The Canary Islands 'maritime wall' : migration pressure, security measures and economic crisis in the mid-Atlantic

Chap e 2 The Cana y Islands' "Ma i ime Wall": Mig a ion P essu e, Secu i y Measu es and Economic C isis in he Mid-A lan ic Jose ina Domínguez-Mujica, Ramón Díaz-Hemández and Juan Pa eno-Cas ellano Global capi alism, he echnological e olu ion and he secu i y c isis make up he con ex wi hin which he Cana y Islands ha e ein o ced hei geos a egic posi ion as Eu ope's sou he n bo de . As pa o he Kingdom o Spain, hey ha e his o ically been linked o he Eu o pean con inen , and hese i es ha e be en s eng hened by he islands' specializa ion in ou is n and hei s a u e as an ul ape iphe ic and insula egion o he Eu opean Union .. Thei income is hus ypical o highly de eloped coun ies, which con as s sha ply wi h hei p oximi y o he sho es o A ica, whe e pe cap i a income is ou imes lowe han in Spain - a ci cums ance ha s ongly a ou s an in ense i egula immig a ion low by sea. Bo h Spain and he Eu opean Union ha e unde aken poli ical and mili a y neasu es o y and s op a low ha acqui ed g ea in ensi y owa ds he middle o he i s decade o he wen y- i s cen u y, when nany nig an s los hei li es a sea while ying o pu sue hei d ea n o eaching Eu opean Union e i o y. The all in i n nig a ion p essu e on Eu opean Union bo de s ha has aken place om 2008 un il 2010, has been in e p e ed as a success o EU policies based on he i nple nen a ion o new secu i y neasu es and he signing o ce ain ag eemen s wi h A ican mig a ion sende and ansi coun ies. Wi hou unde es ima ing he impo ance o hese measu es, in his chap e we explain ou iew ha he d op in i egula mig a ion lows be ween A ica and Eu ope would no ha e eached he same ex en i we had no ound ou sel es imme sed in a phase o deep economic c isis, especially in Spain, whe e his si ua ion s ands in s a k con as o he ma ked low-p oduc i i y g ow h ha a ou ed economic ac i i y and immig a ion un il 2007. I mus no be o go en, consequen ly, ha bo de s a e po ous o he aspi a ions and d ea ns o human beings who wish o imp o e hei ci cums ances, and ha his is dependen on hei pe cep ion o economic si ua ions and oppo uni ies. This o ces us o ake in o accoun economic cycles and ansna ional con ac and in o ma ion ne wo ks, which egula e human mobili y beyond secu i y policies and bo de con ols. In his sense he Cana y Islands ha e become a p i ileged an age poin o1n which o analyse mobili y wi hin hose socioeconomically ac u ed spaces which delimi weal h and po e y, as well as o s udy he poli ical and mili a y policies de eloped by he Eu opean Union o pu he b akes on i egula immig a ion, and o examine he s a egies o su i al adop ed by ci izens omA ican coun ies hoping o imp o e hei li ing condi ions, e en i i in ol es isking hei li es o ha o hei child en. 28 Bo de s, Fences and Walls Concep ual F amewo k The Li e a u e on Mig a/ion and Bo de Con ol Human mobili y is one o he phenomena ha ha e gene a ed he mos in e es among social esea che s h oughou his o y. Examining he bibliog aphical p oduc ion o he i s ew yea s o he wen y- i s cen u y will b ing o ligh he ac ha he e is no only a as numbe o publica ions whose subjec is mig a ion, bu ha he e is also a weal h o concep ual app oaches unde pinning mul iple analyses. Howe e , his wide- anging concep ual kaleidoscope na ows down se e ely when he objec o s udy deals wi h i egula mig a ion in bo de egions, and e en mo e so when he mig a ion p essu e s udied is no ela ed o he US-Mexican bo de . An example o he i s heo e ic ocus co esponds o he special numbe o Geopoli ics en i led: "Bo de line Con adic ions: Neolibe alism, Unau ho ised Mig a ion, and In ensi ying Immig a ion Policing" (Va sanyi and Ne ins, 2007). As a as unau ho ized immig a ion in Eu ope is conce ned, many o he wo ks published ela e mig a ion o he issues o secu i y, so e eign y and mobili y wi hin he Union. As Ma ín-Pé ez (2010) has s a ed, he his o ie p ocess o inco po a ing immig a ion- ela ed issues in o he sphe e o Eu opean Union policies has p o en o be ex emely complex, since i has b ough abou a con on a ion be ween he indi idual membe s a es' eluc ance o lose con ol o e . a ques ion oo ed in he e y concep o na ional so e eign y on he one hand, and, on . he o he , he need o cope wi h in e na ional challenges, such as mig a o y p essu e and secu i y in a global wo ld. As a esul , in he mos ecen wo ks, he en i y o he Union 's bo de s and he new p ocess o he ex e naliza ion o bo de s appea inex icably linked o so e eign y and human mobili y wi hin he con ex o neolibe alism. Nowadays "i is possible o ecognize a con adic o y p ocess which encou ages economic lows ac oss in e na ional bo de s, while a he sa ne ime main aining na ionalis ic poli ical-geog aphic closu e ac oss hose same bo de s ia expanding bounda y en o cemen and mili a iza ion" (Ca e and Me ill, 2007). Thus, o ins ance, " he in e s a e sys em and so e eign y ha e been es uc u ed in such a way ha i has essen ially e ased bo de