Academic Edi o : Rui Yang
Recei ed: 18 Ap il 2025
Re ised: 10 May 2025
Accep ed: 13 May 2025
Published: 14 May 2025
Ci a ion: Sa cinella, A.; Cunha, S.;
Aguia , I.; Aguia , J.; F igione, M.
Sus ainable O ganic Phase Change
Ma e ials o Sus ainable Ene gy
E iciency Solu ions. Polyme s 2025,17,
1343. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
polym17101343
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Re iew
Sus ainable O ganic Phase Change Ma e ials o Sus ainable
Ene gy E iciency Solu ions
An onella Sa cinella 1, Sand a Cunha 2, Ing ied Aguia 2, José Aguia 2and Ma iaen ica F igione 1,*
1Inno a ion Enginee ing Depa men , Uni e si y o Salen o, 73100 Lecce, I aly;
[email p o ec ed]
2Cen e o Te i o y, En i onmen and Cons uc ion (CTAC), Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Campus de
Azu ém, Uni e si y o Minho, 4800-058 Guima ães, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed] (S.C.);
[email p o ec ed] (I.A.); [email p o ec ed] (J.A.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The g owing demand o sus ainable ene gy solu ions has in ensi ied esea ch on
phase change ma e ials (PCMs) due o hei abili y o e icien ly s o e and elease he mal
ene gy. Howe e , adi ional PCMs a e o en made om pe oleum-de i ed ma e ials o
ely on p ocesses ha pose en i onmen al conce ns. The aim o his wo k is he e o e o
explo e he de elopmen and use o sus ainable o ganic PCMs, in pa icula hose based
on bio-based o was e-de i ed ma e ials. Bio-based PCMs, including a y acids, na u al
waxes, and biopolyme s, a e in ac cha ac e ized by enewabili y and biodeg adabili y.
Was e-de i ed PCMs, such as hose om he los -wax cas ing indus y and indus ial
by-p oduc s, o e an en i onmen ally iendly app oach o ene gy s o age by eusing
was e ma e ials. This pape aims o analyze he he mal, mechanical, and in-se ice
pe o mance o hese sus ainable ma e ials, highligh ing hei ad an ages and limi a ions
compa ed o he mos widely used comme cial PCMs. Fu he mo e, ecen p og ess in
he in eg a ion o sus ainable PCMs in o building ma e ials is illus a ed o assess hei
p ac ical implemen a ion. Challenges and limi a ions, as well as possible solu ions and
u u e esea ch di ec ions, a e also discussed.
Keywo ds: sus ainable o ganic PCMs; bio-based PCMs; was e-de i ed PCMs; ene gy
e iciency; building ma e ials
1. In oduc ion
Sus ainabili y is a mul i ace ed concep ha has become cen al o global discussions on
en i onmen al, economic, and social challenges. A i s co e, sus ainabili y e e s o “mee ing
he needs o he p esen wi hou comp omising he abili y o u u e gene a ions o mee
hei own needs” [
1
]. This b oad de ini ion includes en i onmen al p o ec ion, economic
g ow h, and social equi y, ecognizing ha human ac i i ies mus be conduc ed in ways
ha p ese es na u al esou ces, educes en i onmen al deg ada ion, and ensu es he well-
being o all communi ies. In ecen decades, sus ainabili y has become a guiding p inciple
o indus ies wo ldwide, leading o inno a ions ha p io i ize enewable esou ces, ene gy
e iciency, was e educ ion, and he minimiza ion o ecological oo p in s.
When applied o ma e ials science, sus ainabili y ocuses on he de elopmen and use
o ma e ials and p ocesses ha minimize hei impac on he en i onmen . This includes
conside ing he en i e li e cycle o a ma e ial, om aw ma e ial ex ac ion o p oduc ion,
use/ euse, and end-o -li e disposal. In his con ex , sus ainable ma e ials a e conside ed o
be hose ob ained om enewable esou ces, possibly biodeg adable (i.e., wi h ze o impac
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/polym17101343
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 2 o 22
a he end o hei use ul li e), capable o educing o o se ing en i onmen al impac s
du ing hei p oduc ion and/o use, such as ca bon emissions, esou ce deple ion, and
pollu ion [2].
