T ansac ions o he VŠB - Technical uni e si y o Os a a
Sa e y Enginee ing Se ies
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55
APPROXIMATION OF THE TIME TO INITIATE THE EVACUATION
OF PERSONS AT LARGE GROUP EVENTS IN OUTDOOR
ENVIRONMENTS IN CASE OF A FIRE
Jiří POKORNÝ1, Pe KUČERA2, Lenka MALÉŘOVÁ3
1 VŠB – Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, Facul y o Sa e y Enginee ing, Os a a, Czech Republic, [email p o ec ed]
2 VŠB – Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, Facul y o Sa e y Enginee ing, Os a a, Czech Republic, pe [email p o ec ed]
3 VŠB – Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, Facul y o Sa e y Enginee ing, Os a a, Czech Republic, [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : One o he basic p e equisi es o secu ing he sa e y o people a la ge g oup e en s is o
ensu e hei e acua ion in case o eme gencies. This a icle deals wi h he app oxima ions
o ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons in case o a i e a la ge g oup e en s o ganized
in ou doo spaces. The solu ion is based on he p inciples o de e mining he pe iod o
ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons in e ms o in e na ional ISO s anda ds. Conside ing
he speci i ci ies o he gi en ou doo space and possible ela ed secu i y measu es, he
a icle ecommends he ele an su i cien amoun o ime o ini ia e an e acua ion.
Keywo ds: E acua ion, i e, mee ing e en , ou doo en i onmen .
Re iew a icle
In oduc ion
La ge g oup e en s a e cha ac e ized by essen ial
ea u es and condi ions ha accompany hei
cou se (Wang, 2014). Inciden s du ing hese e en s
a e no common, bu hei consequences can be
signi i can . Examples include he ollowing e en s
ha ha e occu ed du ing mass e en s in ou doo
en i onmen s.
Inciden s o ex ao dina y na u e egula ly occu
du ing spo ing e en s in s adiums. Some o hese
inciden s a e also associa ed wi h i es. One example
is he i e ha b oke ou in he main wooden sea ing
a ea a Valley–Pa ade S adium, which ook place in
May 1985 in B and o d, England. Du ing his i e
inciden , 56 isi o s we e killed and 265 isi o s
we e inju ed (Fle che , 2015).
Ano he signi i can e en ha occu ed in an
ou doo en i onmen is he disas e ha happened in
July 2010 a he Lo e Pa ade in Duisbu g, Ge many.
On ha agic day, he e en was a ended by
app oxima ely 485 000 people. Due o panic caused
by o e c owded s ee s, 21 people we e killed mo e
han 540 pe sons we e inju ed. In subsequen yea s,
a leas 6 people commi ed suicide because o he
p olonged emo ional s ess hey su e ed as a esul
(Helbing, 2011), (VFDB, 2010).
In e ms o secu i y when holding la ge g oup
e en s in an ou doo en i onmen , he p ima y
iewpoin is o ensu e he sa e y o he pa icipan s
(ma e ial alues a e usually o mino impo ance).
They sa e y o pa icipan s is di ec ly ela ed o
he c ea ion o app op ia e condi ions o ensu e
a possible e acua ion.
This a icle aims o p esen one possible
p ocedu e o app oxima ing he ime o ini ia e he
e acua ion o people a la ge g oup e en s in an
ou doo en i onmen in case o a i e.
Ma e ials and me hods
The classi i ca ion o la ge g oup e en s
La ge g oup e en s can be dis inguished by
a numbe o aspec s, e.g. in e ms o hei :
• Focus:
- social,
- spo s,
- educa ional, e c.
• Spa ial (cons uc ion) a angemen :
- indoo (a space limi ed by building s uc u es
along he pe ime e and om abo e),
- ou doo (a space no enclosed along he
pe ime e o om abo e, bu de i ned by building
s uc u es, su ounding g ounds o he na u al
en i onmen ).
