T ansac ions o he VŠB - Technical uni e si y o Os a a
Sa e y Enginee ing Se ies, ISSN 1805-3238
Vol. XI, No. 2, 2016
36
DETERMINATION OF FIRE AND EXPLOSION CHARACTERISTICS
OF DUST
Ma ej MENČÍK1, Richa d KURACINA2, Zuzana SZABOVÁ3, Ka ol BALOG4
1 Slo ak Uni e si y o Technology, Facul y o Ma e ials Science and Technology in T na a, T na a, Slo akia,
[email p o ec ed]
2 Slo ak Uni e si y o Technology, Facul y o Ma e ials Science and Technology in T na a, T na a, Slo akia,
[email p o ec ed]
3 Slo ak Uni e si y o Technology, Facul y o Ma e ials Science and Technology in T na a, T na a, Slo akia,
[email p o ec ed]
4 Slo ak Uni e si y o Technology, Facul y o Ma e ials Science and Technology in T na a, T na a, Slo akia,
[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The aim o his pape is o app oxima e dange o dus clouds no mally occu by
de e mining hei explosion cha ac e is ics. Nowadays, dus y en i onmen is phenomenon
in he indus y. In gene al, abou 70% o dus p oduced is explosi e. Dus educ ion
in companies is he main pu pose o he na ional and Eu opean legisla i e. Ea ly
iden i i ca ion and cha ac e iza ion o dus in companies may educe he isk o explosion.
I could be used o iden i y haza ds in indus ial p oduc ion whe e an explosi e dus is
p oduced. Fo his pu pose se e al s anda ds o iden i i ca ion and cha ac e iza ion o
explosion cha ac e is ics o indus ial dus a e being used.
Keywo ds: Dus clouds, explosion cha ac e is ics, dus explosion, minimum igni ion ene gy,
maximum explosion p essu e.
Re iew a icle
In oduc ion
Acco ding o BS 2955: 1958 (BS2955 1958),
ma e ials wi h pa icle size less han 1000 μm (16 BS
mesh size) a e de i ned as ‘powde s’; when pa icles
ha e a diame e less han 76 μm (200 BS mesh size),
hey a e e e ed o as ‘dus ’. As pe NFPA (NFPA,
68 2002) ‘dus ’ is any i nely di ided solid, 420 μm
o less in diame e .
A dus explosion is ini ia ed by he apid
combus ion o l ammable pa icula es suspended
in ai . Any solid ma e ial ha can bu n in ai will
do so wi h a iolence and speed ha inc eases wi h
he deg ee o sub-di ision o he ma e ial (Eckho ,
2003). Highe he deg ee o sub-di ision (in o he
wo ds smalle he pa icle size) mo e apid and
explosi e he bu ning, ill a limi ing s age is eached
when pa icles oo i ne in size end o lump oge he .
I he igni ed dus cloud is uncon i ned, i would only
cause a l ash i e. Bu i he igni ed dus cloud is
con i ned, e en pa ially, he hea o combus ion may
esul in apid de elopmen o p essu e, wi h l ame
p opaga ion ac oss he dus cloud and he e olu ion
o la ge quan i ies o hea and eac ion p oduc s. The
u ious pace o hese e en s esul s in an explosion.
Besides he pa icle size, he iolence o such an
explosion depends on he a e o ene gy elease due
o combus ion ela i e o he deg ee o con i nemen
and hea losses (Cashdolla , 2000).
The condi ion necessa y o a dus explosion
is a simul aneous p esence o dus cloud o
app op ia e concen a ion in ai ha will suppo
combus ion h oughou he p ocess and a sui able
igni ion sou ce. In case o dus s made up o ola ile
subs ances, he explosion may occu in h ee
s eps which may ollow each o he in e y quick
succession/de ola iza ion (whe e ola iles a e le
o by he pa icle o he pa icles a e apou ized),
gas phase mixing o uel ( eleased by dus s) and
oxidan (usually ai ), and gas phase combus ion.
