%
Q y
%
Q y
%
Men
1
7.7
6
46.2
5
38,5
12
92.3
24
46.2
Women
12
92.3
7
53.8
8
61,5
1
7.7
28
53.8
To al
13
100.0
13
100.0
13
100.0
13
100.0
52
100.0
Sou ce: own calcula ion
Figu e 4-1 shows ha in he i s qua ile, i.e., in
he lowes qua e o ea nings, mo e han 90 % o
esponden s a e ep esen ed by women. While in he
op qua e o ea nings, mo e han 90 % o espond-
en s a e domina ed by men.
Figu e 4–1 Dis ibu ion o ea nings by gende in qua iles
The assump ion is ha he dis ibu ion o ea nings in he
popula ion o all analysed employees is no mal. The ollow-
ing g aphs show he p obabili y densi y unc ion o he
no mal dis ibu ion and he dis ibu ion unc ion o he
no mal dis ibu ion o he ea nings o women and men o he
analysed sample. As you can see in he Figu e 4-2 he e is a
ce ain imbalance agains women.
Figu e 4-2 P obabili y densi y unc ion and dis ibu ion
unc ion o he no mal dis ibu ion o emale and male
ea nings
The GPG (Gende Pay Gap) alue is published
e e y yea by Eu os a and he Czech S a is ical
O ice. This allows us no only o accu a ely de e -
mine he ue le el o he gende pay gap in ou
coun y, bu also o ind ou how we a e compa ed o
o he coun ies a ound he wo ld. Wi hin he EU, he
Czech Republic has a di e ence in ea nings be ween
women and men in 2021 (GPG) o 15% (in public
sec o : 12,2 %; in p i a e sec o : 19,5%). The la es
da a is no published ye . Compa ed o o he EU
membe s a es, he Czech Republic is he 9 h wo s in
2021. The Czech Republic anks among he coun ies
in which wage a iabili y, o wage inequali y is one o
he highes . Acco ding o Eu os a da a, he Czech
Republic has had a downwa d end in he pay gap
be ween men and women since 2015 (GPG = 22.5%)
(2021: GPG = 15%).
As he second s ep, he au ho ocused on answe -
ing esea ch ques ion Q2.
Resea ch ques ion Q2: Wha a e he main ac o s
a ec ing and ela ed o ea nings.
The ollowing ac o s we e selec ed: age, emale
sex, leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa ion and
whe he an employee has a child o child en, i his
also may a ec he amoun o ea nings.
94 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023
A mul iple eg ession analysis was pe o med, see
Table 4-5.
Table 4–5 Mul iple eg ession analysis – dependence o
ea nings on age, gende , leng h o p ac ice, educa ion, and
child en
Reg ession s a is ics
Co ela ion
coe icien
0.9143
Coe icien o
de e mina ion
0.8359
Adj. coe i-
cien o
de e mina ion
0.8181
E o a g
879.01
Obse a ions
52
ANOVA
Di
SS
MS
F
Signi-
icance
F
Reg ession
5
1.81E
+08
36218
271
46.874
84
6.13E-
17
Residue
46
35542
320
77265
9.1
To al
51
2.17E
+08
Coe .
E o
a g
S a
P-
alue
Lowe
95%
Uppe
95%
Bo de
33632
1412
23.81
1.64E-
27
30789
36475
Age (X1)
75
57
1.307
0.198
-40
190
Female
(X2)
-2405
245
-9.78
8.17E-
13
-2899
-1910
Leng h o
expe ience
(X3)
53
63
0.85
0.402
-73
179
Uni e si y
(X4)
649
248
2.61
0.012
149
1149
Child en
(X5)
1121
361
3.10
0.003
394
1848
Sou ce: own calcula ion
The ask is o ind a model o he unc ional de-
pendence o ea nings (Y) on age (X1), emale gende
(X2), leng h o expe ience (X3), uni e si y educa ion
(X4) and whe he he employee has child en (X5).
The ound model
Y=33632+75X1+(-2405)X2+53X3+649X4+1121X5
explains 82 % o he a iabili y o he eg esso
a iables. Adjus ed coe icien o de e mina ion
(0.8181) exp esses a model o a e y s ong depend-
ence o ea nings on a iables X1..p. The co ela ion
coe icien (0.91), e alua ing he e ec o all ac o s
oge he , indica es a s ong di ec co ela ion be ween
ea nings Y and eg esso a iables such as age, emale
gende , leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa ion, and
child en.