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• Heigh :
- de e mining he mee ing space ca ego y
acco ding o i s heigh placemen wi hin he
building, e.g. acco ding o ČSN 73 0831 (ČSN,
2011), espec i ely egula ions dealing wi h
assembly e en s (LAW, 1985).
• The numbe and densi y o he pa icipan s:
- de e mining he mee ing space ca ego y
acco ding o he numbe (densi y) o people,
e.g. acco ding o ČSN 73 0831 (ČSN, 2011),
espec i ely egula ions dealing wi h assembly
e en s (LAW, 1985).
• Time cou se:
- sho - e m (hou s),
- long- e m (las ing o pe haps days).
• Accessibili y:
- public e en s (open o he public),
- p i a e e en s (i.e. e en s only o membe s).
The ype o e en undamen ally a ec s he
e acua ion o people in case o eme gencies.
Th ea s o people a la ge g oup e en s
The basic isks a ec ing e acuees in case o
a i e mainly include:
• The loss (decline) o isibili y;
• The exis ence and in l uence o high empe a u es;
• The in l uence o hea and hea l ux;
• Exposu e o oxic, i i an and asphyxia ing
subs ances;
• Reduc ion in oxygen concen a ion (Kuče a,
2014).
When assessing he isk o pe sons, selec ed
isks o all he isks a e aken in o accoun . The
isks de e mine he ime x, i.e. he ime a ailable o
secu ing he e acua ion o people.
Wi hin mee ing a eas, desc ibed i e concomi an s
may lead o a Domino e ec o addi ional isks. This
p ima ily ela es o he possible panic o blockage o
e acua ion l ows due o e y high concen a ions o
people (a a densi y g ea e han 3.8 pe sons pe m2)
(Folwa czny, 2006).
In he case o ou doo mee ing a eas, howe e ,
he e a e ac o s ha signi i can ly mi iga e he
h ea s o pe sons du ing a i e. They p ima ily
include high isibili y (lucidi y) in hese a eas and
he abili y o “easily emo e and dispe se” any
accompanying phenomena. The isk o educing he
concen a ion o oxygen is p ac ically meaningless.
Risks desc ibed abo e usually endange only people
in close p oximi y o he sou ce o a i e.
Time o e acua ion
An e acua ion can be conside ed sa e i he
equi ed sa e escape ime c is less han o a mos
equal o he a ailable sa e escape ime x, i.e. he
ime o each c i ical condi ions. The e o e, he
ollowing applies (Kuče a, 2014):
(1)
The equi ed sa e escape ime consis s o he
pa ial ime in e als ha a e shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 The equi ed sa e escape ime (Kuče a, 2012)
The equi ed sa e escape ime c consis s o
pa ial ime in e als (Kuče a, 2014), (DiNenno,
2008), (ISO, 2009), (ISO, 1999):
(2)
whe e c equi ed sa e escape ime [minu es]; d ime
o de ec ion and ala m [minu es]; z p e-mo emen
ime [minu es]; u a el ime [minu es].
Fo a u he desc ip ion in his a icle, he ime
o ini ia e an e acua ion is conside ed ime dz, which
includes he ime equi ed o de ec ion and ala m
and o he s eps needed o ini ia e he e acua ion:
(3)
whe e dz ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons
including he ime o de ec ion and ala m and o he
s eps needed o ini ia e he e acua ion [minu es].
The a ailable sa e escape ime x can be
de e mined as he ime o each c i ical alues o he
isks a ec ing he e acuees (Kuče a, 2014):
(4)
whe e x a ailable sa e escape ime [minu es];
k ime o each c i ical alues [minu es].
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cx

cdzu

cdzu

xk

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Vol. XI, No. 1, 2016
57
Resul s
The me hod o de e mining he ime
o ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons
The ange o app oaches ha can be aken o
de e mine he ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o
pe sons is subs an ial. The mos common me hod
is he p inciple desc ibed in li e a u e (ISO, 1999),
(HOSSER, 2009) ha can be cha ac e ized as
a “ abula classi i ca ion me hod”.
