Chap e 2
The Cana y Islands' "Ma i ime Wall":
Mig a ion P essu e, Secu i y Measu es and
Economic C isis in he Mid-A lan ic
Jose ina Domínguez-Mujica, Ramón Díaz-Hemández
and Juan Pa eno-Cas ellano
Global capi alism, he echnological e olu ion and he secu i y c isis make up he con ex
wi hin which he Cana y Islands ha e ein o ced hei geos a egic posi ion
as
Eu ope's
sou he n bo de .
As
pa
o
he Kingdom
o
Spain, hey ha e his o ically been linked o he
Eu o
pean con inen ,
and
hese i
es
ha
e
be
en
s eng hened by he islands' specializa ion
in
ou is n and hei s a u e as an ul ape iphe ic and insula egion
o
he Eu opean Union
..
Thei income is hus ypical
o
highly de eloped coun ies, which con as s sha ply wi h
hei p oximi y o he sho es
o
A ica, whe e
pe
cap i a income is ou imes lowe han in
Spain - a ci cums ance ha s ongly a ou s
an
in ense i egula immig a ion low
by
sea.
Bo h Spain and he Eu opean Union ha e unde aken poli ical and mili a y neasu es o y
and s op a low ha acqui ed g ea in ensi y owa ds he middle
o
he i s decade
o
he
wen y- i s cen u y,
when
nany nig an s los hei li es
a
sea while ying o pu sue hei
d ea n
o eaching
Eu opean Union e i o y. The all in i n nig a ion p essu e on Eu opean
Union bo de s ha has aken place om 2008 un il 2010, has been in e p e ed as a success
o
EU
policies based on he i nple nen a ion
o
new secu i y neasu es and he signing
o
ce ain ag eemen s wi h A ican mig a ion sende and ansi coun ies.
Wi hou unde es ima ing he impo ance
o
hese measu es, in his chap e
we
explain
ou
iew ha he d op
in
i egula mig a ion lows be ween A ica
and
Eu ope would
no ha e eached he same ex en
i
we
had
no ound ou sel es imme sed in a phase
o
deep economic c isis, especially in Spain, whe e his si ua ion s ands in s a k con as o
he ma ked low-p oduc i i y g ow h ha a ou ed economic ac i i y and immig a ion
un il 2007.
I
mus no
be
o go en, consequen ly, ha bo de s a e po ous o he aspi a ions
and d ea ns
o
human beings who wish o imp o e hei ci cums ances, and ha his is
dependen on hei pe cep ion
o
economic si ua ions and oppo uni ies. This o ces us o
ake in o accoun economic cycles and ansna ional con ac and in o ma ion ne wo ks,
which egula e human mobili y beyond secu i y policies
and
bo de con ols. In his sense
he Cana y Islands ha e become a p i ileged an age poin o1n which o analyse mobili y
wi hin hose socioeconomically ac u ed spaces which delimi weal h
and
po e y, as well
as
o
s udy he poli ical and mili a y policies de eloped
by
he
Eu opean Union o pu
he b akes on i egula immig a ion, and o examine he s a egies o su i al adop ed by
ci izens omA ican coun ies
hoping o
imp o e hei li ing condi ions, e en
i i
in ol es
isking hei li es o ha
o
hei child en.
28
Bo de s, Fences
and
Walls
Concep ual
F amewo k
The Li e a u e on Mig a/ion
and
Bo de Con ol
Human mobili y is one
o
he phenomena ha ha e gene a ed he mos in e es among
social esea che s h oughou his o y. Examining he bibliog aphical p oduc ion
o
he i s ew yea s
o
he wen y- i s cen u y will b ing o ligh he ac ha he e is no
only a as numbe
o
publica ions whose subjec
is
mig a ion, bu ha he e
is
also a
weal h
o
concep ual app oaches unde pinning mul iple analyses. Howe e , his wide-
anging concep ual kaleidoscope na ows down se e ely when he objec
o
s udy deals
wi h i egula mig a ion in bo de egions, and e en mo e so when he mig a ion p essu e
s udied is no ela ed o he US-Mexican bo de .
An example
o
he i s heo e ic ocus co esponds o he special numbe
o
Geopoli ics
en i led: "Bo de line Con adic ions: Neolibe alism, Unau ho ised Mig a ion, and
In ensi ying Immig a ion Policing" (Va sanyi and Ne ins, 2007). As a as unau ho ized
immig a ion in Eu ope is conce ned, many
o
he wo ks published ela e mig a ion o he
issues o secu i y, so e eign y and mobili y wi hin he Union. As Ma ín-Pé ez (2010) has
s a ed, he his o ie p ocess
o
inco po a ing immig a ion- ela ed issues in o he sphe e
o
Eu opean Union policies has p o en o be ex emely complex, since i has b ough abou
a con on a ion be ween he indi idual membe s a es' eluc ance o lose con ol o e
. a ques ion oo ed in he e y concep
o
na ional so e eign y on he one hand, and, on
. he o he , he need o cope wi h in e na ional challenges, such as mig a o y p essu e and
secu i y in a global wo ld.
As a esul , in he mos ecen wo ks, he en i y
o
he Union 's bo de s and he new
p ocess
o
he ex e naliza ion
o
bo de s appea inex icably linked o so e eign y and
human mobili y wi hin he con ex
o
neolibe alism. Nowadays
"i
is possible o ecognize a
con adic o y p ocess which encou ages economic lows ac oss in e na ional bo de s, while
a he sa ne ime main aining na ionalis ic poli ical-geog aphic closu e ac oss hose same
bo de s ia expanding bounda y en o cemen and mili a iza ion" (Ca e and Me ill, 2007).