s. Debo de ing is a selec i e p ocess and i is o en pa alleled by a ebo de ing, o bo de c ea ion a new loca ions o gua d agains 'undesi able' elemen s" (Kimball, 2007). Likewise, Clocha d and Duype on (2007) ha e s a ed ha "i is becoming di icul o know whe e he bo de s o he Eu opean Union a e loca ed". Holli ield, 2004; La enex, 2006; Rijpma and C emona, 2007; an Hou um and Pijpe s, 2007; Kau mann, 2007; Fe e -Galla do, 2008; Do e , 2008; Roh mose , 2008; Illamola, 2008; and Casey, 2010, ha e au ho ed so ne o he esea ch unde aken on his p ocess o he es uc u ing o Eu opean bo de s. In ali o hese wo ks mig a ion is analysed asan in eg al componen o he ac ions and policies ha , while a ou ing he ee ci cula ion o people be ween membe s a es (ea ly SchengenAg eemen , 1985), ha e also con ibu ed o he cons uc ion o " o ess Eu ope". Consequen ly, acco ding o hem ali, he blu ing o in e nal bo de s has been accompanied by he ein o cemen o he Union's ex e nal bo de s, as he managemen o mig a ion has been de e ed o non-Union coun ies. This has mean , in he case o sou he n Eu ope, ha he con ainmen o A ican emig a ion has been le in he hands o Libya, Mo occo, Mau i ania and Senegal, among o he coun ies. These same p emises coincide wi h he analyses pe onned by o he esea che s om a ju idical pe spec i e, so ne o hem somewha desc ip i e in cha ac e , as in he cases o Fe nández Sánchez, 2006, o T ianda yllidou, 2010, and o he s mo e c i ica! in hei The Cana y Jslands' "Ma i ime Wall" 29 app oach, as hose who highligh he need o ensu e ha he p ocess o secu i iza ion o he Union's ex e na! bo de s is no unde aken a he expense o he ule o law o human igh s (especially as a as e ugees, asylum seeke s and mino s a e conce ned). In ac , he p edica ed exis ence o new "dange s" -in e na ional e o ism and o ganized c ime -is he pe ec alibí o jus i y he es ic i e legisla ion and measu es b ough abou by he expansion o a secu i y- ocused cul u e o mili a y o igin. As s a ed by Kau mann (2007), "in such a mode, go e nmen al secu i y measu es ope a e in a manne analogous o he ne wo ks o e o ism, o o ganised c ime and human a icking - he e y ne wo ks i p e ends o pu po s o p o ec again". Fo his eason, he wo ks o Soddu, 2006; Baldwin- Edwa ds, 2006; Femández, Man ella, Rijpma and C emona, 2007; Spijke boe , 2007; Geb ewold, 2008; and Ce iani, 2009, make, acco ding o Adepoju, an Noo loos and Zoome s "a c i ical assessmen o he way he EU -and indi idual coun ies su ch as Spain, F ance and I aly -ha e played ac i e oles in eshaping old and de eloping new s a egies o keeping mig a ion unde con ol" (201 O). The p ocess o ex e nalizing he EU bo de s has al so led o a shi in he ocus o esea ch ha has been gaining in impo ance o e he las ew yea s, as a esul o he Eu opean Union signing bo de con ol ag eemen s wi h hi d coun ies andas a consequence o he bila e al ag eemen s be ween so ne membe s a es and hi d coun ies. T ansi mig a ions ha e become a new objec o in e es , in as much as hey a e an issue o g ea impo ance wi hin he p ocess o he ex e naliza ion o bo de s, and hey ha e been s udied, among o he s, by an Moppes, 2006; Collye , 2006; Schapendonk and an Moppes, 2007; Sadiqi, 2007; Kimball, 2007; Schapendonk, 2008 e c.; in ali he cases men ioned Mo occo has been he main a ea o s udy. The ocus on secu i y, he ex e naliza ion o bo de s and espec o human igh s, as a as non-au ho ized mig a ion is conce ned, has ended o obscu e he ela ionship ha has de eloped be ween economic ac o s, ansna ional p ocesses and i egula human mobili y in bo de egions. The numbe o esea che s who ha e shown an in e es in hese issues is small (A ango and Ma in, 2005; Sandell, 2005; Lacomba and Boni, 2008; Gielis, 2009; de Haas, 2010; e c.), despi e he ac ha in Decembe 2005 he Eu opean Council adop ed he Global App oach o Mig a ion oad map and ha he Eu opean Union has o ganized a numbe o con e ences (Raba , 2006 and T ípoli, 2006) wi h he speci ic aim o linking mig a ion and de elopmen . These guidelines, howe e , ha e no been economically suppo ed and ha migh explain why scien i ic deba e has been la gely lacking as ega ds he consequences o pa ne ships and o he ini ia i es ha es ablish a ela ionship be ween mig a ion, economic de elopmen and he job na ke . So ne o he ew au ho s who ha e ackled his issue a e he ollowing: Ma in, Ma in and C oss, 2007; Bosch and Haddad, 2007; La enex and Kunz, 2008; Chou, 2009; Chou and Gibe , 2010; and Se ano, 2010. The S udy o Unau ho ized Mig a ion in Eu o pe S Sóu he n Ma i ime Bo de s The e a e nume ous docu nen s a ailable on he di e en ac ions o con ol and igilance unde aken o p e en unau ho ized i nmig a ion ac oss he Eu opean Union's sou he n bo de s, especially in he case o Spain. The Spanish Minis y o he In e io , in pa icula , has eleased a la ge numbe o epo s and wo king pape s desc ibing hese ac ions and measu es in de ail. F om a s a egic and geopoli ical pe spec i e, he a icles published by he Real Ins i u o Elcano a e wo h highligh ing; i is a Spanish