The eac ion ime, i.e. he ime o ini ia e an
e acua ion, depends mainly on he ollowing ac o s:
• Design beha iou al scena ios and occupancy ypes
(awake/sleeping/o he ac o s a ec ing eadiness),
hei knowledge o he building and densi y;
• Ala m sys em quali y;
• Building complexi y;
• Fi e sa e y managemen (ISO, 1999), (HOSSER,
2009).
Fac o s a ec ing he ime o ini ia e he
e acua ion o people a e shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Fac o s a ec ing he ime o ini ia e an
e acua ion
Fac o s and hei sub-pa ame e s a e shown
in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Fac o s and hei sub-pa ame e s a ec ing
he ime o ini ia e an e acua ion
Indi idual ac o s c ea e ca ego ies and
subca ego ies o me hods used o de e mine he ime
o ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons (see Tab. 1).
Tab. 1 Main ca ego ies o ope a ions used o
de e mine he ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o
pe sons (PD, 2004), (HOSSER, 2009)
Fac o s o classi i ca ions in o ca ego ies
acco ding Tab. 1 a e discussed in Fig. 2 and 3.
The e acua ion o he i s pe sons is ini ia ed
soon a e he se ing o o a i e ala m. The
beginning o he eac ion ime is conside ed he
momen when 1 % o he pe sons begin o e acua e
(Δ 1). The ime in e al om he ini ial eac ion o
he end o he eac ion ime indica es he s a e when
99 % o people a e mo ing (Δ 99). Values be ween
Δ 1 and Δ 1 + Δ 99 a e chosen o indi idual eac ion
imes (ISO, 1999), (HOSSER, 2009).
Acco ding o he desc ibed me hod, he ime o
ini ia e an e acua ion anges be ween 1.5 minu es
and mo e han 40 minu es.
Al hough he desc ibed abula classi i ca ion
me hod was de i ed o buildings (closed buildings)
du ing i e e en s, we can also basically assume i s
gene al use o ou doo spaces.
Applica ion o he abula classi i ca ion
me hod, esul s
The desc ibed me hod was applied o la ge g oup
e en s in ou doo spaces. The ime o ini ia e he
e acua ion o pe sons was app oxima ed o e en s
o a gene al na u e (cul u al, spo s, e c.). Speci i c
condi ions unique o pa icula e en s a e no aken
in o accoun .
The p inciples o de e mining he ime o ini ia e
an e acua ion a e shown in Fig. 4.
Main ca ego ies Cha ac e is ics
Ca ego y A awake and amilia
Ca ego y B awake and un amilia
Ca ego y C(a) sleeping and amilia
Ca ego y C(b) esiden ial acili ies wi h ca e
Ca ego y C(c) sleeping and un amilia
Ca ego y D people in buildings wi h
medical ca e
Ca ego y E people in a i c (bus and
ailway s a ions, ai po halls)
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Fig. 4 De e mining he ime o ini ia e he
e acua ion o pe sons om ou doo mee ing a eas
The ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons
om ou doo mee ing a eas can be de e mined
using Tab. 2 (awake pe sons amilia wi h he
en i onmen ).
Tab. 2 Reac ion ime o pe sons in ca ego y B
(ISO, 1999), (HOSSER, 2009)
Based on he ac o s classi ying ou doo mee ing
a eas (B, A3, B1, M3; see Fig. 4) and eac ion
imes o he gi en ca ego y (see Tab. 2), i is
possible o de e mine he ime o ini ia e e acua ion
Δ 1 > 15 minu es and Δ 99 > 15 minu es. The o al
ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons exceeds
30 minu es.
Discussion
The de e mined ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o
pe sons, longe han 30 minu es, is conside able. I is
possible o expec ha his ime can be signi i can ly
educed in some cases.