Thus, o ins ance, " he in e s a e sys em and so e eign y ha e been es uc u ed in such
a way ha i has essen ially e ased bo de s. Debo de ing is a selec i e p ocess and i is
o en pa alleled by a ebo de ing,
o
bo de c ea ion a new loca ions o gua d agains
'undesi able' elemen s" (Kimball, 2007). Likewise, Clocha d and Duype on (2007) ha e
s a ed ha
"i
is becoming di icul o know whe e he bo de s
o he
Eu opean Union a e
loca ed". Holli ield, 2004; La enex, 2006; Rijpma and C emona, 2007; an Hou um and
Pijpe s, 2007; Kau mann, 2007; Fe e -Galla do, 2008; Do e , 2008; Roh mose , 2008;
Illamola, 2008; and Casey, 2010, ha e au ho ed so ne
o he
esea ch unde aken on his
p ocess
o he
es uc u ing o Eu opean bo de s. In ali
o hese
wo ks mig a ion is analysed
asan
in eg al componen
o he
ac ions and policies ha , while a ou ing he ee ci cula ion
o people be ween membe s a es (ea ly SchengenAg eemen , 1985), ha e also con ibu ed
o he cons uc ion o " o ess Eu ope". Consequen ly, acco ding o hem ali, he blu ing
o
in e nal bo de s has been accompanied by he ein o cemen
o
he Union's ex e nal
bo de s, as he managemen
o
mig a ion has been de e ed o non-Union coun ies. This
has mean , in he case
o
sou he n Eu ope, ha he con ainmen
o
A ican emig a ion has
been le in he hands o Libya, Mo occo, Mau i ania and Senegal, among o he coun ies.
These same p emises coincide wi h he analyses pe onned by o he esea che s om
a ju idical pe spec i e, so ne
o
hem somewha desc ip i e in cha ac e , as
in
he cases
o
Fe nández Sánchez, 2006,
o
T ianda yllidou, 2010, and o he s mo e c i ica! in hei
The
Cana y Jslands' "Ma i ime Wall" 29
app oach, as hose who highligh he need o ensu e ha he p ocess
o
secu i iza ion
o
he Union's ex e na! bo de s is no unde aken a he expense
o
he ule
o
law
o
human
igh s (especially as a as e ugees, asylum seeke s and mino s a e conce ned). In ac , he
p edica ed exis ence
o
new "dange s" -in e na ional e o ism and o ganized c ime -is
he pe ec alibí o jus i y he es ic i e legisla ion and measu es b ough abou by he
expansion
o
a secu i y- ocused cul u e
o
mili a y o igin. As s a ed by Kau mann (2007),
"in such a mode, go e nmen al secu i y measu es ope a e in a manne analogous o he
ne wo ks
o
e o ism,
o
o ganised c ime and human a icking - he e y ne wo ks
i
p e ends
o
pu po s o p o ec again". Fo his eason, he wo ks o Soddu, 2006; Baldwin-
Edwa ds, 2006; Femández, Man ella, Rijpma and C emona, 2007; Spijke boe , 2007;
Geb ewold, 2008; and Ce iani, 2009, make, acco ding o Adepoju, an Noo loos and
Zoome s
"a
c i ical assessmen
o
he way he EU -and indi idual coun ies su ch as Spain,
F ance and I aly -ha e played ac i e oles in eshaping old and de eloping new s a egies
o keeping mig a ion unde con ol" (201
O).
The p ocess
o
ex e nalizing he EU bo de s has al so led o a shi in he ocus
o
esea ch
ha has been gaining in impo ance o e he las ew yea s, as a esul
o
he Eu opean
Union signing bo de con ol ag eemen s wi h hi d coun ies
andas
a consequence
o he
bila e al ag eemen s be ween so ne membe s a es and hi d coun ies. T ansi mig a ions
ha e become a new objec
o
in e es , in as much as hey a e an issue
o
g ea impo ance
wi hin he p ocess
o
he ex e naliza ion
o
bo de s, and hey ha e been s udied, among
o he s, by an Moppes, 2006; Collye , 2006; Schapendonk and an Moppes, 2007;
Sadiqi, 2007; Kimball, 2007; Schapendonk, 2008 e c.; in ali he cases men ioned Mo occo
has been he main a ea
o
s udy.
The ocus on secu i y, he ex e naliza ion
o
bo de s and espec o human igh s, as
a as non-au ho ized mig a ion is conce ned, has ended o obscu e he ela ionship ha
has de eloped be ween economic ac o s, ansna ional p ocesses and i egula human
mobili y in bo de egions. The numbe
o
esea che s who ha e shown an in e es in
hese issues is small (A ango and Ma in, 2005; Sandell, 2005; Lacomba and Boni, 2008;
Gielis, 2009; de Haas, 2010; e c.), despi e he ac ha in Decembe 2005 he Eu opean
Council adop ed he Global App oach o Mig a ion oad map and ha he Eu opean
Union has o ganized a numbe
o
con e ences (Raba , 2006 and T ípoli, 2006) wi h he
speci ic aim
o
linking mig a ion and de elopmen . These guidelines, howe e , ha e no
been economically suppo ed and ha migh explain why scien i ic deba e has been la gely
lacking as ega ds he consequences
o
pa ne ships and o he ini ia i es ha es ablish a
ela ionship be ween mig a ion, economic de elopmen and he
job
na ke . So ne
o
he
ew au ho s who ha e ackled his issue a e he ollowing: Ma in, Ma in and C oss, 2007;
Bosch and Haddad, 2007; La enex and Kunz, 2008; Chou, 2009; Chou and Gibe , 2010;
and Se ano, 2010.
The S udy
o
Unau ho ized Mig a ion in Eu o
pe
S
Sóu he n Ma i ime Bo de s
The e a e nume ous docu nen s a ailable on he di e en ac ions
o
con ol and igilance
unde aken o p e en unau ho ized i nmig a ion ac oss he Eu opean Union's sou he n
bo de s, especially in he case
o
Spain. The Spanish Minis y
o
he In e io , in pa icula ,
has eleased a la ge numbe
o
epo s and wo king pape s desc ibing hese ac ions and
measu es in de ail. F om a s a egic and geopoli ical pe spec i e, he a icles published
by he Real Ins i u o Elcano a e wo h highligh ing; i is a Spanish p i a e ounda ion
ha se es as a o um o analysis and discussion
o
in e na ional ela ions and i has
30
Bo de s, Fences
and
Walls
ecen ly ocused i s in e es on he ole Spain is playing as Eu ope's sou he nmos bo de .
A eaga, 2007; Al ea , 2008; Díaz andAbad, 2008; Vélez, 2008; Ilies, 2009; Ga cía, 2010;
and Ripjma, 2010, ha e published wo ks on his issue.