Phase change ma e ials (PCMs) a e well known as a p omising echnology capable
o imp o ing ene gy e iciency and he mal managemen in a ious applica ions. These
ma e ials, cha ac e ized by hei abili y o abso b and elease he mal ene gy du ing phase
ansi ions ( om solid o liquid and om liquid o solid), o e an e ec i e and in insically
sus ainable solu ion o ene gy s o age needs. PCMs a e widely used in sola ene gy s o age
de ices, ene gy e iciency in buildings, elec onic cooling echnologies, pha maceu ical,
heal hca e, ood, be e age, and e en ex ile applica ions [3–8].
When used in buildings, PCMs a e able o s o e excess hea du ing he day and elease
i a nigh when ou doo empe a u es d op, educing ene gy consump ion o hea ing and
cooling. This ep esen s a g ea ad an age since buildings a e esponsible o a signi ican
amoun o global ene gy consump ion and CO
2
emissions. Indeed, he in eg a ion o PCMs
ha s o e and elease he mal ene gy can imp o e he ene gy e iciency o a building and
educe he o e all en i onmen al impac o he buil en i onmen , as widely demons a ed
in he li e a u e [9–12].
Howe e , he p oduc ion and use o common PCMs o en pose signi ican conce ns.
T adi ional PCMs a e o en associa ed wi h majo en i onmen al impac s due o hei de-
pendence on non- enewable esou ces: hey a e p oduced om pe oleum, hei p oduc ion
in ol es high ene gy consump ion, and hey a e di icul o dispose o because hey a e
mos ly non-biodeg adable.
Mo e sus ainable solu ions a e he e o e being sough , in line wi h he objec i es
o educing dependance on ossil uels, conse ing na u al esou ces, and minimizing
was e [
13
,
14
]. In he s udy by Cabeza e al. [
15
], a li e cycle assessmen (LCA) analysis
was pe o med o de e mine whe he he educ ion in ene gy demand o e ed by PCMs
could o se he en i onmen al impac associa ed wi h hei p oduc ion (including he
encapsula ion p ocess) and disposal. The s udy compa ed h ee di e en ypes o PCMs,
namely, pa a in, sal hyd a es, and es e s. The esul s o he analysis showed ha pa a in
has he highes en i onmen al impac , being 2.4 imes g ea e han ha o sal hyd a es and
3 imes g ea e han es e s. Based on hese indings, he s udy concluded ha ma e ials
om enewable esou ces, such as sal hyd a es and es e s, a e mo e en i onmen ally
iendly and should be selec ed o make PCMs o sus ainable applica ions. In a simila
s udy au ho ed by Menou i e al. [
16
], an LCA s udy was ca ied ou o compa e he
en i onmen al impac o es e s, sal hyd a es, and pa a in used as PCMs in building
en elopes. The s udy e alua ed he p oduc ion, se ice, and disposal phases o he PCMs.
The esul s showed ha es e s ha e a sligh ly lowe impac on he p oduc ion phase han
sal hyd a es. In conclusion, he use o es e s and sal hyd a es as PCMs led o a educ ion in
he o e all en i onmen al impac o app oxima ely 10.5% and 9%, espec i ely, compa ed
o pa a in.
Sus ainabili y in he choice o using a PCM can be, hen, u he s eng hened by
selec ing aw ma e ials and p oduc ion p ocesses ha a e as sus ainable as possible [17].
Bio-based o ganic PCMs ep esen one o he mos p omising sus ainable op ions
in his con ex . Made om enewable esou ces such as a y acids, na u al waxes, and
biopolyme s, hese ma e ials o e he added bene i o also being biodeg adable. They
he e o e con ibu e o a mo e sus ainable ene gy s o age solu ion and a e in line wi h he
g owing end owa ds en i onmen ally iendly echnologies [18].
Na u al waxes, commonly used in cosme ics and candles, ha e been explo ed o hei
he mal s o age capabili ies. Fa y acids, which a e abundan in plan and animal oils, a e
e y p omising due o hei la en hea s o age capaci ies and biodeg adabili y [19–21].
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 3 o 22
E en o ganic PCMs ob ained om was e a e able o imp o e he sus ainabili y cha ac-
e is ics o his echnology. The euse o indus ial by-p oduc s and/o was e gene a ed
du ing p oduc ion p ocesses can educe he need o he supply o new na u al esou ces
and con ibu e o he educ ion in indus ial was e [
22
–
24
]. The e o e, was e-de i ed PCMs
suppo a ci cula economy model, whe e he euse o ma e ials educes he need o new
aw ma e ials, dec eases en i onmen al pollu ion, and p omo es esou ce e iciency. This
app oach o he de elopmen o new PCMs also add esses he issue o was e managemen ,
a c i ical challenge in many indus ial sec o s [14].
