The gender pay gap in the family business

© 2023 Published by VŠB-TU Os a a. All igh s ese ed. ER-CEREI, Volume 26: 87–98 (2023). ISSN 1212-3951 (P in ), 1805-9481 (Online) The gende pay gap in he amily business Gab iela POLÁKOVÁ a, Te ezie KRESTOVÁ a * , Ka eřina STANOVSKÁ a a Depa men o Managemen , Facul y o Economics, VSB – Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 2172/15, Os a a, Czech Republic. Abs ac The gende pay gap has pe sis ed o a long ime and women s ill ace p oblems o lowe wages ega dless o quali ica ion, expe ience, and expe ise. This p oblem has an impac on hei inancial well-being, li ing s anda ds o hei amilies, and in he u u e also on hei lowe pensions. The aim o his pape is o ind ou whe he he e is a pay disc imina ion be ween women and men in he same posi ions in he amily business. I so, wha is he impac on eal wages and wha a e he main ac o s in luencing and ela ed o ea nings. We conduc ed esea ch wi h employees in he same posi ions. Da a on he gende pay gap was analysed, aking in o conside a ion s a is ics om he amily business and na ional ones. The mul iple eg es- sion analyse was pe o med o iden i y and quan i y he main ac o s in luencing ea nings. We ind ha women's ea nings a e lowe han expec ed based on hei job i le, pe sonal expe ience, and quali ica- ions. Bu he esul o gende pay gap in he amily business p o ed o be a mo e a ou able and he di e ence is lowe han he Czech na ional GPG is. In addi ion o educa ion and gende , he ole o b eadwinne also signi i- can ly a ec s ea nings in he amily business. Ou indings will ad ance ou unde s anding o main ac o s o gende pay gap and i s e ec s on li ing s anda ds o amilies and economics. Keywo ds Gende pay gap, disc imina ion, amily business, emune a ions, sex bias JEL Classi ica ion: D31, J16, J31, J71 * e ezie.k es o a@ sb.cz (co esponding au ho ) This pape was suppo ed by he S uden G an Compe i ion o he Facul y o Economics, VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a (p ojec egis a ion numbe : SP2023/025). All suppo is g ea ly acknowledged and app ecia ed. 88 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023 The gende pay gap in he amily business Gab iela POLÁKOVÁ, Te ezie KRESTOVÁ, Ka eřina STANOVSKÁ 1. In oduc ion This is a cu en opic ha was e en awa ded he Nobel P ize o Economics in 2023. Claudia Goldin won he Nobel P ize o he esea ch on he Gende Pay Gap. Especially in he Czech Republic, which is one o he lowes coun ies in he GPG, i makes sense o engage in ele an esea ch. The e ol ing oles o women and men in he labo ma ke ha e been his o ically in luenced by ac o s such as social s a us, educa ional oppo uni ies, and economic independence. Gende -based job seg ega- ion, oo ed in his o ical ca egi ing oles o women, con inues o con ibu e signi ican ly o he pe sis en issue o unequal pay. Kim e al. (2023) a i m ha p o essions like social wo k s ill su e om lowe pay compa ed o simila occupa ions. Du ing imes o wa , women en e ed he labo o ce ou o necessi y, illing posi ions adi ionally held by men. While pos -Wo ld Wa II saw p og ess in women's economic emancipa- ion, esponsibili ies o amily and household du ies emain p edominan ly emale. Gende dispa i ies in occupa ional seg ega ion, pay, educa ion, and wo k expe ience pe sis , as e idenced by Abegaz e al. (2023) and Sa o e al. (2019). The Czech labo ma ke , shaped by his o ical and socie al ac o s, e ains gende -speci ic cha ac e is ics e en a e signi ican e en s like he 1989 e olu ion. Economic heo ies explo e a ious in luences on he gende pay gap, including age, educa ion, mo he - hood, and ma ke seg ega ion. The gende pay gap se es as a c ucial indica o o economic inequali y, impac ing wo king condi ions, ca ee ad ancemen , and household s anda ds o li ing. Blau (2019) high- ligh s he ole o wage s uc u es, while A ms ong (2009) emphasizes he impac o ca ee in e up ions on women's ea nings. Ra e y (2019) discusses disc imina ion's e ec s on skill u iliza ion and unde - skilling, while Cook e al. (2019) emphasize he posi i e in luence o women on pay decisions. T anspa ency in emune a ion is c ucial, ye many Czech companies p ohibi wage sha ing. Legisla ion aimed a p omo ing pay equali y, as ad oca ed by Chichilnisky (2009) and suppo ed by Zhang (2014), can help add ess dispa i ies. Mo he hood signi ican ly impac s women's wages and ca ee s, wi h socie al pe cep ions o en hinde ing p o essional ad ancemen . Policies suppo ing pa en hood, such as accessible childca e, can mi iga e hese challenges, as demon- s a ed by Budig e al. (2016). Goldin e al (2017) s a ed ha he gende ea nings gap is a shi ing s a is- ic. I widens wi h age, especially in he 15 o 20 yea s a e school lea ing. I expands mo e o hose who a e ma ied and e en mo e o hose wi h