As a as he Cana y Islands a e conce ned, as he low
o
i egula immig a ion
by
sea
gained in in ensi y, a numbe
o
scien i ic pape s we e published ha wen beyond a me e
desc ip ion
o
e en s o a lis ing
o
con ol mechanisms. Ne e heless, he a en ion paid
by social esea che s o hese ma e s has been ha dly compa able o he a en ion paid o
hem
by
he media and human igh s o ganiza ions. Thus, so ne
o he
be e known wo ks
ha e been au ho ed
by
joumalis s, such as Na anjo, 2006. As Jo gen Ca ling s a ed in 2007:
"while he e a e nume ous s udies abou he dynamics
o
mig a ion and bo de con ol on
he US-Mexican bo de , academic esea ch on i egula mig a ion in sou hem Eu ope has
by and la ge concen a ed
on
he si ua ion
o
undocumen ed esiden s a e a i al, and
no on he unau ho ized i sel . The Eu opean media,
by
con as , epo on unau ho ized
mig a ion om A ica almos daily, and measu es o con ain his low s and e y high on
he Eu opean policy agenda" (Ca ling, 2007: 316).
Among he mos ep esen a i e scien i ic pape s
we
ha e hose
by
he al eady ci ed
Ca ling (2007a, 2007b) and Fe e -Galla do (2008),' as well as hose by Domínguez, Díaz
and Pa eño, 2001; Pa kes, 2006; Ca e a, 2007a, 2007b; Godenau and Zapa a, 2008;
and Fa gues, 2009. The wo ks au ho ed
by
Ca ling, Godenau and Zapa a and Fa gues a e
especially comple e, p o iding a de ailed and leng hy analysis
o
he said unau ho ized
,immig a ion, he changes i has unde gone ( ou es, ypes
o
boa s, di e en s a egies
o
·human s iuggling), he sequence
o
a i als and he a ali ies associa ed o hem, as well
as an assessmen
o
he measu es
o
con ol adop ed and a c i ical examina ion
o
he
managemen i sel
o
unau ho ized lows. Howe e , he analysis
o
hese p ocesses om a
sho e m pe spec i e has mean ha insu icien a en ion has been paid o hei economic
con ex , which is an impo an dimension ha we eel con ibu es o a g ea e unde s anding
o
he complexi ies
o
his kind
o
mig a ion lows.
Mig a ions and Secu i y in a Globalized Wo ld
The
Cons uc ion
o he
Eu opean Fo ess
In 1897 F ied ich Ra zel desc ibed a bo de as " he skin
o
he li ing s a e",
2
a poe ic
de ini ion ha con as s wi h he less li e a y bu mo e widesp ead no ion
o
he bo de
as a ixed line ha delimi s he e i o y o e which a s a e is so e eign. So e eign y is
a
key
concep
in
in ema ional law, o i e e s o he legi imacy
o
a s a e o exe cise
i s powe wi hin i s e i o y. Howe e , in ema ional coexis ence and he s a egies
o
capi alis de elopmen ha e inc easingly led owa ds he con igu a ion
o
egional
in eg a ion p ocesses ha
go
beyond he adi ional concep
o
he so e eign s a e, wi h
he esul ha bo de s ha e become mo e lexible. The i m bounda ies ha ollowed he
his o ical consolida ion
o
na ion s a es ha e g adually succumbed o a end owa ds
g ea e accessibili y, which acili a es he sha ing
o
he bene i s
o
he ee ci cula ion
o
goods, capi al and se ices, while p ese ing con ol o e he Iabou ma ke and secu i y.
1 The la e ouches on he Cana y Islands mig a ion p essu e only in passing,
as
he main ocus
o his
wo k
Hes
in he ci ies
o Ceu a
and Melilla.
2 "Die Hau des lebendigen Zus and".
The
Cana y
Jslands'
"Ma i
ime
Wall"
31
This p ocess, which has al eady aken place a a egional le el, is also beginning o expand
wo ldwide, and globaliza ion is gi ing ise o a g owing opening
o bo de s
o , a leas , o
hei g ea e pe meabili y.
On he o he hand, he use
o
echnological de elopmen s in he managemen
o
bo de s has led o ema kable changes. The p eoccupa ion wi h secu i y agains e o ism,
ana icism,
ann
and d ug smuggling, ansbo de c ime and unau ho ized immig a ion has
esul ed in he c ea ion
o
s anda dized da abases, in o ma ion ne wo ks and, especially, in
he inco po a ion
o
new echnologies (biome ics, sensi i e ada s, c ewless ae oplanes,
sa elli e su eillance sys ems, e c.) ha ha e led o he s eng hening
o
" echnological
bo de s". As a consequence, " he use
o
hese echnologies, in combina ion wi h he
widesp ead eliance on isk managemen , con ibu es o he e-imagina ion
o bo de s
and
he bodies ha c oss hem" (Mulle , 2011).
As has been said, in he case o Eu ope, bo de managemen o ms pa
o he
Eu opean
Union's policies agains illegal immig a ion and i anks among i s highes poli ical
p io i ies, in ol ing a ange
o
cos ly economic, comme cial and diploma ic measu es.
The Schengen Ag eemen , in 1985, laid he ounda ions
o
he cu en
EU
bo de con ol
sys em. La e , in 2002, a bo de policy plan
o
ac ion was app o ed ha led o he c ea ion
o
F on ex in 2004, he Eu opean Agency o he Managemen
o
Ope a ional Coope a ion
a he Ex e nal Bo de s
o he
Membe S a es
o he
Eu opean Union, whose unc ion was
u he egula ed in 2007. F on ex coo dina es ope a ional coope a ion be ween Membe
S a es in he ield
o
managemen
o
ex emal bo de s; assis s Membe S a es in he aining
o
na ional bo de gua ds, including he es ablishmen
o
common aining s anda ds;
ca ies ou isk analyses; ollows up he de elopmen
o
esea ch ele an o he con ol
and su eillance
o
ex emal bo de s; assis s Membe S a es in ci cums ances equi ing
inc eased echnical and ope a ional assis ance a ex emal bo de s; and p o ides Membe
S a es wi h he necessa y suppo in o ganizing join e um ope a ions.
These unc ions
o
F on ex highligh he complexi ies
o
managing immig a ion no
only om an ope a ional poin o iew, bu also om he pe spec i e
o
diploma ic ela ions,
since bo de s cons i u e a pi o
o
complex bila e al ela ions a di e en le els: be ween
Spain and Mo occo, be ween sou hem Eu ope and he Magh eb, and be ween he Eu opean
Union and A ica. In his sense, "mig a ion conce ns a e cen al o he agenda
o
all hese
ela ionships, and a e in a iably en angled wi h o he issues" (Ca ling, 2007). In ac , he
diploma ic e o unde aken
by
he Eu opean Union has esul ed in impo an changes in
enns
o
ma e ial esou ces and public se ices in he A ican coun ies wi h whom join
bo de igilance ag eemen s ha e been signed.