I can he e o e be s a ed ha he use o mo e sus ainable PCMs, whe he bio-based
o was e-de i ed, o e s a double bene i ha goes beyond he simple educ ion in en-
i onmen al impac . On one hand, hese ma e ials, de i ed om enewable esou ces
o indus ial was e, educe hei dependence on ossil esou ces and lowe he ene gy
consump ion and CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h hei p oduc ion compa ed o adi ional
syn he ic PCMs. On he o he hand, sus ainable PCMs e ain he abili y o imp o e he
he mal e iciency o buildings and o he s uc u es [25].
The aim o his e iew is, he e o e, o analyze he li e a u e ela ed o he de elop-
men and applica ion o bio-based o was e-de i ed (o ganic) PCMs as mo e sus ainable
al e na i es o adi ional pe oleum-de i ed ma e ials. The analysis o hei in-se ice
pe o mance will highligh he ad an ages and limi a ions o sus ainable PCMs compa ed
o adi ional and comme cial ones. Addi ionally, he in eg a ion o hese PCMs in o build-
ing ma e ials will be epo ed, as his ep esen s one o he mos p omising pa hways o
hei p ac ical applica ion. This e iew will inally discuss he challenges ha emain in he
adop ion o hese new ma e ials as well as u u e esea ch di ec ions needed o o e come
hese obs acles.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
PCMs a e compounds ha a e able o abso b and elease he mal ene gy du ing hei
phase ansi ions. These ma e ials ha e been, in pa icula , widely es ed in cons uc ion
ma e ials and elemen s hanks o hei abili y o he mo- egula e he in e nal en i onmen o
buildings, imp o ing hei ene gy e iciency. PCMs help imp o e he he mal pe o mance
o building ma e ials in which hey a e included, such as walls, loo s, oo , and insula ion
elemen s [
26
]. The e o e, hei he mal s o age e ec limi s he need o hea ing/cooling
de ices, esul ing in signi ican ene gy sa ings.
PCMs can be classi ied in o di e en ca ego ies based on hei composi ion, namely,
o ganic, ino ganic, and eu ec ic PCMs [
27
]. Each o hese ypes has di e en he mal
and physical cha ac e is ics ha de e mine hei hea s o age capaci y and sui abili y o
di e en applica ions.
O ganic PCMs a e ypically based on na u al o syn he ic o ganic compounds. These
ma e ials a e cha ac e ized by a ela i ely high la en hea , so hey can s o e a signi ican
amoun o ene gy du ing phase ansi ions and by a ai ly low he mal conduc i i y.
Common examples o o ganic PCMs include pa a ins, a y acids, and ce ain es e s.
O ganic PCMs a e o en p e e ed o hei he mal s abili y and ease o use, making
hem ideal o di e se applica ions, pa icula ly in building ma e ials and ene gy s o age
sys ems. Howe e , hey ha e some en i onmen al disad an ages; some ypes o pa a in,
o example, a e de i ed om pe oleum. The p oduc ion o hese ma e ials can gene a e
CO
2
emissions, which somewha diminishes hei en i onmen al bene i s. O he pa a ins,
howe e , a e de i ed om na u al oils. The e is, he e o e, a g owing in e es in o ganic
PCMs de i ed om enewable sou ces ha can eplace con en ional syn he ic compounds
wi h a educed en i onmen al impac [28,29].
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 4 o 22
Ino ganic PCMs include sal s, sal hyd a es, and me als. These compounds gene ally
ha e a highe la en hea han o ganic PCMs, making hem mo e e icien a s o ing he mal
ene gy. Howe e , ino ganic PCMs a e o en he mally uns able, which can lead o p oblems
du ing epea ed he mal cycles. Sal hyd a es, o example, can p esen p oblems o
supe cooling o deliquescence when hey abso b mois u e om he ai . None heless,
ino ganic PCMs a e e y use ul in applica ions ha equi e high la en hea , such as in
concen a ed sola powe (CSP) sys ems o indus ial p ocesses [29,30].
Eu ec ic PCMs a e a mix u e o wo o mo e pu e PCMs, o ganic–o ganic, ino ganic–
ino ganic o a combina ion o o ganic and ino ganic. These blends a e de eloped o
o e come some o he limi a ions o pu e o ganic o ino ganic PCMs. Eu ec ic mix u es
a e no subjec o seg ega ion o phase sepa a ion du ing hei solidi ica ion, unlike pu e
ino ganic PCMs, which can su e om phase sepa a ion. Eu ec ic PCMs o en a e able o
o e a highe la en hea han o ganic ones while main aining s able he mal p ope ies.