young child en. Pay inequali y ex ends beyond gende o encom- pass a ious demog aphics, wi h implici social biases con ibu ing o dispa i ies. Add essing hese complex issues equi es a comp ehensi e app oach o ensu e equali y and imp o e socie al well-being (He wig e al., 2023). The objec i e o his s udy is o in es iga e po en- ial pay disc imina ion be ween women and men occupying simila posi ions wi hin amily-owned businesses. I such disc imina ion exis s, we aim o assess i s implica ions on ac ual wages and iden i y key ac o s in luencing hese dispa i ies. Ou esea ch in ol ed su eying employees in iden ical oles. The emainde o he pape is o ganised as ollows. In he nex sec ion, we p esen a li e a u e e iew ocusing on gende pay gap. The hi d sec ion esea ch me hodology is desc ibed. In he ou h sec ion, he esul s a e p esen ed. The i h and six h sec ions p o ide he discussion and conclusion. 2. Li e a u e e iew His o ically, he posi ion o women and men in he labou ma ke has changed and is ela ed o he social s a us o women, he possibili y o ob aining and subsequen ly applying hei educa ion and he legi i- macy o being economically sel -su icien and inde- penden o men. In he pas , women go jobs based on hei ca egi ing skills. He e we can see he beginnings o gende seg ega ion o wo k which is s ill a signi i- can cause o unequal pay e en oday. Also, nowadays i is con i med by Kim e al. (2023) who decla e ha he social wo k p o ession pays less han o he occu- pa ions wi h simila educa ional and aining equi e- men s and s ill penalizes women wi h lowe pay. Du ing he wa , women we e p agma ically al- lowed o en e he labou ma ke and we e ec ui ed in o male-domina ed p o essions due o he lack o male labou . A e he Second Wo ld Wa , he eco- nomic emancipa ion o women and hei pa icipa ion in he labou ma ke was gene ally suppo ed. Howe - e , aking ca e o he amily and household emains a G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business 89 woman's domain o his day. His o ically, inequali y be ween men and women has been ela ed o seg ega- ion in o di e en occupa ions, unequal pay, as well as di e ences in educa ion le els and oppo uni ies o gain wo k expe ience. Abegaz e al. (2023) deals wi h he issue o seg ega ion o emale wo ke s in o low- paying i ms and show signi ican gende wage and p oduc i i y gaps. Sa o e al. (2019) poin ed ou ha job seg ega ion by gende is one o he main causes o he gende pay gap. The Czech labou ma ke e ained hese speci ics e en a e he 1989 e olu ion, and some o hem pe sis ill now. Economic heo ies moni o he in lu- ence o gende , age, educa ion, numbe o yea s o se ice, he in luence o mo he hood and o he ca ee b eaks, he in luence o ma ke seg ega ion, he in luence o legisla i e ac i i y and legal no ms, he ins i u ional in luence o ade unions on he gende pay gap. The gende pay gap is a e y impo an indica o o he posi ion o women and men on he labou ma ke as i cap u es he quali y o hei economic pa icipa ion and he ex en o which women, o men, a e disad an aged in e ms o wo king condi ions, chances o ca ee ad ancemen and as a esul o assumed s anda ds o esponsibili y o ca e and unpaid wo k in he home (Akchu in e al., 2013). The di e ence be ween he hou ly o mon hly wages o men and women is he esul o gende inequali ies in he labou ma ke and a he same ime has long- e m nega i e consequences o gende equali y, as i undamen ally ansla es in o di e ences in li e ime ea nings and pensions be ween men and women. Gende di e ences in pay ha e a undamen al impac on he li ing s anda d o households, he eminiza ion o po e y, he li ing s anda ds o child en, he up- b inging o child en, hei aspi a ions and u u e success in li e, as well as he pe o mance o he economy (Křížko á e al., 2017). The gende pay gap is in luenced by g ade classi i- ca ion p ocedu es, employee e alua ions, compensa- ion sys ems and p ocedu es o de e mining compen- sa ion, and employee s abiliza ion measu es. Blau (2019) emphasizes he ole o wage s uc u e in de e mining he gende pay gap, highligh ing how di e ences in labou ma ke skills and sec o ewa ds con ibu e o he gap. A wide sala y ange can lead o disc imina ion. A ms ong (2009) s a ed ha a wide sala y ange, especially whe e p og ession is based on leng h o expe ience, will a ou men who a e much less likely o ha e any ca ee in e up ions and he e- o e can p og ess highe and as e in hei ca ee s. In e up ion o wo k o ca e o child en and o he dependen household membe s a ec s women's wages, sala ies, and wo k expe ience. Hul in e al. (2003) claim in hei wo k ha i he e a e mo e emale manage s, he e is a lowe le el o gende seg ega ion and ha emale manage s pay mo e a en ion o issues o gende equali y, including equal pay. Song e al. (2019) poin ed ou ha gende pay equi y is