Sho ly a e he g ea es p ocess
o
egula iza ion
o
immig an s e e unde aken in
Spain (2005) had been b ough o comple ion, he impac on public opinion
o he
assaul s
on he bo de ences
o Ceu a
and Melilla in Sep embe and Oc obe 2005, and hei agic
consequences, b ough abou a change in he Spanish go e nmen 's mig a ion policies.
Ano he con ibu ing ac o was he humani a ian Rla m aised on accoun
o
wha ca ne
o be known as he "boa c isis", when in summe and au umn 2006 many ishing boa s
a i ed in he Cana y Islands ca ying you hs and child en om coas al coun ies sou h
o
he Saba a (Mau i ania, Senegal, Gambia
...
) (Figu e 2.1).
The c ossing was long and dange ous and many boa s sunk. The social ala m gene a ed
by
he a i al
o
a la ge numbe
o
immig an s (only in 2006, 31,678 immig an s a i ed his
way in he Cana y Islands) and he di icul ies o cope wi h
he,m
(police esou ces and sea
escue and humani a ian assis ance se ices we e o e whelmed) d o e he go e nmen o
-g::i::::P"'S:
o o o e :-'l
'0""3º!):>-...;:
5·..,
-
:::;
::l" ..,
~
C' l
--
V)
o
Col•
-·
o
-·
::i
~
:::;
-·
!):>
:::-.
(")
..,
:::; 3
:::!
-·
c.
=
00
3
~
c.
8'
-·
~
;¡¡·
=~~"'"
¡¡
!l i
13g
=
.g
i
!".
o-
s "
g_
. .
;¡
.,,o!".Clº
;¿
.,,"
o.:I:"'
a~s=ª
~
;¡g
ª
~
==
y s 5·
~
is-
<:
g.
~
§."
,¡¡:-i-""
~
"~
""-<
-
i:.iº
~
:::so
~
n
2'
¡¡-
= O
~
;::: o
,-
o -
¡¡:
O•ooo<>C.3
'1J
:o-3
1'5:'¡;'
= "
¡;;·""
a e "
~
o
,,..
(")
~
e:
=-
¡;; = - "' q
¡¡.
"'
'.'..
"
5·
g
5-
E;
a·
g.
g "
15.
3 =
S.
"
s-
=
g,
a
o;;
a·
s.
~
3
::;
~-
"º"'"
"'""~
º~...,"
'?~=<~
s
~8.
~úl¡¡¡:a,g
g:;:·a~
.g
=g
~-g""
= " " - g
"'
c.
"
c.
-·
g_
~
¡¡-o:: ·"'"~-
S>"° !:l-2
00
3
c.
,...,
=·
~
"
C::
n
-·
-
~
~
-·
%•
"'
~
"
a·
-
"'
;:;
"'""
º"""
" s'"
"'~:s~
~
n
oo
-·
9:
{l
-
8l
o
~
"'
:: .
__
E;o@Sl
n
"'º
-3~"'
= -· "
00
-
~ ~
o -· =
<¡:;·
g i • 8 ii·
.g
"'
>-' •
~
;¡~""~¡¡:
~
!",3
g."-
g
"
>
p.
~
§ "
~
~
~-
;¡ ;a g
;;
~
"
00
"'
c.
"' -
=·
" "
;o
00
;;!
=oo
c&
"'
o&
o.-
,...,
¡¡¡¡;;·;¡,,!".
~
¡;;,,
.; : l
¡¡
z
~~
"
~-
¡¡-
~
00
c.
¡¡·
~
'!Oí
g.
"'-
3
=-=2'º
~
;j"
""
;¡..
()q!:i""'=
~
zg
~~
=<'
~~
,.,n~=-o
""
--
-·
3.P-Cl~-
!"3
¡¡!?;'
¡¡
3,;8_0"
-
00
~-
-
,..oo-Bl
.,_,,; =
"'
~=-s"'g
,,,.
g
.,,==""-
=-
1
35,,,~-S
¡<¡
i'5
: º=g=
=
:;:
!180.000.
¡¡-
.¡¡-
33
c.""
~
o.
~-"'
~
~
g g
~
a'O-.c..
i::
2.
º
C' l
!):>
a
C' l
:::;
J
...
c..Sc..§l
:i.
~
"
,,..
00
,•
Table
2.1
Landma ks
in
he managemen
o
unau ho ized mig a ion lo VS in he EU and in Spain (1985-2010)
Eu opean Union
Da e T ea ies/Sum mi s/ Ag eemen s
1985 The Schengen (Ge many) ag eemen s,
(June) abolishing in e na! con ols and c ea ing a
join
ex e na! bo de among F ance, Ge many,
Belgium, he Ne he lands and Luxembou g.
1997 The T ea y
o
Ams e dam (The Ne he lands)
(Oc obe ) es ablished an a ea " eedom, secu i y and
jus ice", which b ough immig a ion policy
unde EU ju isdic ion.
1 Communica ions/Con e ences/O he s Spain and
O he
Coun ies
1999 Bila e al ag eemen wi h Mo occo o acili a e
(Sep embe ) he eadmission o Mo occan na ionals as well
1999
(Oc obe )
2002
(Junc)
2002
(Augus )
2002
(Decembe )
In he Tampe e (Finland) Summi , he Eu opean
Council ag eed o se up a Common Eu opean
Asylum sys em and pa ne ships wi h coun ies
o
o iginas
p oposed by Minis e s
o
Jus ice
and HomeA ai s.
In Se ille (Spain) he Eu opean Council
es ablished ha ali EU ag eemen s wi h
non-EU s a es a e o: "include a clause on
join managemen o mig a ion lows and on
compulso y eadmission
in
he e en
o
illegal
immig a ion".
Communica ion om he Commission o he
Council on In eg a ing mig a ion issues
in
he
Eu opean Union's ela ions wi h hi d coun ies.
as ansi mig an s.
De elopmen
o
SIVE (Sys cm
o
In eg a ed
Ex e na! Su eillance
).