The possibili y o une he composi ion o eu ec ic PCMs makes hem a e y a ac i e
op ion o a wide ange o he mal managemen applica ions [29,31].
Sus ainable PCMs
PCMs wi h “sus ainabili y” cha ac e is ics a e becoming inc easingly impo an o
educe he en i onmen al impac o all applica ions in which hey a e used. Sus ainable
PCMs a e hose ha , based on hei composi ion o p oduc ion p ocess, con ibu e o
educing he en i onmen al impac compa ed o con en ional and comme cial PCMs [
13
].
Bio-based PCMs a e a p ime example o sus ainable o ganic phase-change ma e ials.
Among hei en i onmen al ad an ages, hey a e de i ed om enewable esou ces (i.e.,
no om ossil esou ces), a e non- oxic, and a e o en biodeg adable. Sus ainable o ganic
PCMs can also be ob ained as by-p oduc s o was e om ag icul u al o ood p ocessing,
o e ing an addi ional bene i in educing was e. Fo example, some was e ege able oils
and a s om he ood indus y o by-p oduc s om he pha maceu ical sec o can be
p oposed (i.e., hey a e e ec i e) as PCMs. The e o e, enewable/was e-de i ed PCMs a e
pa icula ly a ac i e om an en i onmen al poin o iew [19–21].
O he ma e ials de i ed om was e s eams, bu which a e no biodeg adable, o e
he unc ional cha ac e is ics o PCMs. Such ma e ials include indus ial by-p oduc s,
polyme p ocessing was e, wax molds, was e oils, and plas ic was e. Al hough hey a e
no biodeg adable, hese o ganic PCMs a e conside ed sus ainable because hey do no
equi e he sou cing o new aw ma e ials and help educe he olume o was e ha migh
o he wise end up in land ills, in line wi h he p inciples o a ci cula economy. In conclusion,
e en i hei en i onmen al bene i s a e no as di ec as hose o bio-based ma e ials, hey
s ill con ibu e o sus ainabili y by ans o ming was e in o use ul p oduc s ha can suppo
ene gy s o age and he mal managemen in buildings [22–24].
3. Bio-Based PCMs
Bio-based o ganic PCMs a e de i ed om enewable sou ces and include subs ances
o plan o animal o igin, a y acids, es e s, and polyols [
32
]. Figu e 1illus a es he
bio-based PCMs classi ied acco ding o hei na u e and o igin.
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 5 o 22
Polyme s 2025,17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5o 23
Figu e 1. Bio-based o ganic PCMs o ganized in o ca ego ies: na u al-based, a y acids–alcohols–
es e s, polyols.
Figu e 2. Mel ing empe a u e s. la en hea o mel ing o bio-based PCMs. Sou ce: Scopus. The
da a p esen ed we e de i ed om an analysis o publica ions om 2020 o 2025, conduc ed on 15
Ma ch 2025.
As obse ed in Figu e 2, mos o hese ma e ials ha e a mel ing empe a u e be ween
20 and 75 °C and mel ing en halpies abo e 100 J/g. In e es ingly, eu ec ic mix u es com-
posed by bio-based PCMs can offe highe mel ing hea s, ypically abo e 150 J/g, allowing
o g ea e hea s o age and elease capaci y, wi h a na ow mel ing ange, om 25° o 40
°C. These ea u es a e pa icula ly impo an in building applica ions. PCMs used in
buildings mus , in ac , ha e a mel ing poin close o indoo com o empe a u es, i.e.,
be ween 20° and 30 °C, o efficien ly s o e and elease he mal ene gy du ing ex e nal
empe a u e luc ua ions. On he o he hand, a high la en hea o mel ing ensu es signi -
ican hea abso p ion wi hou d as ic empe a u e changes, hus imp o ing ene gy effi-
ciency, main aining a he mal com o inside he building.
I is wo h no ing ha polye hylene glycol (PEG) is conside ed a sus ainable PCM
e en hough i is no di ec ly de i ed om enewable esou ces (i is a syn he ic polyme );
o his eason, PEG has no been included in his discussion. PEG is p e e ed o i s non-
oxic na u e; u he mo e, despi e being o syn he ic o igin, i is biodeg adable. I has g ea
po en ial as PCM due o high phase-change en halpy, good he mal s abili y, and good
du abili y unde a ious condi ions. Fu he mo e, he mel ing empe a u e o PEG a ies
depending on i s molecula weigh , which allows he mos app op ia e PEG g ade o be
used in applica ions equi ing e y diffe en usage anges [33,34].