a desi able socie al alue and an impo an s a egy o ill e e y le el o he o ganiza ional s uc- u e wi h gende -di e se alen o mee he o ganiza- ion's goals and mission. Yamamo o e al. (2019) examines how educa ional a ainmen in luences occupa ional choice o men and women in u ban and u al a eas. Ra e y (2019) analyses he e ec s o disc imina ion based on ace, e hnici y, na ionali y, eligion, gende , age, disabili y and sexual o ien a ion on skills unde u iliza ion and unde -skilling in 30 Eu opean coun ies. Ra e y (2019) a gues ha people who expe ienced a ious o ms o disc imina- ion in he wo kplace we e mo e likely o epo o e quali ica ion, de ined as skills o mo e demand- ing oles han equi ed o hei job. In his s udy, K onbe g (2019) showed ha men ecei e mo e me i ewa ds han women o he same pe o mance. La az e al. (2019) a gue ha i men ea n mo e pe hou on a e age han women, he pay gap be ween men and women will emain. They said ha he as majo i y o di ec o s and execu i es wo king o la ge compa- nies a e men, which is a he oo o he p oblem. Ba gain e al. (2019) sugges ha he gende pay gap a he bo om o he wage dis ibu ion can be e ec i e- ly educed by a minimum wage. Howe e , aising he minimum wage has o he economic consequences. Maume e al. (2019) poin o he ac ha e en hough Eu opean coun ies ha e manda ed quo as o he ep esen a ion o women on boa ds o di ec o s and ha e en hough women a e inc easingly en e ing he anks o managemen , gende gaps in execu i e compensa ion pe sis . Cook e al. (2019) epo ed ha he mo e di ec in luence women ha e on pay deci- sions, he smalle he pay gap is. The easons o he di e ences in sala ies and wages can also be ound in he choice o ields o s udy. Gi ls end no o wo y ha hey won' be able o handle echnical ields, bu a he hey used o be mo e in e es ed in he humani ies. In gene al, humani- ies ields used o be o en a less paid. The e o e, gi ls deciding on hei u u e ield and ocus should p agma ically also ake hese consequences in o accoun . I should be no ed ha su icien income in he economically ac i e age a ec s he alue o pension in he senio age. Income has an impac on how we will li e o he es o ou li es. Gende di e ences in wage nego ia ions ha e been o e ed as a common explana ion o why he gende gap in pay pe sis s (Demi o ic e al., 2023). The key is o be able o nego ia e a good s a ing sala y. I is impo an wha sala y a woman s a s a , because hen 90 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023 he sala y inc eases only by a ce ain small pe cen age o he same posi ion. Any jumping in a pay inc ease may become jus a d eam wish. Duman (2023) ound ha pay inequali ies a e a gued o be mo e p e alen o empo a y jobs. Hence, la ge wage penal ies o women in such posi ions a e expec ed. Also, gende socializa ion may be a cause o gi ls' lowe nego ia ing powe . The causes can be ound in he upb inging in childhood when hey a e b ough up no o be agg essi e, no o explici ly say wha hey wan . Women may belie e ha people a ound hem see ha hey wo k hones ly and in ensi ely and ha he ewa d should he e o e all in o hei lap, bu his usually does no coincide wi h eali y. The Czech companies o en p ohibi he sha ing o wage and sala y in o ma ion. Employees end o ha e non-disclosu e ag eemen s in hei employmen con ac s. So, hey don' know i someone is ea ning mo e and can' aise inequali ies. I is no always anspa en . When we conside he p ac ical legal unen o ceabili y o hese non-disclosu es in employ- men con ac s, i only has a psychological e ec . Legally, i is di icul o en o ce. I he ewa d sys em in he o ganiza ion is ai , i should be anspa en . I is also a cul u al ma e . Equali y in emune a ion will be helped by he inc ease in anspa ency ensh ined in he Eu opean di ec i e and he amendmen o he Labo Code. The aim o his legisla ion is o s eng hen he igh s o employees o equal emune a ion o wo k o equal alue and o in oduce he igh o in o ma ion on he a e age sala y o a compa able posi ion wi h he same employe . This would c ea e an obliga ion o employe s o compile analyses o pay and wage di e ences be ween men and women o na ional au ho i ies and o hei employees. Those who a e disc imina ed agains in pay will ha e an oppo uni y o ind ou and p o e he disc imina ion. Chichilnisky (2009) explains he gende pay gap as a esul o a Nash equilib ium in luenced by incomple e in o - ma ion abou women's wo k, leading o lowe p oduc- i i y and wages o women. The pape sugges s ha upda ed amily law and app op ia e con ac s can help esol e his si ua ion. Zhang (2014) inds ha i ms wi h high capi al in ensi y and ola ile s ock pe o - mance end o ha e highe pay gaps among execu- i es. On he o he hand, echnology-in ensi e i ms and hose acing inancial dis ess end o ha e lowe pay gaps. The s udy also sugges s ha