Many combus ible dus s i dispe sed as a cloud
in ai and igni ed, will allow a l ame o p opaga e
h ough he cloud in a manne simila o ( hough no
iden ical o) he p opaga ion o l ames in p emixed
uel-oxidan gases. (P ous , 2005)
Some o he na u al and syn he ic o ganic
ma e ials ha can o m combus ible dus s include:
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• Food p oduc s (e.g., g ain, cellulose, powde ed
milk, suga , l ou , s a ch, cocoa, mal odex in);
• Pha maceu icals (e.g., i amins);
• Wood (e.g., wood dus , wood l ou );
• Tex iles (e.g., co on dus , nylon dus );
• Plas ics (e.g., phenolics, polyp opylene);
• Resins (e.g., lacque , phenol- o maldehyde);
• Biosolids (d ied was es om sewage ea men
plan s);
• Coal and o he ca bon dus s. (Geddie, 2012)
Combus ible dus s can also be o med om
ino ganic ma e ials and me als including:
• Aluminum;
• I on;
• Magnesium powde ;
• Manganese;
• Sul u . (Geddie, 2012)
Ma e ials and me hods
While i e is caused when h ee ac o s - uel,
oxidan , and igni ion - come oge he o make wha
has been called ‘ he i e iangle’, a dus explosion
demands wo mo e ac o s: mixing (o dus and
ai ), and con i nemen (o he dus cloud). The ‘dus
explosion pen agon’ (Kau man, 1982) is o med
when hese i e ac o s occu oge he (Fig. 1):
I. p esence o combus ible dus in a i nely di ided
o m;
II. a ailabili y o oxidan ;
III. p esence o an igni ion sou ce;
IV. some deg ee o con i nemen ;
V. s a e o mixed eac an s.
Fig. 1 The dus explosion pen agon
(Kau man, 1982)
A poin o be no ed he e is ha e en pa ial
con i nemen o an igni ed dus cloud is su i cien o
cause a highly damaging explosion. In his sense,
oo, dus clouds beha e in a manne simila o clouds
o l ammable gases. (P ous , 2005)
A dus laye is deemed ‘combus ible’ i i can be
igni ed wi h a o eign sou ce and he local i e hus
gene a ed p opaga es su i cien ly a e he ou side
sou ce is aken away (Siwek, 1996). All explosible
dus s ough o be combus ible, bu no all combus ible
dus s a e easily explosible. (Vijaya agha an, 2004)
As all he ini ia i es on he unde s anding,
p e en ion, and con ol o dus explosions e ol e
ound ‘dus explosibili y’, ‘minimum explosible
dus concen a ion’, ‘minimum igni ion ene gy’,
and ‘minimum igni ion empe a u e’ (Tab. 1), i may
be ele an o dwell upon how hese pa ame e s a e
measu ed and wha a e he unce ain ies in ol ed
in he measu emen s. The wo appa a us mos o en
used o dus explosibili y es ing ha e been he
‘Ha mann e ical ube’ and he ‘20 l sphe e’. O ,
hese he Ha mann ube was he i s o be commonly
used and a g ea deal o da a exis s which has been
gene a ed in he p e-1980 e a by his appa a us
(Lees, 2005). A Ha mann appa a us consis s o
a 1.2 l e ical ube in which dus is dispe sed by
an ai blas . A ho wi e o a spa k igni e se es as
igni ion sou ce (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Ha mann e ical ube appa a us
(Abbasi, 2006)
Flame p opaga ion is obse ed as a unc ion o
dus pa icle size, dus concen a ion, igni ion ene gy,
empe a u e, e c. E en as he Ha mann e ical
ube and i s a ian s - he ho izon al ube, and he
in l amma o y appa a us - ha e been ex ensi ely
u ilized in he pas , i has been inc easingly ealized
ha he Ha mann ube is no ap o gi e uni o m
condi ions o dus dispe sion and u bulence.
Fu he , i is subjec o wall e ec s; a e he l ame
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Ini ia ion o dus and i s agi a ion is imed wi h
dual digi al iming elay. The elay has a i xed ime
in e al se be ween opening o he as opening al e
and wi h connec ing powe o clamps o ini ia o . The
p essu e changes inside he chambe a e eco ded
h ough an indus ial p essu e ansduce wi h mA
ou pu and he maximum measu able o e p essu e
alue o 16 ba . The p essu e ansduce is powe ed
by a s abilized DC sou ce. Response ime o he
senso is 1 ms and he cu en alue is eco ded
h ough he da alogge .