Figu e 1. Bio-based o ganic PCMs o ganized in o ca ego ies: na u al-based, a y acids–alcohols–
es e s, polyols.
These PCMs can be also employed o p oduce eu ec ic mix u es, such as palmi ic
acid–s ea ic acid, my is ic acid–cap ic acid, palmi ic acid–cap ic acid [
19
], o imp o e he
he mal p ope ies o he o iginal bio-based PCM.
Figu e 2shows he alues o mel ing empe a u es and en halpies o he main bio-
based PCMs ound in he li e a u e.
Polyme s 2025,17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5o 23
Figu e 1. Bio-based o ganic PCMs o ganized in o ca ego ies: na u al-based, a y acids–alcohols–
es e s, polyols.
Figu e 2. Mel ing empe a u e s. la en hea o mel ing o bio-based PCMs. Sou ce: Scopus. The
da a p esen ed we e de i ed om an analysis o publica ions om 2020 o 2025, conduc ed on 15
Ma ch 2025.
As obse ed in Figu e 2, mos o hese ma e ials ha e a mel ing empe a u e be ween
20 and 75 °C and mel ing en halpies abo e 100 J/g. In e es ingly, eu ec ic mix u es com-
posed by bio-based PCMs can offe highe mel ing hea s, ypically abo e 150 J/g, allowing
o g ea e hea s o age and elease capaci y, wi h a na ow mel ing ange, om 25° o 40
°C. These ea u es a e pa icula ly impo an in building applica ions. PCMs used in
buildings mus , in ac , ha e a mel ing poin close o indoo com o empe a u es, i.e.,
be ween 20° and 30 °C, o efficien ly s o e and elease he mal ene gy du ing ex e nal
empe a u e luc ua ions. On he o he hand, a high la en hea o mel ing ensu es signi -
ican hea abso p ion wi hou d as ic empe a u e changes, hus imp o ing ene gy effi-
ciency, main aining a he mal com o inside he building.
I is wo h no ing ha polye hylene glycol (PEG) is conside ed a sus ainable PCM
e en hough i is no di ec ly de i ed om enewable esou ces (i is a syn he ic polyme );
o his eason, PEG has no been included in his discussion. PEG is p e e ed o i s non-
oxic na u e; u he mo e, despi e being o syn he ic o igin, i is biodeg adable. I has g ea
po en ial as PCM due o high phase-change en halpy, good he mal s abili y, and good
du abili y unde a ious condi ions. Fu he mo e, he mel ing empe a u e o PEG a ies
depending on i s molecula weigh , which allows he mos app op ia e PEG g ade o be
used in applica ions equi ing e y diffe en usage anges [33,34].
Figu e 2. Mel ing empe a u e s. la en hea o mel ing o bio-based PCMs. Sou ce: Scopus.
The da a p esen ed we e de i ed om an analysis o publica ions om 2020 o 2025, conduc ed on
15 Ma ch 2025.
As obse ed in Figu e 2, mos o hese ma e ials ha e a mel ing empe a u e be ween
20 and 75
◦
C and mel ing en halpies abo e 100 J/g. In e es ingly, eu ec ic mix u es com-
posed by bio-based PCMs can o e highe mel ing hea s, ypically abo e 150 J/g, allowing
o g ea e hea s o age and elease capaci y, wi h a na ow mel ing ange, om 25
◦
o
40
◦
C. These ea u es a e pa icula ly impo an in building applica ions. PCMs used in
buildings mus , in ac , ha e a mel ing poin close o indoo com o empe a u es, i.e.,
be ween 20
◦
and 30
◦
C, o e icien ly s o e and elease he mal ene gy du ing ex e nal em-
pe a u e luc ua ions. On he o he hand, a high la en hea o mel ing ensu es signi ican
hea abso p ion wi hou d as ic empe a u e changes, hus imp o ing ene gy e iciency,
main aining a he mal com o inside he building.