A p o o ype s a ion
is
se up in Algeci as.
w
N
[
~
·"
.,,
~
§
"-
il'i
"'
Da e
2003
(June)
2003
(No embe )
2003
(Decembe )
2003
(Decembe )
2004
(Oc obe )
2005
(Janua y)
2005
(May)
2005
(Decembe )
Da e
2005
(Decembe )
2006
(Janua y)
2006
(Ma ch)
2006
(Ap,il)
2006
(May· and
July)
2006
(July)
Eu opean
Union
T ea ies/Summi s/Ag eemen s
T ea ies/Summi s/Ag eemen s
1 Communica ions/Co1.1 e ences/O he s
(EC) 2007/2004 F on ex egula ion. C ea ion
o
he Agency o he Managemen
o
Ope a ional
Coope a ion
a
he Ex e na! Bo de s.
Communica ion om he Commission o
he Council and he Eu opean Pa liamen :
The Hague P og amme: The Pa ne ship o
Eu opean enewal in he ield
o F eedom,
Secu i y and Jus ice.
The
Eu opean Council adop ed he Global
App oach o Mig a ion: P io i y ac ions
ocusing on A ica and he Medi e anean.
Eu opcan
Union
J
Communica ions/Con c ences/O hc s
Communica ion om he Commission o he
Council and he Eu opean Pa liamen : S a e
o
he A ENEAS hema ic p og amme o he
coope a ion wi h hi d coun ies
in
he a cas
o
mig a ion and asylum.
Council Regula ion es ablishing a Communi y
Code on he ules go eming he mo emen
o
pe sons ac oss bo de s (Schengen
Bo de s Code
).
Eu o-A ican con e ence on Mig a ion and
De elopmen
in
Raba (Mo occo
).
Regional
app oach o c ea e pa ne ships and adop an
Ac ion Plan o link mig a ion and de elopmen .
Spain
and
O he
Coun ies
Fi s e ision
o he
Co onouAg eemen s
be ween A ican, Ca ibbean and Paci ic
coun ies (ACP) and EU on he eadmission
clause (A . 13).
Passage
o
a Law
in
Mo occo (Loi, 02/03)
egula ing he en y
and
s ay
o
o eign na ional
in
he Kingdom
o Mo occo
and dealing wi h
i egula immig a ion,
Memo andum signed wi h Mo occo ega ding
he issue
o unaccompanied
child en
( eadmission).
The i s SIVE ada s a ion is se up
in
he
Cana y Islands (Fue e en u a).
"Guana eme" Ma i ime Join Ope a ions
in
he Cana y
I.
Spain
and
O hc
Coun ics
Con ac signcd wi h AENEAS in o de o ca y
ou he SEAHORSE P og amme (2006) a plan
o
coope a ion wi h Mo occo, Mau i ania, Cape
Ve de and Senegal o he p e en ion
o
illegal
ma i ime mig a ion.
Beginning
o he
"A lan is" p og amme
o
coope a ion wi h Mau i ania, aimed a igh ing
i egula immig a ion by means
o
ajoin
ma i ime pa ol
by
Spain's Ci il Gua d and
Mau i ania 's Genda me ie.
Di e en Eu opean coun ies send expe s o
suppo he Spanish Na ional Police B igade
wi h he iden i ica ion
o i egula
immig an s
a i ing in he Cana y Islands:
"HERA
1 y
HERA II" ope a ions.

Da e
2006
(July)
2006
(Augus )
2006
(Scp embe )
2006
(di e en
mon hs)
2006
(Oc obe )
2006
(No embe )
2006
(No embe )
2006
(Dccembe )
Da e
2006
(di e en
mon hs and
ollowing
yea s)
2006
(June)
2006
(di e en
mon hs)
2007
2007
(Janua y)
2007
(Feb ua y)
2007.
(Feb ua y)
2007
(Ma ch)
Eu opean
Union
T ea ies/Summi s/Ag eemen s
Ag eemen be ween EU and Mali on mig a ion
con ol
in
exchange o de elopmen aid.
1
Communica ions/Cop. e ences/O he s
C ea ion
o
a special g oup
o
Commissione s
dealing wi h mig a ion.
Two sho - e m coope a ion p ojec s be ween
EU and Senegal o con ibu e o su eillance
ope a ions, epa ia ion and ehabili a ion, and
o p o ide local suppo o ac i i ies
o
non-
S a e ac o s engaged
in
mig a ion.
Eu o-A ican con e ence on Mig a ion and
De elopmen
in
T ipoli (Libya).
Communica ion sugges ion plans o he con ol
o ma i ime
bo de s.
JHA Council mee ing on In eg a ed App oach
o Bo de s and Mig a ion (IBM).
Eu opean
Union
T ea ies/Summi s/
Ag cemen
s
1
Communica ions/Con e ences/O he s
Decision aken o es ablish a Mig a ion
In onna ion and Managemen Cen e o
coo dina c
job
o e s in he EU
wi hjob
sceke s
in
Bamako (Mali).
Spain
and
O he
Coun ies
Spain's Royal Dec ee N"845/2006,
o 7
July, which egula ed he concession
o an
ex ao dina y subsidy o he Kingdom
o
Mo occo o he ein o cemen
o
i s bo de
con ol and o i s s uggle agains
illegal immig a ion.
C ea ion
o
he Regional Coo dina ion Cen e
o he
Cana y Islands (CCRC), o deal wi h
illegal mig a ion in o he Cana y Islands, and
he es ablishmen o egula ions o de elop i s
unc ions (BOE 11/10/2006).
Spain
and
O he
Coun ies
Bila e al eadmission ag eemen s wi h
Mo occo, Alge ia, Nige ia, Ghana, Mali, Cape
Ve de, Guinea, Guniea-Bissau and Pakis an.
"A ican Plan" (s a egy documen on Spanish
o eign policy owa ds A ica 2006-2008).
Reissue (2009-2012).
Bila e al mig a ion coope a ion ag eemen s
wi h Gambia, Guinea, Senegal, Conak y, Mali
and Cape Ve de.
De elopmen
o he
SEAHORSE p og amn1e
by meaos
o he
SEAHORSE NETWORK.
Spain issues 700 labou mig a ion isas o
Senegalese ishe men.
Di e en Eu opean coun ies send expe s o
suppo he Spanish Na ional Police B igade
wi h he iden i ica ion
o
i egula immig an s
a i ing in he Cana y Islands: "HERA III"
ope a ions.
Bila e al ag eemen wi h Mo occo o coope a c
in
he p e en ion
o "illegal"
emig a ion
o
unaccompanied child en.