Fi s , we will discuss he possible e ec s o he
p esen ed me hod leading o mo e a ou able esul s
and hen he ac o s ha a e no included in his
me hod p ima ily ocusing on closed buildings.
To achie e mo e a ou able esul s, i is necessa y
o imp o e he quali y o he ala m sys em (mo ing
om A3 o A2 ca ego y) and i e sa e y managemen
(mo ing om ca ego y M3 o M2).
The ala m sys em includes he ime o de ec he
inciden and he ime equi ed o wa ning people.
A e en s in an ou doo en i onmen , he ime o
de ec he inciden can be in l uenced by inc easing
he numbe o people in ol ed in i e supe ision
(e.g. o ganize s, i e p e en ion pa ols). Supe ising
pe sons mus be amilia wi h he en i onmen ,
he na u e o he e en and sa e y condi ions. I is
di i cul o assess he ex en o which he pe sons
p o iding supe ision can eplace elec ical i e
ala m sys ems. Howe e , we can ealis ically
assume ha inc easing he numbe o hese ained
pe sons will signi i can ly educe he ime o de ec
an inciden . Fo epea edly (pe manen ly) o ganized
e en s, i e supe ision can be supplemen ed by
echnical de ices (e.g. came as).
Subsequen ly, a p ope ly designed acous ic
solu ion o a gi en e en (o o he measu es) can
signi i can ly educe he ime equi ed o wa ning
people. I is usually possible o use he p inciple
o au oma ic o manual ala ms accompanied by
successi e ac ions (e.g. shu down o he cu en
p og am, swi ching on he ligh s).
Wi h he p ope inclusion o he measu es
desc ibed, he quali y o a ala m sys em can be
classi i ed as ca ego y A2.
Ano he issue discussed is i e sa e y managemen .
To mo e o a mo e a ou able ca ego y M2, pe sons
should be amilia wi h he en i onmen , should
unde go aining and should be suppo ed du ing
an e acua ion by highly quali i ed and ained s a .
Such condi ions usually do no co espond o he
ac ual si ua ions o la ge g oup e en s in ou doo
en i onmen s. A endees o such e en s a e no
ho oughly amilia wi h he en i onmen and do
no unde go aining ocused on sa e y. In ou doo
spaces, howe e , he possible exposu e o pe sons
o i e concomi an s is signi i can ly lowe han in
closed buildings o which he p esen ed abula
classi i ca ion was compiled (see he pa labelled
Th ea s o people a la ge g oup e en s).
Simila ly o he ala m sys em, he quali y
o i e sa e y managemen can be imp o ed by
inc easing he numbe o p o essionally ained
pe sons in ol ed in i e supe ision o by o he
o ganiza ional measu es.
Wi h he p ope inco po a ion o he measu es
desc ibed, i e sa e y managemen can be classi i ed
as ca ego y M2.
Scena ios (main ca ego ies
and subca ego ies)
Δ 1
[minu es]
Δ 99
[minu es]
Ca ego y B: awake and un amilia
M1 B1 A1 – A2 0,5 2
M2 B1 A1 – A2 1 3
M3 B1 A1 – A3 > 15 > 15
B2: add 0.5 minu es o Δ 1 due o wo se o ien a ion
B3: add 1 minu e o Δ 1 due o wo se o ien a ion
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Re e ences
ČSN 73 0831:2011: Fi e p o ec ion o buildings - Assembly ooms. P ague: Czech O i ce o S anda ds, Me ology
and Tes ing. 2011, 36 p. (in Czech)
DINENNO, P.J. (2008): SFPE handbook o i e p o ec ion enginee ing. 4 h ed. Be hesda, Md.: Socie y o Fi e
P o ec ion Enginee s, 2008. ISBN 0877658218.
FLETCHER, M. (2015): Fi y-Six: The S o y o he B ad o d Fi e. London: Bloomsbu y Spo , 2015. ISBN 978-
1472920164.