The ollowing hypo heses we e es ed:
H20: The ea nings Y does no depend on eg esso
a iables X1..p such as age, emale gende , leng h o
expe ience, uni e si y educa ion, and child en. bj = 0
H21: The ea nings Y depends on eg esso a i-
ables X1..p such as age, emale gende , leng h o
expe ience, uni e si y educa ion, and child en. bj,
≠ 0
The selec ed signi icance le el is α = 0, 05. Look-
ing a he da a om he mul iple eg ession analysis
showed in he able 5 we can see he p- alue (6.13E-
17) is e y low and is less han α. I means he model
is s a is ically signi ican . The e o e, we ejec he null
hypo hesis H20 ha ea nings do no depend on age,
emale gende , leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa-
ion, and child en. Based on he o e all F es
(p− alue<0.05), he model can be conside ed mean-
ing ul (we ejec ed he null hypo hesis abou a nulli y
o all model pa ame e s (excep he cons an )). The p-
alues o indi idual eg esso s, ha a e highe han
0.05, showing ha he espec i e coe icien is no
signi ican . The espec i e coe icien s wi h p- alue
less han 0.05 a e signi ican . The p- alue o he
a iables X1 age and X3 leng h o expe ience a e
g ea e han 0.05, he e o e he coe icien s a e no
unexpec edly s a is ically signi ican . While o he
eg esso s X2 emale gende , X4 highe educa ion and
X5 child en, he p- alue was less han 0.05 and he e-
o e hese coe icien s a e s a is ically signi ican . The
a iable X2 emale gende has he smalles p- alue.
Thus, gende is shown o ha e he g ea es impac on
ea nings in he examined da a sample. The coe icien
o X2 emale gende is nega i e. I means ha i an
employee is emale, she ea ns CZK 2.405 less on
a e age. Howe e , he in e al es ima e is mo e
accu a e, which ells us ha he guideline has a alue
be ween -2.900 CZK and -1.910 CZK wi h 95%
con idence. The coe icien s X1age, X3leng h o
expe ience, X4uni e si y educa ion, X5 child en u ned
ou o be posi i e as expec ed, i.e. hey inc ease he
expec ed alue o ea nings, bu only X4highe educa-
ion and X5child en a e ac o s ha a e s a is ically
signi ican in his sample o esponden s. The age and
leng h o p ac ice ha e a posi i e coe icien alue, bu
su p isingly hey came ou as s a is ically insigni ican
in he analysed sample.
In he nex s ep, eg ession analysis was pe o med
sepa a ely o men and sepa a ely o women. The
dependence o ea nings Y on he a iables Age X1,
Leng h o expe ience X2, Uni e si y educa ion X3,
Child en X4 was obse ed.
G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business
95
Fo men, he model has his esul : Y=33640 +
43X1 + 141X2 + 1248X3 + 934X4.
P- alue = 1.31E-09. The model is s a is ically sig-
ni ican .
Adj. Coe . De e mina ion = 0.889238.
Fo women, he model has his esul : Y=31769 +
66X1 + 61X2 + 241X3 + 868X4.
P- alue = 1.74E-05. The model is s a is ically sig-
ni ican .
Adj. Coe . De e mina ion = 0.625396
By compa ing he models o bo h sexes, i was
ound ha he cons an b0 is highe o men han o
women (33 640 CZK > 31 769 CZK). Ano he im-
po an inding is ha o he leng h o p ac ice X2,
men ea n mo e han wice mo e han women (141X2
o men, 61X2 o women). Acco ding o he model,
i men ha e he uni e si y educa ion X3, hey ea n on
a e age CZK 1,248 mo e han men wi hou he uni-
e si y educa ion, while women wi h he uni e si y
educa ion only ea ns an a e age o CZK 241 mo e
han women wi hou he uni e si y educa ion. I
means mens ecei es i e imes highe emune a ion
o he mas e ’s deg ee han women wi h he mas e ’s
deg ee in his sample. How da a shows he in luence
o child en on ea nings also plays a e y impo an
ole. I a man has a child o child en, he ecei es on
a e age CZK 934 mo e han a childless man. I a
woman has a child o child en, she ecei es on a e -
age CZK 868 mo e han a childless woman. Acco d-
ing o he models, men ecei e on a e age 7 % mo e
o ha ing child en han women.