Da e
2007
(July)
2007
(Decembe )
2008
(May)
2008
(June)
2008
(July)
2009
Da e
2009
(Ap il)
2009
(Sep embe )
2009
(di e en
mon hs)
2009
(Decembe )
2009
(Decembe )
2010
(June)
2010
(No embe )
2010
(No embe )
Eu opean
Union
T ea
ies/Summi s/ Ag eemen s
Lisbon 2nd A ica-EU Summi o launch
A ica-EU Mig a ion, Mobili y and
Employmen Pa ne ship.
1 Communica ions/Con e cnccs/O hc s
Regula ion (EC) No 863/2007
o
he Eu opean
Pa liamen and he Council es ablishing a
mechanism o he c ea ion
o
Rapid Bo de
In e en ion Team ("RAB!Ts Rcgula ion").
Beginning
o he
mobili y pa ne ship wi h
Cape Ve de o acili a e ci cula mig a ion
(Council documen ).
Eu opean
Union
T ea ies/Sum mi s/ Ag eemen s
The T ea y
o Lisbon
ca ne in o o ce, wi h
new p o isions egula ing he common space
o eedom, secu i y andjus ice ha opened
he doo o he de elopmen
o
a common
immig a ion policy ( he ea y gua an ees he
ee mo emen
o people
ac oss he Union,
wi h no in e na! bo de s, oge he wi h measu e
ega ding ex e na! bo de con ol, asylum,
immig a ion and p e en ion
o and
igh agains c ime).
The S ockholm P og amme se s ou he
Eu opean Union's (EU) p io i ies in he a ca
o
jus ice, eedom and secu i y o he pe iod
2010-14. Eu opean ci izenshi¡} and i s igh s.
EU Communica ion on he Join
A ica-EU s a egy.
3 d A ica-EU Summi
in
Libya.
1 Communica ions/Con e ences/O he s
Spain
and
O he
Coun ies
The Minis y
o he
In e io (Spain) awa ded
Ind a he con ac o se up he Sea Ho se
Ne wo k sys em (sa elli e su eillance) o
he con ol o illegal immig a ion and d ug
a icking be ween Spain, Po ugal and No h
A ican coun ies.
The Coope a ion F amewo k Ag eemen
be ween he Kingdom
o
Spain and he
Republic
o
Senegal
o
1OOc obe 2006 ca ne
in o o ce.
De elopmen
o
he "Seaho se Coope a ion
Cen e s" p ojec by mea ns
o
he ans o ma ion
o
he "Seaho se ne wo k" p ojec con ac
poin s (Mau i ania, Cape Ve de, Senegal and
Po ugal) in o Vigilance Coo dina ion Cen es
and he ein o cemen
o
he Sou h A lan ic
Bo de Coope a ion Cen e
in
he Cana y
Islands.
Spain
and
O he
Coun ies
Modi ica ion o Mau i anian legisla ion o
include c imes ela ed o i egula immig a ion
and se ing up a Ship Regis y.
Fo mal ag eemen be ween Spain and Senegal
o he p e en ion
o
illegal mig a ion and
eadmission
o
i egula Senegalese na ionals.
Bila e al ag eemen s wi h Mo occo,
Senegal and Gambia.
Modi ica ion
o he
Spanish Residen s Law.
40
Bo de s, Fences
and
Val!s
30000 " M o occan Ulw egula ing he en y and
s ayo
o elgn na ionals ln he
Klngdomo
Mo occo and deallng wi h I egula
l mlg a lon
25000
j-'=======iV'======-1
Maxlmum
ln ensl yo
sub-Sahanm
unau ho lzed
ma l lme lmmig a lon
20000
~--;======_::::,_"=_'.:====:::::_
G owing
ln ensi yo
unau ho ized
ma l ime
lmp1e oon a !on
o
he
SEAHORSE
(plan
o
coope a ion wi h Mo occo,
Mau i ania, Cape Ve de
and Senegal
o
he
p e en lon
o
negal
m i lme mig a lon)
15000 Jnmlg a !on
om
P"'-,--"'<::--------.
·--------;
Mo occo
Figu e
2.2
Links beh een mig a ion s ages and policing mensu es
.
Sou ce:
Minis y
o
he In e io (Spain): h p://www.la-moncloa.es/Se iciosdeP ensa/No asP ensa/
MIR/_
2Ü
1O/n p 20100116
_ Imnig acion.h m (accessed 27/12/201
O).
dehyd a ion ... ) on boa d, ma i ime bo de con ol equi es a ange
o
ac ions ha combine
de ec ion, de e ence, and in e cep ing and dis1nan ling human smuggling ings wi h sea ch
and escue ope a ions and hun1ani a ian assis ance o immig an s.
This ame o e e ence in es s he illegal ma i in1e immig a ion iow ac oss Eu ope's
A lan ic bo de wi h a cha ac e is ic dynamic,
Vhich
can be di ided in o h ee dis inc s ages
o
di e en dünension: a) om 1994 o 2005, yea s
o
g owing in ensi y du ing which no
ac ion p o ocol had been de eloped ye o deal wi h unau ho ized
: lows;
b)
om 2006
o 2008, a pe iod
o
maximum in ensi y du ing
Vhich
1nul iple measu es we e aken and
ini ia i es de eloped a ali le els in he ields
o
diplomacy, policing and humani a ian
assis ance; c) om 2008 o 20 l
O,
a s age
o
dec easing in ensi y and loss
o
p ominence o
his ype
o
mig a ion p ocesses (Figu e 2.2).
a.
Un il 2005, i egula mig a ion
: lows
ou
o
sub-Saha an A ica ended o a el by
land owa ds Ceu a and Melilla, and also by sea om o he loca ions in he no h
o
Mo occo, ac oss owa ds he sou he n coas
o
Spain. In he case
o
he Cana y
Islands, du ing his pe iod i egula immig an s gene ally made use
o
wha was
known as "sla e ships", ishing boa s and, o a lesse ex en , in ia able a s. The
o me we e mos ly old ships, gene ally un i o sail, unde iags
o
con enience,
and which ended o come om Wes A ican coas al coun ies. Inspec ions
in
he
docks
o
he islands
o
wa e leaks ha o ced hem o moo in he po s
o
he
islands on hei way o Eu ope o en led o he disco e y
o hei
"ca go'', gene ally
a conside able numbe o people packed
in
hei hold
in
subhuman condi ions. The
ishing boa s used -essen ially, la ge canoes -a e agile c a s ha can easily
capsize and sink
in
he open sea o when hey app oach a c aggy coas line. They
The
Canc11y
Js!ands' "Ma i iJne Wal/''
41
used o se sail
on1
Mo occo's sou he n coas , Wes e n Saba a o Mau i ania,
and sough o a i e in he eas e n islands
o
he Cana ian A chipelago. The i s
one a i ed
in
1994, and
o1n
ha yea on hei numbe s g adually inc eased un il
he i s yea s
o
he wen y- i s cen u y -2003, 2004 and 2005 -when a g ea e
coope a ion be ween Spain and Mo occo ega ding he p e en ion
o
depa u es led
o a d op
in
he immig a ion
: lo
and o a displacemen
o
he poin s
o
depa u e
u he sou h, as human smuggle s we e o ced o eo ganize hei ac i i ies.
b.