p i a e ounda ion ha se es as a o um o analysis and discussion o in e na ional ela ions and i has 30 Bo de s, Fences and Walls ecen ly ocused i s in e es on he ole Spain is playing as Eu ope's sou he nmos bo de . A eaga, 2007; Al ea , 2008; Díaz andAbad, 2008; Vélez, 2008; Ilies, 2009; Ga cía, 2010; and Ripjma, 2010, ha e published wo ks on his issue. As a as he Cana y Islands a e conce ned, as he low o i egula immig a ion by sea gained in in ensi y, a numbe o scien i ic pape s we e published ha wen beyond a me e desc ip ion o e en s o a lis ing o con ol mechanisms. Ne e heless, he a en ion paid by social esea che s o hese ma e s has been ha dly compa able o he a en ion paid o hem by he media and human igh s o ganiza ions. Thus, so ne o he be e known wo ks ha e been au ho ed by joumalis s, such as Na anjo, 2006. As Jo gen Ca ling s a ed in 2007: "while he e a e nume ous s udies abou he dynamics o mig a ion and bo de con ol on he US-Mexican bo de , academic esea ch on i egula mig a ion in sou hem Eu ope has by and la ge concen a ed on he si ua ion o undocumen ed esiden s a e a i al, and no on he unau ho ized i sel . The Eu opean media, by con as , epo on unau ho ized mig a ion om A ica almos daily, and measu es o con ain his low s and e y high on he Eu opean policy agenda" (Ca ling, 2007: 316). Among he mos ep esen a i e scien i ic pape s we ha e hose by he al eady ci ed Ca ling (2007a, 2007b) and Fe e -Galla do (2008),' as well as hose by Domínguez, Díaz and Pa eño, 2001; Pa kes, 2006; Ca e a, 2007a, 2007b; Godenau and Zapa a, 2008; and Fa gues, 2009. The wo ks au ho ed by Ca ling, Godenau and Zapa a and Fa gues a e especially comple e, p o iding a de ailed and leng hy analysis o he said unau ho ized ,immig a ion, he changes i has unde gone ( ou es, ypes o boa s, di e en s a egies o ·human s iuggling), he sequence o a i als and he a ali ies associa ed o hem, as well as an assessmen o he measu es o con ol adop ed and a c i ical examina ion o he managemen i sel o unau ho ized lows. Howe e , he analysis o hese p ocesses om a sho e m pe spec i e has mean ha insu icien a en ion has been paid o hei economic con ex , which is an impo an dimension ha we eel con ibu es o a g ea e unde s anding o he complexi ies o his kind o mig a ion lows. Mig a ions and Secu i y in a Globalized Wo ld The Cons uc ion o he Eu opean Fo ess In 1897 F ied ich Ra zel desc ibed a bo de as " he skin o he li ing s a e", 2 a poe ic de ini ion ha con as s wi h he less li e a y bu mo e widesp ead no ion o he bo de as a ixed line ha delimi s he e i o y o e which a s a e is so e eign. So e eign y is a key concep in in ema ional law, o i e e s o he legi imacy o a s a e o exe cise i s powe wi hin i s e i o y. Howe e , in ema ional coexis ence and he s a egies o capi alis de elopmen ha e inc easingly led owa ds he con igu a ion o egional in eg a ion p ocesses ha go beyond he adi ional concep o he so e eign s a e, wi h he esul ha bo de s ha e become mo e lexible. The i m bounda ies ha ollowed he his o ical consolida ion o na ion s a es ha e g adually succumbed o a end owa ds g ea e accessibili y, which acili a es he sha ing o he bene i s o he ee ci cula ion o goods, capi al and se ices, while p ese ing con ol o e he Iabou ma ke and secu i y. 1 The la e ouches on he Cana y Islands mig a ion p essu e only in passing, as he main ocus o his wo k Hes in he ci ies o Ceu a and Melilla. 2 "Die Hau des lebendigen Zus and". The Cana y Jslands' "Ma i ime Wall" 31 This p ocess, which has al eady aken place a a egional le el, is also beginning o expand wo ldwide, and globaliza ion is gi ing ise o a g owing opening o bo de s o , a leas , o hei g ea e pe meabili y. On he o he hand, he use o echnological de elopmen s in he managemen o bo de s has led o ema kable changes. The p eoccupa ion wi h secu i y agains e o ism, ana icism, ann and d ug smuggling, ansbo de c ime and unau ho ized immig a ion has esul ed in he c ea ion o s anda dized da abases, in o ma ion ne wo ks and, especially, in he inco po a ion o new echnologies (biome ics, sensi i e ada s, c ewless ae oplanes, sa elli e su eillance sys ems, e c.) ha ha e led o he s eng hening o " echnological bo de s". As a consequence, " he use o hese echnologies, in combina ion wi h he widesp ead eliance on isk managemen , con ibu es o he e-imagina ion o bo de s and he bodies ha c oss hem" (Mulle , 2011). As has been said, in he case o Eu ope, bo de managemen o ms pa o he Eu opean Union's policies agains illegal immig a ion and i anks among i s highes poli ical p io i ies, in ol ing a ange o cos ly economic, comme cial and diploma ic measu es. The Schengen Ag eemen , in 1985, laid he ounda ions o he cu en EU bo de con ol sys em. La e , in 2002, a bo de policy plan o ac ion was app o ed ha led o he c ea ion o F on ex in 2004, he Eu opean Agency o he Managemen o Ope a ional Coope a ion a he Ex e nal Bo de s o he Membe S a es o he Eu opean Union, whose unc ion was u he egula ed in 2007. F on ex coo dina es ope a ional coope a ion be ween Membe