de ia ions om he op imal pay gap ange can impai i m alue. Pa en hood has a majo impac on wages and sala- ies as well as on women's ca ee s in he Czech Republic. The e a e s ill many employe s who pe - cei e pa en hood as incompa ible wi h a ca ee o ull- ime employmen , based on s a is ically un ounded assump ions o mo he s' equen absence om wo k o e oneous s e eo ypes ega ding a lack o leade ship and managemen skills which a e a ed as psychologi- cally and ime-consuming, and he e o e s e eo ypical- ly des ined o men. Ebe ha d e al. (2023) con i m ha pa en hood ha e a signi ican impac on engage- men in he labou o ce. Pa en s may decide o look o jobs wi h speci ic cha ac e is ics, and in some cases, hey may decide o no pa icipa e in he labou ma ke . No only because o he elimina ion o dis- c imina ion bu also due o he demog aphic de elop- men in he Czech Republic, mo he hood should be mo e suppo ed and app ecia ed. Women should no be penalized in hei sala ies o wages and in hei oppo uni ies o success o hei con ibu ions o he s a e. Child en, ca e abou hem, hei upb inging and educa ion a e he basis o he s a e's pe spec i e and i s economic g ow h. Child en a e he po en ial and u u e o he s a e. Budig e al. (2016) show ha policies ha suppo pa en hood also suppo women's labou ma ke pa icipa ion. The ala ming sho age o public and p i a e childca e ins i u ions and hei low capaci ies o ce mo he s o s ay unnecessa ily long on pa en al "lea e", some imes up o 4 yea s o age. Mo he s in he Czech Republic p ac ically ha e no o he op ion han o s ay on pa en al lea e o se e al yea s, because he childca e sys em in he Czech Republic is no su icien ly a ailable. Child en's g oups o oddle s wi h a e y low capaci y and usually om he age o 18 mon hs a e only in la ge ci ies and he condi ion o admission is he pe manen esidence in he gi en ci y. The lack o his childca e se ice can also be a eason o pos poning mo he - hood among women in highe managemen posi ions. I hese Child ens’ g oups a e no close o he wo k- place o esidence and he mo he s know ha hei child en can be placed in he kinde ga en, depending on he capaci y, om he age o 3 a he ea lies , because olde , p eschool-age child en a e accep ed p e e en ially, hen hey ha e o ake ca e a home and he e u n o wo k is pos poned un il he child is admi ed o a kinde ga en. Due o insu icien capaci- y o he childca e sys em mo he s ha e e y limi ed possibili ies o be economically ac i e. Then hey canno aise he amily's li ing s anda ds, and i also has an impac on lowe ax paymen s o he s a e. Condi ions and suppo o women's access o em- ploymen , such as childca e se ices, i.e. su icien capaci ies o c èches and kinde ga ens play a key ole. The inancial a ailabili y o ca e acili ies, especially o he younges babies, is also key. I we conside ha he p ice o dayca e in c èches is on a e age 15 imes mo e han he kinde ga en ee is, his ca e may be inancially una o dable o many mo he s, and hey may p e e pa en al ca e un il hei child en a e 3 yea s old. Budig e al. (2016) con i med ha a highe pe cen age o child en aged 0-3 in public G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business 91 acili ies educes he gende pay gap. Howe e , pay disc imina ion does no ha e o conce n only gende . Jones e al. (2023) ecognises he ole o pa en hood in con ibu ing o gende inequali ies a wo k. Nzima e al. (2023) s ess ha he esponsibili y o p o ide ca e o young child en is one o he obs acles ha in luence women´s labou o ce pa icipa ion. Thei s udy highligh s he need o policies and in e en ions aimed a p o iding subsidised childca e o poo mo he s ha could elie e he bu den o unpaid wo k as well as encou age pa icipa ion in paid wo k and hus na ow he gende -income gap. Goldin (2022) sol es wha happens when he kids g ow up. To answe ha ques ion, hey es ima e h ee ea ning gaps: he “mo he hood penal y,” he “p ice o being e- male,” and he “ a he hood p emium.” When added oge he hese h ee p oduce he “pa en al gende gap”. Possible a eas o pay inequali y may conce n disa- bled, olde o e en younge employees, employees o di e en aces, na ionali ies, e hnici ies and social g oups. One o he causes o inequali ies is implici social bias (He wig e al., 2023). The complexi y o pay disc imina ion and i s connec ion wi h o he p oblems equi es a comp ehensi e app oach o i s solu ion. Goldin e al. (2017) s a ed ha he bigge GPG is caused by men’s g ea e abili y o mo e o highe paying i ms and posi ions and hei be e acili y o ad ance wi hin i ms. Bo h ac o s inc ease wi h women’s g ea e amily esponsibili ies. Re ospec i ely, he phenomenon o inequali y in he emune a ion o women and men nega i ely a ec s he li es o speci ic men and women, bu also e y se iously in e e es wi h he exis ence and li ing s anda ds o