F om 2005 on, as a consequence
o
g ea e Mo occan igilance, i egula mig an
smuggle s and depa u e poin s shi ed sou h owa ds he coas
o
cen al Wes
A ica, a eas ha a e u he emo ed om he Cana y Islands, and as a esul he
c ossings becan1e longe , mo e di icul , cos ly and dange ous (Ki1nball, 2007). The
ype o essel used changed as well, and he immig an s eplaced he pa e as (small
ishing c a s) wi h cayucos, la ge ishing boa s
Vi h
g ea e ange. Depa u e poin s
ended now o be loca ed along he coas s o Mau i ania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea
Bissau, Guinea Conak y o Sie a Leone, and consequen ly passenge s, in his
second s age, we e mos ly sub-Saha an na ionals who usually disemba ked on he
coas
o he
wes e n islands
o he
a chipelago as a consequence
o he
ne sailing
pa e ns. Du ing his pe iod human smuggling de eloped
so
success ully ha , o
ins ance, in 2006, c ossings
in
cayucos we e o e ed online (senegalaisemen .com),
e y much
in
he s yle
o a
s anda d a el agency (Me ino, 2010).
These c ossings we e unde aken by young adul s, mos ly men, and so ne mino s
who, like hei ellow a elle s, ca ne om sub-Saha an coun ies, especially
Senegal and Mali. Whe eas, in 1999, 83.9 pe cen o unaccompanied mino s
ca1ne
o1n
Mo occo,
in
2006 and 2007 his igu e changed and
71
pe cen
o he
child en
placed unde he p o ec ion
o
he go e nmen
o
he Cana y Islands
ca1ne
om
coun ies sou h
o
he Saha a. The manage1nen
o
his low has equi ed a special
p o ec i e measu es by he go en1men
o he
Cana y Islands
in
o de o sa egua d
hei igh s and well-being, as equi ed by in e na ional (Con en ion on he Righ s
o
he Child) and domes ic law (Basic Law o he Legal P o ec ion
o
Mino s
and Ci il Co le), wi h he en ailing obliga ions o implemen special ecep ion and
aining p og ammes.
c. In he las e yea s, om 2008 o 2010, he e has been a g adual d op
in
i egula
ma i ime im nig a ion
: lows
ac oss Eu ope's sou he n A lan ic bo de . Many
analys s belie e ha he measu es o igilance and con ol adop ed by he Eu opean
Union and by Spain, as well as he ag eemen s signed wi h sende coun ies, migh
ha e con ibu ed o de e i egula immig a ion. In ac , he cen es o mino s ha
had been se up (CAME) a e la gely unde used a p esen . Acco ding o 2009
igu es, he numbe
o
a es s o unau ho ized n1a i ime a i als in Spain d opped
ha yea down o 7,285,
o which
2,246 a i ed
in
he Cana y Islands, among
he1n
only 192 mino s (82.2 pe cen less han
in
2006).
The e
is
no
doub ha he end desc ibed abo e is o so ne ex en he esul
o
he ac ha po en ial A ican en1ig an s and hei ela i es ha e come o unde s and
ha e en
i
hey a e success ul
in
eaching Eu ope, hey a e e y likely o be
con ined
in
a de en ion cen e while hei depo a ion is a anged,
Vhich
in u n
has b ough abou a decline
in
human smuggling. Howe e , wi hou denying he
impo ance
o
hese measu es,
i
should be bo ne
in
1nind
ha in1mig a ion
is
a
e y complex phenomenon which is no only condi ioned by police igilance and
con ol ac ions, bu also by he mig an s' collec i e imagina ion, shaped unde he
42
Bo den;, Fences
and
Wal!s
in l.uence
o
di e se in onna ion, he suppo o e ed
by
hei ne wo ks
o
con ac s
and hei pe sonal assessmen
o
he isk ewa ds a io. Consequen ly, he ole
played
by
he e olu ion
o he
econo1ny
should no be unde es ima ed, as
i
di ec ly
a ec s he mig an s' pe cep ion
o
hei chances
o
ünp o e hei si ua ion and,
hus,
i
indi ec ly links mig a ion p ocesses o p oduc i e cycles.
Economic Ac i i y and
Human
Mobili y
As is well known,
in1mig a ion
has been one
o
he pilla s suppo ing he e olu ion
o
de eloped economies. The a ailabili y
o
immig an labou has played an essen ial ole in
sus aining he p oduc i e sys em and in con olling sala y le els in coun ies wi h highe
na ional incomes. A he same ime, e nig a ion and i s e ec s canno be sepa a ed om
he econo1nic e olu ion
o
de eloping coun ies. Du ing he expansion cycle
o
he pos -
Fo dis s age, especially
in
he case
o
ce ain Eu opean coun ies such as Spain, J aly and
I eland, he inc ease
in
he demand o labou was me by immig a ion, as hei economic
de elopmen was based on a low-p oduc i i y labou -in ensi e model dependan on highly
lexible employmen . Howe e , du ing a con ac ion cycle, he d op
in
demand o labou
has a ec ed immig an s se e ely, pa icula ly in he case
o hose
ac i i ies
in
he seconda y
labou ma ke segmen . This d op
in
demand and immig an s' unemploymen a es has had
deep e ec s on he e olu ion, dimension and cha ac e is ics
o
he nig an labou supply
and,
mci e
gene ally, on in e na ional mig a ions as a whole.
Consequen ly, i is necessa y o examine he di e en p oduc i e cycles and he ole
played by he ansna ional in o ma ion ne wo ks de eloped by hnmig an s, in o de o
es ablish he ela ionship be ween he n and he di e en unau ho ized 1na i hne immig a ion
a es desc ibed abo e.