5. Discussion
Vohlídalo á e al. (2023) highligh ed hese main
inequali ies and disad an ages ha women s ill mus
ace in socie y and on he labo ma ke : his is mainly
a symbolic denig a ion o women's wo k, he concen-
a ion o women in lowe paid ields, he disad-
an age o women in ca ee p og ession, hei disp o-
po iona e he bu den o he second shi a home,
disc imina ion in he wo kplace and a whole ange o
s e eo ypical iews wha women a e supposed o be
good o o no good o . As men ioned in he li e a-
u e e iew, a s ong ela ionship be ween a emale
gende and a pay gap has been epo ed. Wi h espec
o he i s esea ch ques ion, i was ound ha also in
he amily business he e is a gende pay gap in he
same posi ions (6,5%). Compa ing wi h he Czech
na ional one (15 %) i is signi ican ly lowe . Leake
(2008) shows ha he gende pay gap in he UK has
na owed o e ime bu a ies depending on ac o s
such as he numbe o dependen child en, company
size, and occupa ion. A possible explana ion o be e
esul in he amily business migh be p o iding mo e
oppo uni ies o women, lowe p ejudices agains
women, imp o ing o ganiza ional cul u e, changing
s e eo ypical hinking. Howe e , i is always in lu-
enced by he philosophy o he company owne s, by
hei app oach o employees, and by company alues.
The causes o gende pay gap can be oo ed in he
cul u al se ing o he whole socie y, in public opinion,
in alues, gende s e eo ypes, in he s uc u e o wo k,
in he o e o public o p i a e childca e, in he
educa ional sys em and socializa ion, in indi idual and
amily ac o s, in non- anspa en emune a ion
sys ems.
The second esea ch ques ion was o iden i y ac-
o s a ec ing and ela ing o ea nings. The p esen
s udy was designed o de e mine quan i iable e ec s
o age, gende , leng h o p ac ice, uni e si y educa ion
and he e ec o child en on pa en ´s ea nings. The
esul s show ha a emale gende has a nega i e e ec
and is s ill he bigges and he mos signi ican ac o
in lowe ea nings. The ole o b eadwinne is he
second mos signi ican ac o bu wi h posi i e e ec
in employee ea nings. I an employee has child en and
hus ul ills he ole o b eadwinne , so i helps he
employee o inc ease ea nings. Mos s iking was he
subs an ial di e ence in ea nings be ween employees
wi h child en and childless employees. I is su p ising
mainly because we can ask ou sel es a logical ques-
ion, how could child en in luence he esul s o he
wo k and how is his ela ed o he employee pe o -
mance? And why a e employees ha ing child en paid
be e han childless ones? I is di icul o explain, bu
i migh be p obably ela ed only o manage ´s hink-
ing and app oach who is a decision make in emune -
a ions. This is mo e possible in he p i a e sec o ,
whe e emune a ion is a ma e o a manage 's deci-
sion. I is impo an o bea in mind a possible manag-
e ´s bias in ques ion o gende and amily suppo .
Ve y li le was ound in he li e a u e on he ques ion
o child en and he impac on hei pa en ´s ea nings.
Py likalo á (2015) in he esea ch ound ou ha he
mon hly median wage o a he s inc eases wi h he
numbe o child en, while i dec eases o mo he s.
Hodges e al. (2010) con i med in hei esea ch
ha a he s ecei e highe wages compa ed o mo he s
and childless men in ela ion o ul illing he ole o
b eadwinne . Ou su ey showed ha e en mo he s
ha e a highe sala y han childless women, bu again
mo he s ecei e signi ican ly less han a he s. The
eason may be he s e eo ypical hinking ha he
a he is he main b eadwinne ega dless o he
eali y. In any case, his ac o lacks any a ional
explana ion, as i has no hing o do wi h employee´s
pe o mance o compe ence. This ou come is con a y
o ha o Deeming (2018) who discusses gende pay
gap epo ing in he UK and asse s ha hei o gani-
za ion pays colleagues ai ly based on ole, skills,