Gi en he ac ha he desc ibed abula
classi i ca ion me hod was p ima ily de eloped o
closed buildings, i igno es he impo ance o he
high lucidi y o ou doo en i onmen s (especially
du ing dayligh hou s) in combina ion wi h he
human quali y “ o imi a e he beha iou o o he s
in case o eme gency”. I is likely ha du ing he
e acua ion o some people, o he s will ollow hei
example. The desc ibed e ec s will educe he ime
o ini ia e an e acua ion.
Du ing he la ge g oup e en s, people some imes
consume alcoholic d inks and o he in oxica ing
subs ances. Pa icipan s a hese e en s may be
somewha indisposed. Despi e hese in l uences,
howe e , such people canno be assessed as
pe sons “wi h limi ed mobili y” o “incapable o
independen mo emen ”. The discussion can also
e e o he numbe o indisposed pe sons, which
g ea ly depends on he na u e o he e en . Ailmen s
caused by alcoholic be e ages o o he d ugs a e no
u he add essed in his a icle.
When inco po a ing he measu es desc ibed and
o he measu es aking in o accoun he speci i cs o
any gi en e en , based on he abo e a gumen s, i
is some imes possible o adjus ac o s classi ying
ou doo mee ing a eas in o B, A2, B1, M2, and he
eac ion ime o ini ia e e acua ion Δ 1 = 1 minu e and
Δ 99 = 3 minu es (see Tab. 2 and Fig. 5). Unde hese
condi ions, he o al ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o
pe sons is 4 minu es.
Fig. 5 De e mining he ime o ini ia e he
e acua ion o pe sons om ou doo mee ing a eas
when conside ing he measu es discussed
Depending on he inco po a ion o app op ia e
o ganiza ional measu es, he ime o ini ia e he
e acua ion o pe sons wi hin ou doo a eas in case
o a i e anges om 4 o o e 30 minu es. The
ange o speci i c measu es is necessa y o p opose
in ela ion o he cha ac e o he speci i c ac ion. Fo
speci i ca ion measu es may be use ul also laws ha
deal wi h men ioned issues (e.g. LAW, 1985).
Conclusion
In e ms o ensu ing sa e y a e en s whe e
se e al people ga he , he e acua ion o people is
he p ima y issue. Such e en s a e unques ionably
accompanied by eme gencies, including i e. The
ime o ini ia e he e acua ion o people ep esen s
a signi i can po ion o he o al ime o e acua ion.
In some cases, he ime o ini ia e an e acua ion
may e en exceed he ac ual ime o equi ed o he
mo emen o people du ing he e acua ion and hus
becomes one o i s mos essen ial pa s.
One basis o de e mining he ime o ini ia e he
e acua ion o pe sons a e he p inciples desc ibed
by in e na ional ISO s anda ds. Howe e , hose
s anda ds a e in ended o no mal buildings, no o
ou doo a eas, and canno ake in o accoun ce ain
speci i c ac o s (posi i es) ha ou doo a eas p o ide
in case o a i e. A he same ime, i canno be
assumed ha ou doo a eas will be equipped in he
same way as indoo spaces in e ms o sa e y. The
eason is ob ious; i is no necessa y. The p inciples
laid down in ISO s anda ds o indoo spaces mus
be adequa ely adjus ed o ou doo spaces.
The ou pu s o his a icle p esen he ime
in e al in which we can ealis ically expec he ime
o ini ia e he e acua ion o pe sons a la ge g oup
e en s in ou doo spaces in case o a i e, depending
on he inco po a ed sa e y measu es.
Acknowledgmen s
This a icle was c ea ed wi h he suppo o
he Minis y o In e io o he Czech Republic
no. VG 20122014074 “Speci i c assessmen s
o high- isk i e sa e y condi ions wi h he use o i e
enginee ing echniques”.
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