amilies and he unc ioning o he en i e socie y. The i s esea ch ques ion aimed o answe i he e exis s some gende pay gap in he analysed company. T- es s we e used o analyse he ela ionship and di e ence be ween women´s and men´s ea nings. The second esea ch ques ion aimed o answe wha a e he main de e minan s which in luence he ea nings. Tha is why he mul iple eg ession analysis was used o p edic he main ac o s which causes he di e ences in ea nings. The ollowing de e minan s we e selec ed: gende , age, leng h o p ac ice, educa ion, gende , and chil- d en. The easons o he selec ion o hese ac o s we e as ollows. The gende is in his s udy he key ac o . The ea- son o he gende de e minan is he ac ha he Czech Republic has an ala ming high le el o GPG, one o he wo s in he EU. We can assume ha ea nings could also inc ease wi h inc easing age. O e ime, employees acqui e mo e compe ences, gain mo e expe ience and knowledge, and can ha e a g ea e o e iew in he ield. The leng h o expe ience was selec ed as ano he possible de e minan a ec ing ea nings. We can assume ha expe ience will g ow wi h a longe leng h o p ac ice which should p obably be alued wi h highe ea nings. The educa ion o employees a ec s hei abili ies, skills, knowledge, and hei success in he labo ma ke . We can assume ha highe educa ion should lead o he acquisi ion o p o essional knowledge which should be p ope ly alued. On he con as o his opinion, Vohlídalo á e al. (2023) ound ou : “The mo e educa ed men and women we compa e wi h each o he , he highe he di e ences in emune a ion o he disad an age o women”. The de e minan "child en" was chosen o e i y whe he he s a us o pa en hoods and b eadwinne s a ec decisions on he amoun o emune a ion. Vohlídalo á e al. (2023) highlighe ed a pa en hood as a key a iable ha signi ican ly a ec s he amoun o emune a ion and explains a signi ican p opo ion o he gende gap in emune a ion. 3. Me hods The au ho s chose a amily-owned company ha is he la ges employe in Pře o dis ic in he Czech Republic, employing 1 655 employees in 2023. In he analysed company, he esea ch was ocused on he gende pay gap in he same posi ions o accoun execu i es and buye s, classi ied in he same sala y classes and wo king ull- ime. The analysis was conduc ed in Ap il 2023 and analysed he ea nings o he mon h o Ma ch 2023. P ima y da a was ob ained on he basis o comple ed o ms om indi idual employees wi h he app o al o he Chie Sales O ice as a di ec supe iso o his sample o e- sponden s.The analysis e i ies, by di ec ly compa ing all employees o bo h sexes, whe he a gi en pe son ea ns compa a i ely less han would be expec ed based on his/he job unc ion (demands o he job), pe sonal expe ience (age, leng h o expe ience) and educa ion. The sample o esponden s (N = 52) con- sis ed o all employees in he posi ions o accoun execu i e and buye ep esen ing he same o simila posi ions. The e we e used desc ip i e s a is ics, he dis ibu ion o ea nings in qua iles, he p obabili y densi y unc ion, and he dis ibu ion unc ion o he no mal dis ibu ion o emale and male ea nings and wo-sample - es wi h inequali y o a iance o hypo hesis es ing. The mul iple eg ession analyse 92 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023 was pe o med o ind a model o he unc ional dependence o ea nings on ac o s such as age, leng h o p ac ice, gende , educa ion, and pa en hood. 4. Resul s As men ioned abo e, he au ho s decided o analyse he di e ences in he emune a ion o women and men in a amily business. The au ho s collec ed da a on a g oup o employees o one company. I is a amily- owned business and a he same ime a la ges em- ploye in Pře o dis ic in Olomouc Region. Cu en - ly, he company employs 1,655 employees (2023). The co e business is he semiconduc o and mili a y indus y. The a en ion was ocused on he same posi ions. The e o e, he speci ic g oup o salescle ks and buye s we e chosen because hey a e he posi ions o echnical economic wo ke s which a e he mos nume ous in he company and hei posi ions a e e y close o each o he . Indi idual esponden s illed ou he o m in which he ollowing cha ac e is ics we e moni o ed: posi ion, ea nings, gende , age, leng h o expe ience, educa ion, and pa en hood. The a ge g oup consis s o 52 employees in he posi ions o salescle ks and buye s who we e app oached, and all illed ou he o m ( e u n a e 100 %). As he i s s ep, he au ho ocused on answe ing esea ch ques ion Q1. Resea ch ques ion Q1: Wha a e he di e ences in ea nings be ween men and women wo king in he same o simila posi ions in he company? The sample o esponden s (N = 52) consis ed o all employees in he posi ions o accoun execu i e and buye ep esen ing he same o simila posi ions. The e we e 31 accoun execu i es, o which 11 (35.5%) we e men and 20 we e women (64.5%). Buye