Explosibili y classi i ca ion
In he UK hese a e used o di ide dus s in o wo
g oups:
• G oup A - dus s able o igni e and p opaga e
a l ame;
• G oup B - dus s ha do no p opaga e a l ame.
As in all explosion es ing, he sample selec ed
o es ing mus be ep esen a i e o he ma e ial in
he plan a isk. Bes p ac ice is o ensu e ha he
sample is as d y as he d ies ma e ial in he plan
and ha he size dis ibu ion o he es dus is simila
o he i nes size ac ions ha a e likely o occu in
any pa o he p ocess. Also i is impo an ha he
classi i ca ion pe ains o he condi ions, o example,
he empe a u e, unde which he dus will be
handled. I is no sensible o conduc an explosibili y
assessmen a oom empe a u e when he p ocess
empe a u e is o be subs an ially highe . Some
dus s, classi i ed as G oup B a oom empe a u e, can
igni e a highe empe a u es. A se ies o es s has
been de ised allowing explosibili y classi i ca ion
unde inc easingly se e e condi ions. (Ba on, 2002)
Explosibili y cha ac e is ics
A quan i a i e assessmen equi es u he
es ing o measu e explosion cha ac e is ics ha
a e impo an o he design o explosion p o ec ion
me hods such as en ing, supp ession, and
con ainmen . These explosion cha ac e is ics a e:
• The maximum explosion p essu e, Pmax. This
is he highes explosion p essu e de eloped by
an enclosed dus explosion. I is measu ed in
a s anda d es a he op imum dus concen a ion.
• The maximum a e o p essu e ise, (dP/d )max.
This is he highes a e o p essu e ise gene a ed
by an enclosed dus explosion. I is measu ed in
a s anda d es a he op imum dus concen a ion.
(Ba on, 2002)
goes h ough ini ial sphe ical expansion, i a els as
wo on s up and down he ube. These condi ions
gi e a lowe a e o combus ion and o p essu e
ise han he ac ual; consequen ly he s eng h o
he p essu e ise one eco ds wi h he Ha mann
bomb is less han one ge s om mo e ad anced
appa a us. The Ha mann ube may also yield alse
nega i es o dus s ha a e di i cul o igni e wi h
a spa k bu a e igni able by s onge igni ion sou ces.
(Cashdolla , 2000)
The minimum explosible dus concen a ion and
he minimum explosion ene gy a e also de e mined
using 20l/1m3 sphe es. The expe imen al condi ions
equi ed o ob ain ag eemen wi h he 1m3 ISO essel
we e speci i ed in a s anda d issued by he Ame ican
Socie y o Tes ing and Ma e ials (ASTM) in 1988
(Eckho , 2003). The igni ion sou ce has o be he
same ype o 10 kJ chemical igni o as used in he
1m3 ISO es bu he igni ion delay can be sho e
(60 ms) because o he smalle essel size EN
14034-3+A1:2012.
Expe imen al modi i ed KV 150-M2 chambe has
been used du ing expe imen . Scheme o a chambe
is shown in Figu e 3. Dus clouds in his uni a e
ca ied ou mechanically. The comp essed ai is
ansmi ed om he ank o by as opening o he
al e o inne space o chambe . The chambe has
a olume o 291 li e s. The sample is loca ed on pla e
and sp ead by comp essed ai . This comp essed ai
is di ec ed o he sample h ough he me al p o i led
shee ing. The sample is ini ia ed by a chambe
ni ocellulose ini ia o a e he sp eading o his
sample. The ini ia o wo ks on a esis i e p inciple.
Immedia e ini ia ion o ni ocellulose is achie ed by
he ol age alue which is supplied o he esis ance
wi e and esul s in o an immedia e bu ning and
in e up ion o wi e. Igni ion ene gy o ni ocellulose
used in ini ia o is 5 kJ.