Econonlic G o, h du ing he Cycle
o
Expansion
and
Mig a ion 1995-2007
The I 980s saw he beginning
o
a new phase
o
capi alis de elopmen cha ac e ized mos ly
by echnological inno a ion and as ci cula ion
o
capi al, accompanied
by
a es uc u ing
o
socio-spa ial ela ionships among he wo ld's di e en geog aphical a eas. F om he
poin
o
iew
o
popula ion 1nobili y, his phase
o
global capi alism has con ibu ed o a
g ea e complexi y
o
mig a ion p ocesses, as e olu iona y de elop nen s in anspo and
means
o
communica ion and new channels
o
in o ma ion ha e gi en ise o
Vha
migh be
enned a wo ld pe spec i e, which makes i possible o any coun y o po en ially beco1ne
a des ina ion o emig an s and o mig a ion lows o ake place anywhe e
in
he
Vo ld.
Fo
his eason so ne au ho s ega d mig a ion lows as a cha ac e is ic ea u e
o
a globalized
economic sys em. Acco ding o UN da a, in 2005 o e
195
1nillion people li ed ou side
hei home coun y, 60 pe cen
o
hem in de eloped coun ies, especially in he
EU
and
he USA. These mig an s ep esen ed
3.1
pe cen
o he
wo ld popula ion and made
up
he
" i h la ges coun y" in e ms
o
popula ion (UN, 2008).
This ise
in
mig an popula ion was accompanied by a mo e no iceable isibili y han
in he pas , and
i
became, gi en he g owing p esence
o
clandes ine 1nig an s, one
o
he
main wo ies
o
he na i e popula ion in Ves em coun ies. The din1ension
o
i egula
ows has gene a ed legal and econo1nic insecu i y o emig an s and poli ical and social
unce ain ies o ecipien s a es Vhich, as a esul
o
he p ocess
o
globaliza ion, ha e had
hei capaci y o eely ake measu es es ic ed. In ac , 1nig a ion ci cui s and 1nobili y
The
Ca11a1y
Jslands' "Ma i ilne Wa/!"
43
ends a e now he esul
o
co1nplex p ocesses based on econo1nic and poli ical decisions,
on amily, e hnic o eligious ne o ks and on indi idual o g oup aspi a ions de i ed
om he nig an s' collec i e iinagina ion,
Vhich
oge he s uc u e he new geog aphy
o
mig a ion ows (Sassen, 2008).
In Spain, he ise in o eign immig a ion o e he las
15
yea s has been unp eceden ed
and i has ans onned he coun y in o an e ne ging des ina ion
in
he con ex
o
in e na ional
labou nobili y (Domínguez-Mujica e al., 2008). F om 1986 on, bo h Spain's inco po a ion
in o he Eu opean Union and he p ocess
o
con e gence he coun y unden en wi h i s
nos de eloped neighbou ing coun ies, a ou ed he a i al
o
a ne ype
o
i nmig an
closely linked o he socioeconomic dynamic ha coincided ' i h he onse
o
a pos -Fo dis
economic phase. La e , om he mid-l 990s on, he consolida ion
o
an economic model
cha ac e ized by low p oduc i i y and apid g ow h con ibu ed o in ensi y mig a ion ows
in o Spain. Fo ha eason, un il 2007, as he o eign popula ion inc eased he e
Vas
also a
pa allel ise in he numbe
o
i egula immig an s
anda
mo e in ense immig a ion p essu e
on he bo de .
The go emmen ied o sal e he p oblem
o
unau ho ized immig a ion wi hou
al e ing he p oduc i e nodel. Among o he measu es, h ee impo an egula iza ion
p ocesses e e unde aken,
in
2000, 2001 ( egula iza ion on he s eng h
o
communi y
ies) and in 2005 (known as no maliza ion p ocess). The i s o p ocesses we e linked
o he leng h
o
ime mig an s had esided
in
Spain and he las one o he pa icipa ion
o
mig an s in he labou na ke . A his poin i is
Vo h
conside ing whe he unau ho ized
ma i ime immig a ion was also condi ioned by he appeal
o he
Spanish p oduc i e model
and by he "pull e ec " gene a ed by he egula iza ion p ocesses. In bo h cases he answe
would be
in
he a i ma i e. Rega ding he i s issue, a su ey pe onned in he Cana y
Islands du ing he 2000 egula iza ion p ocess con inned ha 1nany A ican
immig~an s
had
a i ed
in
Spain i egula ly by sea and ha hey had bene i ed om he suppo
o
ello
coun ymen who had p e iously se led in Spain. Rega ding he second ques ion, in he case
o
he Cana y Islands, he highes igu es
in
he numbe
o
im1nig an s de ained a e hei
a i al by sea we e eco ded
in
he yea s ollowing he immig an egula iza ion p ocesses, ·
in
o he wo ds,
in
2001, 2002 and 2006 (Figu e 2.3).
The Global Econonlic C isis
o/2008-2010
and
Mig a ions
The ci cums ances ha a ou ed he g ow h
o he
wo ld economy
up
un il he yea 2007
ha e no changed in he con ex
o
he cu en economic c isis. Fu he mo e, so ne
o
he
s uc u al elemen s on which globaliza ion has been based, such as he as ci cula ion
o
capi al beyond he con ol
o
s a e egula ions, lie a he hea
o
he economic ecession
ha s a ed in 2008, when he wo s cyclical c isis
o
he capi alis sys em since 1929 b oke
ou , a ec ing almos ali coun ies
in
he wo ld. Among he consequences
o his
c isis he e
is he d op
in
demand o goods and se ices and, consequen ly, o labou . As a esul , he
ILO p edic ed an inc ease in unemploymen igu es o 2009
o
be ween
18
and 30 mili ion
wo ke s compa ed o 2007, o e en
o
50 million wo ke s
i
he si ua ion con inued o
de e io a e (!LO, 2009).
As
i
has been poin ed ou , du ing he pe iod
o
economic expansion he in ux
o
wo ke s om ab oad con ibu ed o maximizing g o h and con olling sala ies
in
ecipien
coun ies. As opposed o his,
in
a si ua ion
o
economic ecessio.n, mig an wo ke s a e he
i s o lose hei jobs.
I
a imes
o
g ow h unemploymen a es a e highe among mig an
wo ke s han a1nong hei na i e coun e pa s, a imes
o
c isis he di e ence g ows. Thus,