s we e 21, o which 13 (61.9%) we e men and 8 (38.1%) we e women. The a e age age o bo h sexes was 34 yea s. The a e age leng h o expe ience was 10 yea s. The employee s a is ic is shown in he Table 4-1. Table 4–1 Employee s a is ics Func ion N % All Men Woman Men Woman Accoun execu i es 31 11 20 35.5 64.5 Buye s 21 13 8 61.9 38.1 To al 52 24 28 46.2 53.8 Sou ce: own calcula ion The o al ea nings o men and women a e shown in he Table 4-2. Table 4–2 Employee s a is ics To al ea ning in CZK Di (%) Min Max Max- Min All ø M ø W ø Accoun execu i es 31000 39800 8800 36217 38192 35132 -8.0% Buye s 33200 39800 6600 36369 37079 35214 -5.0% To al 31000 39800 8800 36278 37589 35155 -6.5% Sou ce: own calcula ion The a e age ea ning o bo h sexes is 36 278 CZK, o which he a e age ea nings o men is 37 589 CZK and he a e age ea ning o women is 35 155 CZK. On a e age, women ea n 6.5% less han men in he same posi ion. O hese, women wo king as accoun execu- i es a e wo se (- 8 %) han women wo king as buye s (-5%). The gap (% o male ea nings) means he pay di e ence be ween he o al ea nings o women and men as a pe cen age o men's ea nings o he ele an posi ion. The numbe is nega i e. This means ha women on a e age ea n less han men (-6.5 %). The minimum ea ning in he mon h o Ap il 2023 was CZK 31,000. The maximum ea nings we e 39,800. The di e ence be ween he maximum and he mini- mum ea nings was 8,800 CZK. The ask is o e i y he ollowing hypo hesis. Fo his pu pose, Welch's es was chosen, see Table 4-3. H10: A e age ea nings be ween men and women in he same posi ions a e he same. H11: A e age ea nings di e be ween men and women in he same posi ions. Table 4–3 Two-Sample -Tes wi h Inequali y o Va iance - Gende Pay Gap Women Men Mean 35155 37589,2 Va iance 2888115 2699269 Obse a ion 28 24 Di 49 S a -5.2421 P(T<= ) (1) 1.7E-06 c i (1) 1.67655 P(T<= ) (2) 3.4E-06 Sou ce: own calcula ion The c i ical ield is W = (-∞,- 2.0096>∪<2.0096,∞). The alue o he es s a is ic is -5.2421. The p- alue is 0.0000034. Thus, he -s a is ic lies in he c i ical ield and he p- alue is less han he signi icance le el α = 0.05. The null hypo hesis is ejec ed, and he al e na i e hypo hesis is con i med. The - es con i med ha a e age ea nings di e s a is ically signi ican ly be ween gende s in he same job posi ions. I can be concluded ha gende in his G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business 93 sample has a s a is ically signi ican e ec on he ea nings. Table 4-4 shows he dis ibu ion o men's and women's ea nings in qua iles. To al ea nings a e s anda dized o ull- ime employees. Ea nings a e so ed by size in ascending o de . Qua iles di ide his dis ibu ion in o qua e s. Thus, Qua ile 1 con ains he lowes 25 % o ea nings, while Qua ile 4 con ains he highes 25 % o ea nings. The s a ed amoun o money indica es he uppe limi o he espec i e qua ile. In he second qua ile, his igu e co esponds o he median: i.e., he mean alue below and abo e i . Table 4–3 Ea nings dis ibu ion: numbe o employees pe qua ile Lowes qua e o 34 880 CZK 2nd lowes qua e o (median) 2nd highes qua e o 37 850 CZK Highes qua e o 39 800 CZK To al Q y % Q y % Q y % Q y % Q y % Men 1 7.7 6 46.2 5 38,5 12 92.3 24 46.2 Women 12 92.3 7 53.8 8 61,5 1 7.7 28 53.8 To al 13 100.0 13 100.0 13 100.0 13 100.0 52 100.0 Sou ce: own calcula ion Figu e 4-1 shows ha in he i s qua ile, i.e., in he lowes qua e o ea nings, mo e han 90 % o esponden s a e ep esen ed by women. While in he op qua e o ea nings, mo e han 90 % o espond- en s a e domina ed by men. Figu e 4–1 Dis ibu ion o ea nings by gende in qua iles The assump ion is ha he dis ibu ion o ea nings in he popula ion o all analysed employees is no mal. The ollow- ing g aphs show he p obabili y densi y unc ion o he no mal dis ibu ion and he dis ibu ion unc ion o he no mal dis ibu ion o he ea nings o women and men o he analysed sample. As you can see in he Figu e 4-2 he e is a ce ain imbalance agains women. Figu e 4-2 P obabili y densi y unc ion and dis ibu ion unc ion o he no mal dis ibu ion o emale and male ea nings The GPG (Gende Pay Gap) alue is published e e y yea by Eu os a and he Czech S a is ical O ice. This allows us no only o accu a ely de e - mine he ue le el o he gende pay gap in ou coun y, bu also o ind ou how we a e compa ed o o he coun ies a ound he wo ld. Wi hin he EU, he Czech Republic has a di e ence in ea nings be ween women and men in 2021 (GPG) o 15% (in public sec o : 12,2 %; in p i a e sec o : 19,5%). The la es da a is no published ye . Compa ed o o he EU membe s a es, he Czech Republic is he 9 h wo s in 2021. The Czech Republic anks among he coun ies in which wage a iabili y, o wage inequali y is one o he highes . Acco ding o Eu os a da a, he Czech Republic has had a downwa d end in he pay gap be ween men and women since 2015 (GPG = 22.5%) (2021: GPG = 15%). As he second s ep, he au ho ocused on answe - ing esea ch ques ion Q2. Resea ch ques ion Q2: Wha a e he main ac o s a ec ing and ela ed o ea nings. The ollowing ac o s we e selec ed: age, emale sex, leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa ion and whe he an employee has a child o child en, i his also may a ec he amoun o ea nings. 