Fig. 3 Scheme o modi i ed chambe KV 150-M2
(1 - lid, 2 - nozzle o sp eading o sample, 3 - desk,
4 - base, 5 - py o echnical igni e , 6 - essel,
7 - manome e , 8 - comp essed ai inle al e,
9 - as opening al e, 10 - window (Pas ie , 2014)
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The p ocedu es o measu ing hese
cha ac e is ics a e gi en in an ISO s anda d
a ailable as ISO 6184/1: 1985. The s anda d es
essel o hese de e mina ions is he 1 m3 essel,
bu he s anda d also allows he use o al e na i e
essels p o ided i can be shown ha hey gi e
compa able esul s. The c i e ia o demons a ing
con o mi y a e gi en in he s anda d. CEN Technical
Commi ee 305 is e i ning he ISO p ocedu e. They
will ecommend use o he 1 m3 appa a us as he
s anda d appa a us, bu will also allow he use o
al e na i es such as he 20 li e sphe e i con o mi y
can be demons a ed, and new Eu opean S anda ds
o he de e mina ion o Pmax and (dP/d )max will
be issued. The peak alue o he maximum a e o
p essu e ise (dP/d )max, is used o calcula e a dus
speci i c explosibili y cha ac e is ic called he Ks
alue. The Ks alue is gi en by:
(1)
whe e (dP/d )max is he peak maximum a e o
p essu e ise [ba .s-1] and V is he o al olume o he
essel [m3]. The uni s o Ks a e ba .m.s-1.
Tab. 1 De i ni ion o dus explosion classes (1 m3
appa a us, 10 kJ igni ion sou ce) (Ba on, 2002)
The Ks alue is de i ed only om measu emen s
in ei he he 1 m3 essel o he 20 li e sphe e.
The Ks alue can be used o classi y dus s in o one
o se e al g oups. Table 1 shows he classi i ca ion
ha is gene ally adop ed. Compa isons o esul s
om he 1 m3 essel and he 20 li e sphe ical es e
gene ally show ha :
• The alues o he maximum explosion p essu e,
Pmax, measu ed in he 20 li e sphe e a e sligh ly
lowe han hose measu ed in he 1 m3 appa a us;
• The Ks alues a e equal up o abou 600 ba .m.s-1].
Explosion limi s
Explosion limi s desc ibe he concen a ion
ange o dus /ai mix u es in which explosions a e
possible. Usually, only he lowe explosion limi
(LEL) is de e mined. These measu emen s a e
impo an i he a oidance o an explosible dus
cloud o ms pa o he basis o sa e y.
Fo he de e mina ion o he lowe explosion
limi bo h he 1 m3 appa a us and he 20 li e sphe e
appa a us a e commonly used. CEN Technical
Commi ee 305 is cu en ly p epa ing a s anda d
o he es p ocedu e. Essen ially he concen a ion
o an explosible dus is sys ema ically educed in
a se ies o es s un il he dus suspension can no
longe be igni ed. The highes dus concen a ion a
which he dus /ai mix u e can no longe be igni ed
in he es s is speci i ed as he LEL. (Ba on, 2002)
Minimum igni ion ene gy
The minimum igni ion ene gy (MIE) o a dus ai
mix u e is de i ned as he lowes alue o elec ical
ene gy s o ed in a capaci o ha jus igni es he mos
igni able dus /ai mix u e ollowing he discha ge
o he ene gy ac oss a spa k gap. This measu emen
is impo an when conside ing he elimina ion
o igni ion sou ces as pa o he basis o sa e y.
A single MIE alue o a subs ance canno be de i ned
wi h uni e sal ag eemen because he alue depends
on he physical and chemical p ope ies o he dus
as well as he es appa a us used ( o example, he
elec ical ci cui used o gene a e he spa k). The
MIE is usually quo ed as a pai o alues. The lowe
alue speci i es he ene gy a which igni ion no longe
ook place. The highe alue speci i es he ene gy a
which he mos igni able dus /ai mix u e could jus
be igni ed. In iew o he dependency o he MIE on
he appa a us used, he me hod used should be s a ed
when alues a e quo ed (Mike, 1994).
Minimum igni ion empe a u e o a dus
cloud
The minimum igni ion empe a u e (MIT) o
a dus cloud desc ibes he igni ion beha iou o
a dus /ai mix u e a a ho su ace. The MIT is speci i ed
as he lowes empe a u e a which he mos igni able
dus /ai mix u e could jus be igni ed. A es me hod
is gi en in IEC 61241-2-1 (1994). Measu emen o
he MIT is no only impo an when conside ing he
elimina ion o igni ion sou ces, bu is also equi ed
o he speci i ca ion o elec ical equipmen , and is
a design pa ame e o explosion supp ession. Lowe
alues o MIT a e usually de e mined in he BAM
u nace, because, due o he na u e o he appa a us,
delayed igni ion o he gases p oduced om he
dus ha se les on he bo om o he u nace makes
a con ibu ion. (IEC 61241-2-1 1994).