S a es in he ield o managemen o ex emal bo de s; assis s Membe S a es in he aining o na ional bo de gua ds, including he es ablishmen o common aining s anda ds; ca ies ou isk analyses; ollows up he de elopmen o esea ch ele an o he con ol and su eillance o ex emal bo de s; assis s Membe S a es in ci cums ances equi ing inc eased echnical and ope a ional assis ance a ex emal bo de s; and p o ides Membe S a es wi h he necessa y suppo in o ganizing join e um ope a ions. These unc ions o F on ex highligh he complexi ies o managing immig a ion no only om an ope a ional poin o iew, bu also om he pe spec i e o diploma ic ela ions, since bo de s cons i u e a pi o o complex bila e al ela ions a di e en le els: be ween Spain and Mo occo, be ween sou hem Eu ope and he Magh eb, and be ween he Eu opean Union and A ica. In his sense, "mig a ion conce ns a e cen al o he agenda o all hese ela ionships, and a e in a iably en angled wi h o he issues" (Ca ling, 2007). In ac , he diploma ic e o unde aken by he Eu opean Union has esul ed in impo an changes in enns o ma e ial esou ces and public se ices in he A ican coun ies wi h whom join bo de igilance ag eemen s ha e been signed. Sho ly a e he g ea es p ocess o egula iza ion o immig an s e e unde aken in Spain (2005) had been b ough o comple ion, he impac on public opinion o he assaul s on he bo de ences o Ceu a and Melilla in Sep embe and Oc obe 2005, and hei agic consequences, b ough abou a change in he Spanish go e nmen 's mig a ion policies. Ano he con ibu ing ac o was he humani a ian Rla m aised on accoun o wha ca ne o be known as he "boa c isis", when in summe and au umn 2006 many ishing boa s a i ed in he Cana y Islands ca ying you hs and child en om coas al coun ies sou h o he Saba a (Mau i ania, Senegal, Gambia ... ) (Figu e 2.1). The c ossing was long and dange ous and many boa s sunk. The social ala m gene a ed by he a i al o a la ge numbe o immig an s (only in 2006, 31,678 immig an s a i ed his way in he Cana y Islands) and he di icul ies o cope wi h he,m (police esou ces and sea escue and humani a ian assis ance se ices we e o e whelmed) d o e he go e nmen o -g::i::::P"'S: o o o e :-'l '0""3º!):>-...;: 5·.., - :::; ::l" .., ~ C' l -- V) o Col• -· o -· ::i ~ :::; -· !):> :::-. (") .., :::; 3 :::! -· c. = 00 3 ~ c. 8' -· ~ ;¡¡· =~~"'" ¡¡ !l i 13g = .g i !". o- s " g_ . . ;¡ .,,o!".Clº ;¿ .,," o.:I:"' a~s=ª ~ ;¡g ª ~ == y s 5· ~ is- <: g. ~ §." ,¡¡:-i-"" ~ "~ ""-< - i:.iº ~ :::so ~ n 2' ¡¡- = O ~ ;::: o ,- o - ¡¡: O•ooo<>C.3 '1J :o-3 1'5:'¡;' = " ¡;;·"" a e " ~ o ,,.. (") ~ e: =- ¡;; = - "' q ¡¡. "' '.'.. " 5· g 5- E; a· g. g " 15. 3 = S. " s- = g, a o;; a· s. ~ 3 ::; ~- "º"'" "'""~ º~...," '?~=<~ s ~8. ~úl¡¡¡:a,g g:;:·a~ .g =g ~-g"" = " " - g "' c. " c. -· g_ ~ ¡¡-o:: ·"'"~- S>"° !:l-2 00 3 c. ,..., =· ~ " C:: n -· - ~ ~ -· %• "' ~ " a· - "' ;:; "'"" º""" " s'" "'~:s~ ~ n oo -· 9: {l - 8l o ~ "' :: . __ E;o@Sl n "'º -3~"' = -· " 00 - ~ ~ o -· = <¡:;· g i • 8 ii· .g "' >-' • ~ ;¡~""~¡¡: ~ !",3 g."- g " > p. ~ § " ~ ~ ~- ;¡ ;a g ;; ~ " 00 "' c. "' - =· " " ;o 00 ;;! =oo c& "' o& o.- ,..., ¡¡¡¡;;·;¡,,!". ~ ¡;;,, .; : l ¡¡ z ~~ " ~- ¡¡- ~ 00 c. ¡¡· ~ '!Oí g. "'- 3 =-=2'º ~ ;j" "" ;¡.. ()q!:i""'= ~ zg ~~ =<' ~~ ,.,n~=-o "" -- -· 3.P-Cl~- !"3 ¡¡!?;' ¡¡ 3,;8_0" - 00 ~- - ,..oo-Bl .,_,,; = "' ~=-s"'g ,,,. g .,,==""- =- 1 35,,,~-S ¡<¡ i'5 : º=g= = :;: !180.000. ¡¡- .¡¡- 33 c."" ~ o. ~-"' ~ ~ g g ~ a'O-.c.. i:: 2. º C' l !):> a C' l :::; J ... c..Sc..§l :i. ~ " ,,.. 00 ,• Table 2.1 Landma ks in he managemen o unau ho ized mig a ion lo VS in he EU and in Spain (1985-2010) Eu opean Union Da e T ea ies/Sum mi s/ Ag eemen s 1985 The Schengen (Ge many) ag eemen s, (June) abolishing in e na! con ols and c ea ing a join ex e na! bo de among F ance, Ge many, Belgium, he Ne he lands and Luxembou g. 1997 The T ea y o Ams e dam (The Ne he lands) (Oc obe ) es ablished an a ea " eedom, secu i y and jus ice", which b ough immig a ion policy unde EU ju isdic ion. 1 Communica ions/Con e ences/O he s Spain and O he Coun ies 1999 Bila e al ag eemen wi h Mo occo o acili a e (Sep embe ) he eadmission o Mo occan na ionals as well 1999 (Oc obe ) 2002 (Junc) 2002 (Augus ) 2002 (Decembe ) In he Tampe e (Finland) Summi , he Eu opean Council ag eed o se up a Common Eu opean Asylum sys em and pa ne ships wi h coun ies o o iginas p oposed by Minis e s o Jus ice and HomeA ai s. In Se ille (Spain) he Eu opean Council es ablished ha ali EU ag eemen s wi h non-EU s a es a e o: "include a clause on join managemen o mig a ion lows and on compulso y eadmission in he e en o illegal immig a ion". Communica ion om he Commission o he Council on In eg a ing mig a ion issues in he Eu opean Union's ela ions wi h hi d coun ies. as ansi mig an s. De elopmen o SIVE (Sys cm o In eg a ed Ex e na! Su eillance ). A p o o ype s a ion is se up in Algeci as. w N [ ~ ·" .,, ~ § "- il'i "' Da e 2003 (June) 2003 (No embe ) 2003 (Decembe ) 2003 (Decembe ) 2004 (Oc obe ) 2005 (Janua y) 2005 (May) 2005 (Decembe ) Da e 2005 (Decembe ) 2006 (Janua y) 2006 (Ma ch) 2006 (Ap,il) 2006 (May· and July) 2006 (July) Eu opean Union T ea ies/Summi s/Ag eemen s T ea ies/Summi s/Ag eemen s 1 Communica ions/Co1.1 e ences/O he s (EC) 2007/2004 F on ex egula ion. C ea ion o he Agency o he Managemen o Ope a ional Coope a ion a he Ex e na! Bo de s. Communica ion om he Commission o he Council and he Eu opean Pa liamen : The Hague P og amme: The Pa ne ship o Eu opean enewal in he ield o F eedom, Secu i y and Jus ice. The Eu opean Council adop ed he Global App oach o Mig a ion: P io i y ac ions ocusing on A ica and he Medi e anean. Eu opcan Union J Communica ions/Con c ences/O hc s Communica ion om he Commission o he Council and he Eu opean Pa liamen : S a e o he A ENEAS hema ic p og amme o he coope a ion wi h hi d coun ies in he a cas o mig a ion and asylum. Council Regula ion es ablishing a Communi y Code on he ules go eming he mo emen o pe sons ac oss bo de s (Schengen Bo de s Code ). Eu o-A ican con e ence on Mig a ion and De elopmen in Raba (Mo occo ). Regional app oach o c ea e pa ne ships and adop an Ac ion Plan o link mig a ion and de elopmen . Spain and O he Coun ies Fi s e ision o he Co onouAg eemen s be ween A ican, Ca ibbean and Paci ic coun ies (ACP) and EU on he eadmission clause (A . 13). Passage o a Law in Mo occo (Loi, 02/03) egula ing he en y and s ay o o eign na ional in he Kingdom o Mo occo and dealing wi h i egula immig a ion, Memo andum signed wi h Mo occo ega ding he issue o unaccompanied child en ( eadmission). The i s SIVE ada s a ion is se up in he Cana y Islands (Fue e en u a). "Guana eme" Ma i ime Join Ope a ions in he Cana y I. Spain and O hc Coun ics Con ac signcd wi h AENEAS in o de o ca y ou he SEAHORSE P og amme (2006) a plan o coope a ion wi h Mo occo, Mau i ania, Cape Ve de and Senegal o he p e en ion o illegal ma i ime mig a ion. Beginning o he "A lan is" p og amme o coope a ion wi h Mau i ania, aimed a igh ing i egula immig a ion by means o ajoin ma i ime pa ol by Spain's Ci il Gua d and Mau i ania 's Genda me ie. Di e en Eu opean coun ies send expe s o suppo he Spanish Na ional Police B igade wi h he iden i ica ion o i egula immig an s a i ing in he Cana y Islands: "HERA 1 y HERA II" ope a ions. Da e 2006 (July) 2006 (Augus ) 2006 (Scp embe ) 2006 (di e en mon hs) 2006 (Oc obe ) 2006 (No embe ) 2006 (No embe ) 2006 (Dccembe ) Da e 2006 (di e en mon hs and ollowing yea s) 2006 (June) 2006 (di e en mon hs) 2007 2007 (Janua y) 2007 (Feb ua y) 2007. (Feb ua y) 2007 (Ma ch) Eu opean Union T ea ies/Summi s/Ag eemen s Ag eemen be ween EU and Mali on mig a ion con ol in exchange o de elopmen aid. 1 Communica ions/Cop. e ences/O he s C ea ion o a special g oup o Commissione s dealing wi h mig a ion. Two sho - e m coope a ion p ojec s be ween EU and Senegal o con ibu e o su eillance ope a ions, epa ia ion and ehabili a ion, and o p o ide local suppo o ac i i ies o non- S a e ac o s engaged in mig a ion. Eu o-A ican con e ence on Mig a ion and De elopmen in T ipoli (Libya). Communica ion sugges ion plans o he con ol o ma i ime bo de s. JHA Council mee ing on In eg a ed App oach o Bo de s and Mig a ion (IBM). Eu opean Union T ea ies/Summi s/ Ag cemen s 1 Communica ions/Con e ences/O he s Decision aken o es ablish a Mig a ion In onna ion and Managemen Cen e o coo dina c job o e s in he EU wi hjob sceke s in Bamako (Mali). Spain and O he Coun ies Spain's Royal Dec ee N"845/2006, o 7 July, which egula ed he concession o an ex ao dina y subsidy o he Kingdom o Mo occo o he ein o cemen o i s bo de con ol and o i s s uggle agains illegal immig a ion. C ea ion o he Regional Coo dina ion Cen e o he Cana y Islands (CCRC), o deal wi h illegal mig a ion in o he Cana y Islands, and he es ablishmen o egula ions o de elop i s unc ions (BOE 11/10/2006). Spain and O he Coun ies Bila e al eadmission ag eemen s wi h Mo occo, Alge ia, Nige ia, Ghana, Mali, Cape Ve de, Guinea, Guniea-Bissau and Pakis an. "A ican Plan" (s a egy documen on Spanish o eign policy owa ds A ica 2006-2008). Reissue (2009-2012). Bila e al mig a ion coope a ion ag eemen s wi h Gambia, Guinea, Senegal, Conak y, Mali and Cape Ve de. De elopmen o he SEAHORSE p og amn1e by meaos o he SEAHORSE NETWORK. Spain issues 700 labou mig a ion isas o Senegalese ishe men. Di e en Eu opean coun ies send expe s o suppo he Spanish Na ional Police B igade wi h he iden i ica ion o i egula immig an s a i ing in he Cana y Islands: "HERA III" ope a ions. Bila e al ag eemen wi h Mo occo o coope a c in he p e en ion o "illegal" emig a ion o unaccompanied child en. Da e 2007 (July) 2007 (Decembe ) 2008 (May) 2008 (June) 2008 (July) 2009 Da e 2009 (Ap il) 2009 (Sep embe ) 2009 (di e en mon hs) 2009 (Decembe ) 2009 (Decembe ) 2010 (June) 2010 (No embe ) 2010 (No embe ) Eu opean Union T ea ies/Summi s/ Ag eemen s Lisbon 2nd A ica-EU Summi o launch A ica-EU Mig a ion, Mobili y and Employmen Pa ne ship. 1 Communica ions/Con e cnccs/O hc s Regula ion (EC) No 863/2007 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and he Council es ablishing a