94 Ekonomická e ue – Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economic Issues 26, 2023 A mul iple eg ession analysis was pe o med, see Table 4-5. Table 4–5 Mul iple eg ession analysis – dependence o ea nings on age, gende , leng h o p ac ice, educa ion, and child en Reg ession s a is ics Co ela ion coe icien 0.9143 Coe icien o de e mina ion 0.8359 Adj. coe i- cien o de e mina ion 0.8181 E o a g 879.01 Obse a ions 52 ANOVA Di SS MS F Signi- icance F Reg ession 5 1.81E +08 36218 271 46.874 84 6.13E- 17 Residue 46 35542 320 77265 9.1 To al 51 2.17E +08 Coe . E o a g S a P- alue Lowe 95% Uppe 95% Bo de 33632 1412 23.81 1.64E- 27 30789 36475 Age (X1) 75 57 1.307 0.198 -40 190 Female (X2) -2405 245 -9.78 8.17E- 13 -2899 -1910 Leng h o expe ience (X3) 53 63 0.85 0.402 -73 179 Uni e si y (X4) 649 248 2.61 0.012 149 1149 Child en (X5) 1121 361 3.10 0.003 394 1848 Sou ce: own calcula ion The ask is o ind a model o he unc ional de- pendence o ea nings (Y) on age (X1), emale gende (X2), leng h o expe ience (X3), uni e si y educa ion (X4) and whe he he employee has child en (X5). The ound model Y=33632+75X1+(-2405)X2+53X3+649X4+1121X5 explains 82 % o he a iabili y o he eg esso a iables. Adjus ed coe icien o de e mina ion (0.8181) exp esses a model o a e y s ong depend- ence o ea nings on a iables X1..p. The co ela ion coe icien (0.91), e alua ing he e ec o all ac o s oge he , indica es a s ong di ec co ela ion be ween ea nings Y and eg esso a iables such as age, emale gende , leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa ion, and child en. The ollowing hypo heses we e es ed: H20: The ea nings Y does no depend on eg esso a iables X1..p such as age, emale gende , leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa ion, and child en. bj = 0 H21: The ea nings Y depends on eg esso a i- ables X1..p such as age, emale gende , leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa ion, and child en. bj, ≠ 0 The selec ed signi icance le el is α = 0, 05. Look- ing a he da a om he mul iple eg ession analysis showed in he able 5 we can see he p- alue (6.13E- 17) is e y low and is less han α. I means he model is s a is ically signi ican . The e o e, we ejec he null hypo hesis H20 ha ea nings do no depend on age, emale gende , leng h o expe ience, uni e si y educa- ion, and child en. Based on he o e all F es (p− alue<0.05), he model can be conside ed mean- ing ul (we ejec ed he null hypo hesis abou a nulli y o all model pa ame e s (excep he cons an )). The p- alues o indi idual eg esso s, ha a e highe han 0.05, showing ha he espec i e coe icien is no signi ican . The espec i e coe icien s wi h p- alue less han 0.05 a e signi ican . The p- alue o he a iables X1 age and X3 leng h o expe ience a e g ea e han 0.05, he e o e he coe icien s a e no unexpec edly s a is ically signi ican . While o he eg esso s X2 emale gende , X4 highe educa ion and X5 child en, he p- alue was less han 0.05 and he e- o e hese coe icien s a e s a is ically signi ican . The a iable X2 emale gende has he smalles p- alue. Thus, gende is shown o ha e he g ea es impac on ea nings in he examined da a sample. The coe icien o X2 emale gende is nega i e. I means ha i an employee is emale, she ea ns CZK 2.405 less on a e age. Howe e , he in e al es ima e is mo e accu a e, which ells us ha he guideline has a alue be ween -2.900 CZK and -1.910 CZK wi h 95% con idence. The coe icien s X1age, X3leng h o expe ience, X4uni e si y educa ion, X5 child en u ned ou o be posi i e as expec ed, i.e. hey inc ease he expec ed alue o ea nings, bu only X4highe educa- ion and X5child en a e ac o s ha a e s a is ically signi ican in his sample o esponden s. The age and leng h o p ac ice ha e a posi i e coe icien alue, bu su p isingly hey came ou as s a is ically insigni ican in he analysed sample. In he nex s ep, eg ession analysis was pe o med sepa a ely o men and sepa a ely o women. The dependence o ea nings Y on he a iables Age X1, Leng h o expe ience X2, Uni e si y educa ion X3, Child en X4 was obse ed. G. Poláko á, T. K es o á, K. S ano ská – The gende pay gap in he amily business 95 Fo men, he model has his esul : Y=33640 + 43X1 + 141X2 + 1248X3 + 934X4. P- alue = 1.31E-09. The model is s a is ically sig- ni ican . Adj. Coe . De e mina ion = 0.889238. Fo women, he model has his esul : Y=31769 + 66X1 + 61X2 + 241X3 + 868X4. P- alue = 1.74E-05. The