1/3
max
/
s
KdPd V
Dus explosion
class Ks [ba m s-1] Cha ac e is ics
S 0 0 Non-explosible
S 1 0 < Ks ≤ 200 Weak o mode a ely
explosible
S 2 200 < Ks ≤ 300 S ongly explosible
S 3 300 < Ks ≤ 800 Ve y s ongly
explosible
pp. 36 - 42, DOI 10.1515/ sbses-2016-0015
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The Limi ing Oxidan Concen a ion
(LOC) es
The Limi ing Oxidan Concen a ion (LOC) es
de e mines he minimum concen a ion o oxygen
(displaced by an ine gas such as ni ogen o ca bon
dioxide) capable o suppo ing combus ion. An
a mosphe e ha ing an oxygen concen a ion below
he LOC is no capable o suppo ing a dus cloud
explosion. The LOC es is used o s udy explosion
p e en ion o se e i y educ ion in ol ing he use o
ine gases and o se oxygen concen a ion ala ms
o in e locks in ine ed essels. LOC es ing can be
pe o med using he 20-Li e Sphe e appa a us. Dus
samples o a ious sizes a e dispe sed in he essel
and a emp s a e made o igni e he esul ing dus
cloud wi h an ene ge ic igni ion sou ce. T ials a e
epea ed o dec easing oxygen concen a ions un il
he LOC is de e mined. The LOC o a gi en dus
cloud is dependen on he ype o ine gas ha is
used o eplace he oxidan o he a mosphe e as well
as some p ocess condi ions such as empe a u e.
The e o e, LOC es ing should simula e he p ocess
condi ions and be pe o med by using an ine gas
ha is ep esen a i e o he ine gas used in p ac ice
(Ibadad, 2009).
Minimum igni ion empe a u e o a dus
laye
The minimum igni ion empe a u e (MIT) o a dus
laye is he lowes empe a u e a which a dus laye
on a ho su ace igni es. Fo a dus laye o hickness
5 mm, he MIT is o en e e ed o as he smoulde
empe a u e, o some imes he glow empe a u e.
The measu emen is impo an o assess he need o
limi ing he empe a u es ob ained in dus handling
plan . Laye igni ion empe a u es a e almos always
lowe han cloud igni ion empe a u es. P ocedu es
o de e mining he laye MIT a e gi en in he ISSA
(1997) publica ion and in IEC 61241-2-1 (1994).
The e a e sligh di e ences be ween he p ocedu es,
bu bo h me hods use an elec ically hea ed ci cula
pla e (200 mm diame e ) upon which a dus laye
100 mm in diame e and 5 mm hick is placed. The
pla e is main ained a a cons an empe a u e o
a speci i ed pe iod and he condi ion o he dus
sample no ed. The laye MIT is he empe a u e a
which igni ion jus akes place. This empe a u e
canno be di o ced om an induc ion ime, de i ned
as he ime be ween ini ial hea ing and he onse
o glowing. Cau ion mus be exe cised in using
his laye MIT as a uni e sal alue o assessing
he igni ion isk whe e he e is an accumula ion o
a dus . The geome y o he accumula ion as well
as he s a e o he accumula ion can ha e a ma ked
Flammabili y
The l ammabili y o a dus deposi o laye
speci i es he ease wi h which he dus can be igni ed
by one o mo e igni ion sou ces. I he dus deposi
can be igni ed in he es he dus is conside ed o be
l ammable. The es consis s o placing a iangula
shaped dus deposi wi h base dimensions o 2 cm
wide by 4 cm long on a ce amic pla e and ying
o igni e i wi h di e en igni ion sou ces - o
example, a gas l ame, ciga e e, ma ch, e c. Fu he
de ails on he p ocedu e a e gi en in an ISSA (1997)
publica ion. De ails o he igni ion sou ce mus be
gi en. (Ba on, 2002)
Bu ning beha iou
I a dus deposi is l ammable, he bu ning
beha iou is used o desc ibe he na u e o he i e
in he deposi . The UN ules o he anspo a ion
o dange ous goods desc ibe a bu ning a e es
ha is commonly used. A mould is used o make
a ain o dus 200 mm. long and one end is igni ed
wi h a small l ame o ho wi e. The speed o sp ead
o bu ning h ough he ain is measu ed, as is he
abili y o he bu n o pass h ough a sec ion o we ed
dus . The es can be pe o med ei he a oom
empe a u e o a an ele a ed empe a u e (usually
100 °C). Bu ning a es a e o en g ea ly inc eased
i he dus is igni ed a an ele a ed empe a u e.