mechanism o he c ea ion o Rapid Bo de In e en ion Team ("RAB!Ts Rcgula ion"). Beginning o he mobili y pa ne ship wi h Cape Ve de o acili a e ci cula mig a ion (Council documen ). Eu opean Union T ea ies/Sum mi s/ Ag eemen s The T ea y o Lisbon ca ne in o o ce, wi h new p o isions egula ing he common space o eedom, secu i y andjus ice ha opened he doo o he de elopmen o a common immig a ion policy ( he ea y gua an ees he ee mo emen o people ac oss he Union, wi h no in e na! bo de s, oge he wi h measu e ega ding ex e na! bo de con ol, asylum, immig a ion and p e en ion o and igh agains c ime). The S ockholm P og amme se s ou he Eu opean Union's (EU) p io i ies in he a ca o jus ice, eedom and secu i y o he pe iod 2010-14. Eu opean ci izenshi¡} and i s igh s. EU Communica ion on he Join A ica-EU s a egy. 3 d A ica-EU Summi in Libya. 1 Communica ions/Con e ences/O he s Spain and O he Coun ies The Minis y o he In e io (Spain) awa ded Ind a he con ac o se up he Sea Ho se Ne wo k sys em (sa elli e su eillance) o he con ol o illegal immig a ion and d ug a icking be ween Spain, Po ugal and No h A ican coun ies. The Coope a ion F amewo k Ag eemen be ween he Kingdom o Spain and he Republic o Senegal o 1OOc obe 2006 ca ne in o o ce. De elopmen o he "Seaho se Coope a ion Cen e s" p ojec by mea ns o he ans o ma ion o he "Seaho se ne wo k" p ojec con ac poin s (Mau i ania, Cape Ve de, Senegal and Po ugal) in o Vigilance Coo dina ion Cen es and he ein o cemen o he Sou h A lan ic Bo de Coope a ion Cen e in he Cana y Islands. Spain and O he Coun ies Modi ica ion o Mau i anian legisla ion o include c imes ela ed o i egula immig a ion and se ing up a Ship Regis y. Fo mal ag eemen be ween Spain and Senegal o he p e en ion o illegal mig a ion and eadmission o i egula Senegalese na ionals. Bila e al ag eemen s wi h Mo occo, Senegal and Gambia. Modi ica ion o he Spanish Residen s Law. 40 Bo de s, Fences and Val!s 30000 " M o occan Ulw egula ing he en y and s ayo o elgn na ionals ln he Klngdomo Mo occo and deallng wi h I egula l mlg a lon 25000 j-'=======iV'======-1 Maxlmum ln ensl yo sub-Sahanm unau ho lzed ma l lme lmmig a lon 20000 ~--;======_::::,_"=_'.:====:::::_ G owing ln ensi yo unau ho ized ma l ime lmp1e oon a !on o he SEAHORSE (plan o coope a ion wi h Mo occo, Mau i ania, Cape Ve de and Senegal o he p e en lon o negal m i lme mig a lon) 15000 Jnmlg a !on om P"'-,--"'<::--------. ·--------; Mo occo Figu e 2.2 Links beh een mig a ion s ages and policing mensu es . Sou ce: Minis y o he In e io (Spain): h p://www.la-moncloa.es/Se iciosdeP ensa/No asP ensa/ MIR/_ 2Ü 1O/n p 20100116 _ Imnig acion.h m (accessed 27/12/201 O). dehyd a ion ... ) on boa d, ma i ime bo de con ol equi es a ange o ac ions ha combine de ec ion, de e ence, and in e cep ing and dis1nan ling human smuggling ings wi h sea ch and escue ope a ions and hun1ani a ian assis ance o immig an s. This ame o e e ence in es s he illegal ma i in1e immig a ion iow ac oss Eu ope's A lan ic bo de wi h a cha ac e is ic dynamic, Vhich can be di ided in o h ee dis inc s ages o di e en dünension: a) om 1994 o 2005, yea s o g owing in ensi y du ing which no ac ion p o ocol had been de eloped ye o deal wi h unau ho ized : lows; b) om 2006 o 2008, a pe iod o maximum in ensi y du ing Vhich 1nul iple measu es we e aken and ini ia i es de eloped a ali le els in he ields o diplomacy, policing and humani a ian assis ance; c) om 2008 o 20 l O, a s age o dec easing in ensi y and loss o p ominence o his ype o mig a ion p ocesses (Figu e 2.2). a. Un il 2005, i egula mig a ion : lows ou o sub-Saha an A ica ended o a el by land owa ds Ceu a and Melilla, and also by sea om o he loca ions in he no h o Mo occo, ac oss owa ds he sou he n coas o Spain. In he case o he Cana y Islands, du ing his pe iod i egula immig an s gene ally made use o wha was known as "sla e ships", ishing boa s and, o a lesse ex en , in ia able a s. The o me we e mos ly old ships, gene ally un i o sail, unde iags o con enience, and which ended o come om Wes A ican coas al coun ies. Inspec ions in he docks o he islands o wa e leaks ha o ced hem o moo in he po s o he islands on hei way o Eu ope o en led o he disco e y o hei "ca go'', gene ally a conside able numbe o people packed in hei hold in subhuman condi ions. The ishing boa s used -essen ially, la ge canoes -a e agile c a s ha can easily capsize and sink in he open sea o when hey app oach a c aggy coas line. They The Canc11y Js!ands' "Ma i iJne Wal/'' 41 used o se sail on1 Mo occo's sou he n coas , Wes e n Saba a o Mau i ania, and sough o a i e in he eas e n islands o he Cana ian A chipelago. The i s one a i ed in 1994, and o1n ha yea on hei numbe s g adually inc eased un il he i s yea s o he wen y- i s cen u y -2003, 2004 and 2005 -when a g ea e coope a ion be ween Spain and Mo occo ega ding he p e en ion o depa u es led o a d op in he immig a ion : lo and o a displacemen o he poin s o depa u e u he sou h, as human smuggle s we e o ced o eo ganize hei ac i i ies. b. F om 2005 on, as a