model is s a is ically sig- ni ican . Adj. Coe . De e mina ion = 0.625396 By compa ing he models o bo h sexes, i was ound ha he cons an b0 is highe o men han o women (33 640 CZK > 31 769 CZK). Ano he im- po an inding is ha o he leng h o p ac ice X2, men ea n mo e han wice mo e han women (141X2 o men, 61X2 o women). Acco ding o he model, i men ha e he uni e si y educa ion X3, hey ea n on a e age CZK 1,248 mo e han men wi hou he uni- e si y educa ion, while women wi h he uni e si y educa ion only ea ns an a e age o CZK 241 mo e han women wi hou he uni e si y educa ion. I means mens ecei es i e imes highe emune a ion o he mas e ’s deg ee han women wi h he mas e ’s deg ee in his sample. How da a shows he in luence o child en on ea nings also plays a e y impo an ole. I a man has a child o child en, he ecei es on a e age CZK 934 mo e han a childless man. I a woman has a child o child en, she ecei es on a e - age CZK 868 mo e han a childless woman. Acco d- ing o he models, men ecei e on a e age 7 % mo e o ha ing child en han women. 5. Discussion Vohlídalo á e al. (2023) highligh ed hese main inequali ies and disad an ages ha women s ill mus ace in socie y and on he labo ma ke : his is mainly a symbolic denig a ion o women's wo k, he concen- a ion o women in lowe paid ields, he disad- an age o women in ca ee p og ession, hei disp o- po iona e he bu den o he second shi a home, disc imina ion in he wo kplace and a whole ange o s e eo ypical iews wha women a e supposed o be good o o no good o . As men ioned in he li e a- u e e iew, a s ong ela ionship be ween a emale gende and a pay gap has been epo ed. Wi h espec o he i s esea ch ques ion, i was ound ha also in he amily business he e is a gende pay gap in he same posi ions (6,5%). Compa ing wi h he Czech na ional one (15 %) i is signi ican ly lowe . Leake (2008) shows ha he gende pay gap in he UK has na owed o e ime bu a ies depending on ac o s such as he numbe o dependen child en, company size, and occupa ion. A possible explana ion o be e esul in he amily business migh be p o iding mo e oppo uni ies o women, lowe p ejudices agains women, imp o ing o ganiza ional cul u e, changing s e eo ypical hinking. Howe e , i is always in lu- enced by he philosophy o he company owne s, by hei app oach o employees, and by company alues. The causes o gende pay gap can be oo ed in he cul u al se ing o he whole socie y, in public opinion, in alues, gende s e eo ypes, in he s uc u e o wo k, in he o e o public o p i a e childca e, in he educa ional sys em and socializa ion, in indi idual and amily ac o s, in non- anspa en emune a ion sys ems. The second esea ch ques ion was o iden i y ac- o s a ec ing and ela ing o ea nings. The p esen s udy was designed o de e mine quan i iable e ec s o age, gende , leng h o p ac ice, uni e si y educa ion and he e ec o child en on pa en ´s ea nings. The esul s show ha a emale gende has a nega i e e ec and is s ill he bigges and he mos signi ican ac o in lowe ea nings. The ole o b eadwinne is he second mos signi ican ac o bu wi h posi i e e ec in employee ea nings. I an employee has child en and hus ul ills he ole o b eadwinne , so i helps he employee o inc ease ea nings. Mos s iking was he subs an ial di e ence in ea nings be ween employees wi h child en and childless employees. I is su p ising mainly because we can ask ou sel es a logical ques- ion, how could child en in luence he esul s o he wo k and how is his ela ed o he employee pe o - mance? And why a e employees ha ing child en paid be e han childless ones? I is di icul o explain, bu i migh be p obably ela ed only o manage ´s hink- ing and app oach who is a decision make in emune - a ions. This is mo e possible in he p i a e sec o , whe e emune a ion is a ma e o a manage 's deci- sion. I is impo an o bea in mind a possible manag- e ´s bias in ques ion o gende and amily suppo . Ve y li le was ound in he li e a u e on he ques ion o child en and he impac on hei pa en ´s ea nings. Py likalo á (2015) in he esea ch ound ou ha he mon hly median wage o a he s inc eases wi h he numbe o child en, while i dec eases o mo he s. Hodges e al. (2010) con i med in hei esea ch ha a he s ecei e highe wages compa ed o mo he s and childless men in ela ion o ul illing he ole o b eadwinne . Ou su ey showed ha e en mo he s ha e a highe sala y han childless women, bu again mo he s ecei e signi ican ly less han a he s. The eason may be he s e eo ypical hinking ha he a he is he main b eadwinne ega dless o he eali y. In any case, his ac o lacks any a ional explana ion, as i has no hing o do wi h employee´s pe o mance o compe ence. This ou come is con a y o ha o Deeming (2018) who discusses gende pay gap epo ing in he UK and asse s ha hei o gani- za ion pays colleagues ai ly based on ole, skills,