A class numbe acco ding o he de i ni ions gi en in
Table 2 hen a es he bu ning beha iou o he dus
sample. The highe he combus ion class, he mo e
e ec i e an igni ion sou ce he bu ning deposi is.
(Ba on, 2002)
Tab. 2 Bu ning beha iou o dus laye s
(Recommenda ions, 1999)
Type o eac ion Class
No bu ning, no igni ion 1
B ie bu ning, apid ex inc ion 2
Localized combus ion o smoulde ing (no o
only e y mino p opaga ion)
3
Sp ead o a smoulde ing i e o slow. l ameless
decomposi ion
4
Sp ead o an open i e (bu ning wi h l ame
de elopmen )
5
Ve y apid bu n h ough wi h l ame
de elopmen o apid, l ameless decomposi ion
6
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in l uence on he igni ion empe a u e. A hin laye o
a dus is likely o ha e a highe igni ion empe a u e
han a bulk deposi o he same dus , due o he
di e ence in hea loss. The igni ion empe a u e
will also be di e en i ai l ows o e he dus laye
o h ough he dus ( o example, in a l uidized
bed d ye ). Ma e ial held in bulk s o age o long
pe iods can also unde go spon aneous igni ion as
a esul o slow exo he mic eac ions wi h oxygen o
biological eac ions. Tes me hods o de e mining
he igni ion empe a u e mo e app op ia e o hese
di e en si ua ions can be ound in he ISSA (1997)
publica ion and he IChemE (1990) d ye s guide
(Abbo , 1990).
Resul s
Tab. 3 Explosibili y pa ame e s o a numbe o
dus s (Ba on, 2002)
* 1 m3 essel.
Conclusion
The ask o any en e p ise is o ensu e p e en ion
o explosi e a mosphe es. Sui able me hods o
de e mining a a ie y o explosion p ope ies a e
discussed in his pape .
The isk o an explosion can be minimized when
one o he ollowing measu es is ensu ed:
• A de ailed s udy o explosion cha ac e is ics
o dus as explosion limi s, minimum igni ion
ene gy, minimum igni ion empe a u e o a dus
cloud, e c.
• An explosible dus cloud is ne e allowed o o m.
• The a mosphe e is su i cien ly deple ed o oxidan
(no mally he oxygen in ai ) ha i canno suppo
combus ion.
• All igni ion sou ces capable o igni ing he dus
cloud a e emo ed.
Acknowledgemen s
This esea ch was suppo ed by he Slo ak
Resea ch and De elopmen Agency unde he
con ac No. APVV- 0057- 12 and by he p ojec
VEGA 1/1010/16.
Type o dus Min cloud
igni ion
ene gy [mJ]
Cloud
igni ion
emp. [°C]
Laye
igni ion
emp. [°C]
Max.
explosion
p essu e
[ba (a)]
Ks *
[ba .m.s-1]
Minimum
explosible
conc. [g.m-3]
Limi ing
O2 conc.
olume [%]
Ligni e 30 390 180 11.0 151 60 12
Aluminium 15 550 740 13.0 750 60 5
Coal 60 610 170 9.8 114 15 14
Cellulose 80 480 270 11.0 125 30 9
Co n l ou 40 380 330 10.3 125 60 9
Wood 40 470 260 10.2 142 60 10
Cha coal 20 530 180 10.0 10 60 -
Whea l ou 50 380 360 9.8 70 125 11
Co on lin e 1920 560 350 8.2 24 100 -
Suga 30 370 400 9.5 138 60 -
Sulphu 5 280 113 6.8 151 30 -
Magnesium 80 450 240 18.5 508 30 -
Zinc 9600 690 540 7.8 93 250 -
pp. 36 - 42, DOI 10.1515/ sbses-2016-0015
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Sa e y Enginee ing Se ies, ISSN 1805-3238
Vol. XI, No. 2, 2016
42
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