consequence o g ea e Mo occan igilance, i egula mig an smuggle s and depa u e poin s shi ed sou h owa ds he coas o cen al Wes A ica, a eas ha a e u he emo ed om he Cana y Islands, and as a esul he c ossings becan1e longe , mo e di icul , cos ly and dange ous (Ki1nball, 2007). The ype o essel used changed as well, and he immig an s eplaced he pa e as (small ishing c a s) wi h cayucos, la ge ishing boa s Vi h g ea e ange. Depa u e poin s ended now o be loca ed along he coas s o Mau i ania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea Conak y o Sie a Leone, and consequen ly passenge s, in his second s age, we e mos ly sub-Saha an na ionals who usually disemba ked on he coas o he wes e n islands o he a chipelago as a consequence o he ne sailing pa e ns. Du ing his pe iod human smuggling de eloped so success ully ha , o ins ance, in 2006, c ossings in cayucos we e o e ed online (senegalaisemen .com), e y much in he s yle o a s anda d a el agency (Me ino, 2010). These c ossings we e unde aken by young adul s, mos ly men, and so ne mino s who, like hei ellow a elle s, ca ne om sub-Saha an coun ies, especially Senegal and Mali. Whe eas, in 1999, 83.9 pe cen o unaccompanied mino s ca1ne o1n Mo occo, in 2006 and 2007 his igu e changed and 71 pe cen o he child en placed unde he p o ec ion o he go e nmen o he Cana y Islands ca1ne om coun ies sou h o he Saha a. The manage1nen o his low has equi ed a special p o ec i e measu es by he go en1men o he Cana y Islands in o de o sa egua d hei igh s and well-being, as equi ed by in e na ional (Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child) and domes ic law (Basic Law o he Legal P o ec ion o Mino s and Ci il Co le), wi h he en ailing obliga ions o implemen special ecep ion and aining p og ammes. c. In he las e yea s, om 2008 o 2010, he e has been a g adual d op in i egula ma i ime im nig a ion : lows ac oss Eu ope's sou he n A lan ic bo de . Many analys s belie e ha he measu es o igilance and con ol adop ed by he Eu opean Union and by Spain, as well as he ag eemen s signed wi h sende coun ies, migh ha e con ibu ed o de e i egula immig a ion. In ac , he cen es o mino s ha had been se up (CAME) a e la gely unde used a p esen . Acco ding o 2009 igu es, he numbe o a es s o unau ho ized n1a i ime a i als in Spain d opped ha yea down o 7,285, o which 2,246 a i ed in he Cana y Islands, among he1n only 192 mino s (82.2 pe cen less han in 2006). The e is no doub ha he end desc ibed abo e is o so ne ex en he esul o he ac ha po en ial A ican en1ig an s and hei ela i es ha e come o unde s and ha e en i hey a e success ul in eaching Eu ope, hey a e e y likely o be con ined in a de en ion cen e while hei depo a ion is a anged, Vhich in u n has b ough abou a decline in human smuggling. Howe e , wi hou denying he impo ance o hese measu es, i should be bo ne in 1nind ha in1mig a ion is a e y complex phenomenon which is no only condi ioned by police igilance and con ol ac ions, bu also by he mig an s' collec i e imagina ion, shaped unde he 42 Bo den;, Fences and Wal!s in l.uence o di e se in onna ion, he suppo o e ed by hei ne wo ks o con ac s and hei pe sonal assessmen o he isk ewa ds a io. Consequen ly, he ole played by he e olu ion o he econo1ny should no be unde es ima ed, as i di ec ly a ec s he mig an s' pe cep ion o hei chances o ünp o e hei si ua ion and, hus, i indi ec ly links mig a ion p ocesses o p oduc i e cycles. Economic Ac i i y and Human Mobili y As is well known, in1mig a ion has been one o he pilla s suppo ing he e olu ion o de eloped economies. The a ailabili y o immig an labou has played an essen ial ole in sus aining he p oduc i e sys em and in con olling sala y le els in coun ies wi h highe na ional incomes. A he same ime, e nig a ion and i s e ec s canno be sepa a ed om he econo1nic e olu ion o de eloping coun ies. Du ing he expansion cycle o he pos - Fo dis s age, especially in he case o ce ain Eu opean coun ies such as Spain, J aly and I eland, he inc ease in he demand o labou was me by immig a ion, as hei economic de elopmen was based on a low-p oduc i i y labou -in ensi e model dependan on highly lexible employmen . Howe e , du ing a con ac ion cycle, he d op in demand o labou has a ec ed immig an s se e ely, pa icula ly in he case o hose ac i i ies in he seconda y labou ma ke segmen . This d op in demand and immig an s' unemploymen a es has had deep e ec s on he e olu ion, dimension and cha ac e is ics o he nig an labou supply and, mci e gene ally, on in e na ional mig a ions as a whole. Consequen ly, i is necessa y o examine he di e en p oduc i e cycles and he ole played by he ansna ional in o ma ion ne wo ks de eloped by hnmig an s, in o de o es ablish he ela ionship be ween he n and he di e en unau ho ized 1na i hne immig a ion a es desc ibed abo e. Econonlic G o, h du ing he Cycle o Expansion and Mig a ion 1995-2007 The I 980s saw he beginning o a new phase o capi alis de elopmen cha ac e ized mos ly by echnological inno a ion and as ci cula ion o capi al, accompanied by a es uc u ing o socio-spa ial ela ionships among he wo ld's di e en geog aphical a eas. F om he poin o iew o popula ion 1nobili y, his phase o global capi alism has con ibu ed o a g ea e complexi y o mig a ion p ocesses, as e olu iona y de elop nen s in anspo and means o communica ion and new channels o in o ma ion ha e gi en ise o Vha migh be enned a wo ld pe spec i e, which makes i possible o any coun y o po en ially beco1ne a des ina ion o emig an s and o mig a ion lows o ake place anywhe e in he Vo ld. Fo his eason so ne au ho s ega d mig a ion lows as a cha ac e is ic ea u e o a globalized economic sys em. Acco ding o UN da a, in 2005 o e 195 1nillion people li ed ou side hei home coun y, 60 pe cen o hem in de eloped coun ies, especially in he EU and he USA. These mig an s ep esen ed 3.1 pe cen o he wo ld popula ion and made up he " i h la ges coun y" in e ms o popula ion (UN, 2008). This ise in mig an popula ion was accompanied by a mo e no iceable isibili y han in he pas , and i became, gi en he g owing p esence o clandes ine 1nig an s, one o he main wo ies o he na i e popula ion in Ves em coun ies. The din1ension o i egula ows has gene a ed legal and econo1nic insecu i y o emig an s and poli ical and social unce ain ies o ecipien s a es Vhich, as a esul o he p ocess o globaliza ion, ha e had hei capaci y o eely ake measu es es ic ed. In ac , 1nig a ion ci cui s and 1nobili y The Ca11a1y Jslands' "Ma i ilne Wa/!" 43 ends a e now he esul o co1nplex p ocesses based on econo1nic and poli ical decisions, on amily, e hnic o eligious ne o ks and on indi idual o g oup aspi a ions de i ed om he nig an s' collec i e iinagina ion, Vhich oge he s uc u e he new geog aphy o mig a ion ows (Sassen, 2008). In Spain, he ise in o eign immig a ion o e he las 15 yea s has been unp eceden ed and i has ans onned he coun y in o an e ne ging des ina ion in he con ex o in e na ional labou nobili y (Domínguez-Mujica e al., 2008). F om 1986 on, bo h Spain's inco po a ion in o he Eu opean Union and he p ocess o con e gence he coun y unden en wi h i s nos de eloped neighbou ing coun ies, a ou ed he a i al o a ne ype o i nmig an closely linked o he socioeconomic dynamic ha coincided ' i h he onse o a pos -Fo dis economic phase. La e , om he mid-l 990s on, he consolida ion o an economic model cha ac e ized by low p oduc i i y and apid g ow h con ibu ed o in ensi y mig a ion ows in o Spain. Fo ha eason, un il 2007, as he o eign popula ion inc eased he e Vas also a pa allel ise in he numbe o i egula immig an s anda mo e in ense immig a ion p essu e on he bo de . The go emmen ied o sal e he p oblem o unau ho ized immig a ion wi hou al e ing he p oduc i e nodel. Among o he measu es, h ee impo an egula iza ion p ocesses e e unde aken, in 2000, 2001 ( egula iza ion on he s eng h o communi y ies) and in 2005 (known as no maliza ion p ocess). The i s o p ocesses we e linked o he leng h o ime mig an s had esided in Spain and he las one o he pa icipa ion o mig an s in he labou na ke . A his poin i is Vo h conside ing whe he unau ho ized ma i ime immig a ion was also condi ioned by he appeal o he Spanish p oduc i e model and by he "pull e ec " gene a ed by he egula iza ion p ocesses. In bo h cases he answe would be in he a i ma i e. Rega ding he i s issue, a su ey pe onned in he Cana y Islands du ing he 2000 egula iza ion p ocess con inned ha 1nany A ican immig~an s had a i ed in Spain i egula ly by sea and ha hey had bene i ed om he suppo o ello coun ymen who had p e iously se led in Spain. Rega ding he second ques ion, in he case o he Cana y Islands, he highes igu es in he numbe o im1nig an s de ained a e hei a i al by sea we e eco ded in he yea s ollowing he immig an egula iza ion p ocesses, · in o he wo ds, in 2001, 2002 and 2006 (Figu e 2.3). The Global Econonlic C isis o/2008-2010 and Mig a ions The ci cums ances ha a ou ed he g ow h o he wo ld economy up un il he yea 2007 ha e no changed in he con ex o he cu en economic c isis. Fu he mo e, so ne o he s uc u al elemen s on which globaliza ion has been based, such as he as ci cula ion o capi al beyond he con ol o s a e egula ions, lie a he hea o he economic ecession ha s a ed in 2008, when he wo s cyclical c isis o he capi alis sys em since 1929 b oke ou , a ec ing almos ali coun ies in he wo ld. Among he consequences o his c isis he e is he d op in demand o goods and se ices and, consequen ly, o labou . As a esul , he ILO p edic ed an inc ease in unemploymen igu es o 2009 o be ween 18 and 30 mili ion wo ke s compa ed o 2007, o e en o 50 million wo ke s i he si ua ion con inued o de e io a e (!LO, 2009). As i has been poin ed ou , du ing he pe iod o economic expansion he in ux o wo ke s om ab oad con ibu ed o maximizing g o h and con olling sala ies in ecipien coun ies. As opposed o his, in a si ua ion o economic ecessio.n, mig an wo ke s a e he i s o lose hei jobs. I a imes o g ow h unemploymen a es a e highe among mig an wo ke s han a1nong hei na i e coun e pa s, a imes o c isis he di e ence g ows. Thus,