I is wo h no ing ha polye hylene glycol (PEG) is conside ed a sus ainable PCM
e en hough i is no di ec ly de i ed om enewable esou ces (i is a syn he ic polyme );
o his eason, PEG has no been included in his discussion. PEG is p e e ed o i s
non- oxic na u e; u he mo e, despi e being o syn he ic o igin, i is biodeg adable. I has
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 6 o 22
g ea po en ial as PCM due o high phase-change en halpy, good he mal s abili y, and
good du abili y unde a ious condi ions. Fu he mo e, he mel ing empe a u e o PEG
a ies depending on i s molecula weigh , which allows he mos app op ia e PEG g ade
o be used in applica ions equi ing e y di e en usage anges [33,34].
3.1. Ad an ages and Limi a ions
As al eady highligh ed, one o he main ad an ages o bio-based o ganic PCMs is hei
low ca bon oo p in . Thei use is in line wi h he g owing demand o sus ainable ma e ials
ha a e consis en wi h he p inciples o he ci cula economy. Fu he mo e, bio-based
PCMs a e o en qui e inexpensi e due o he wide a ailabili y o he aw ma e ials om
which hey a e de i ed [19–21].
Howe e , as al eady highligh ed, he use o bio-based PCMs esul s in se e al p ob-
lems. In ac , hey some imes p esen lowe he mal s abili y, lowe hea s o age capaci y,
and highe leakage a es du ing s a e ansi ions han syn he ic al e na i es. The mel ing
empe a u e and he mal conduc i i y alues o bio-based PCMs a e no always sui able
o high-pe o mance applica ions, which limi s hei use in some sec o s. Fu he mo e,
some o hem may unde go deg ada ion unde se ice condi ions, comp omising hei
pe o mance o e ime [32].
Ne e heless, bio-based PCMs a e employed in di e en sec o s and applica ions. The
ollowing sec ion illus a es, in pa icula , he pape s in which bio-based PCMs ha e been
p oposed o cons uc ion applica ions.
3.2. Applica ions o Bio-Based PCMs in Buildings
The in eg a ion o bio-based PCMs in o building ma e ials is ca ied ou using he
same p ocedu es used o con en ional PCMs, namely, h ough di ec in eg a ion (i.e.,
he PCM is added di ec ly in o he mo a o conc e e mix) o by imme sing he building
ma e ial (i.e., conc e e, plas e boa d, po ous agg ega e, e c.) in a liquid PCM, which is
abso bed by capilla i y [
19
]. Howe e , hese wo di ec PCM inclusion p ocedu es ha e
some disad an ages. As an example, PCM leakage could occu , which may in e e e wi h
he cemen hyd a ion p ocess, comp omising he mechanical esis ance o he building
elemen , hus nega i ely a ec ing i s li espan.
To a oid his, PCMs can be in eg a ed indi ec ly in o building s uc u es by embed-
ding hem in mic o- o mac ocapsules, o by employing “ o m-s able” me hods [
35
], by
which he PCM is abso bed in o an ine suppo and hen included in he cons uc ion
elemen . The encapsula ion me hod is widely ecognized as one o he mos e ec i e
app oaches since i physically isola es he PCM inside polyme ic o ino ganic shells; in
his way, losses du ing he PCM phase ansi ions a e p e en ed and in e ac ions wi h
he building ma e ial a e educed. This me hod allows he p ese a ion o he in eg i y
o he cons uc ion elemen , al hough i educes i s mechanical esis ance. On he o he
hand, he o m-s able me hod is also known o be e y e ec i e, as demons a ed by he
g owing end in i s adop ion. In ac , wi h his echnique, i is possible o inc ease he
he mal conduc i i y o he PCM, limi cos s, and simpli y he implemen a ion compa ed
o encapsula ion p ocedu es. Fu he mo e, he o m-s able me hod e ec i ely p e en s
PCM leakage wi hou comp omising he du abili y o he cons uc ion ma e ial. Finally,
he use o po ous and highly conduc i e suppo ma ices (such as expanded g aphi e o
silica) no only s abilizes he PCM bu also manages o imp o e he he mal pe o mance o
he composi e, making his me hod pa icula ly ad an ageous o la ge-scale applica ions
in he cons uc ion indus y.
Figu e 3shows he esul s o he li e a u e e iew o he pape published in he las i e
yea s on he use o bio-based PCMs in building applica ions. Among he s udies e iewed,
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 7 o 22
22% ocused on comme cial bio-based PCMs; howe e , he exac composi ion o hese PCMs is
no always speci ied, lea ing he na u e o he bio-based ma e ials used unclea [
36
–
44
]. O he
s udies whe e he na u e o he bio-based PCMs was epo ed, 27.5% we e plan o igin [
45
–
55
],
7.5% we e animal o igin [
56
–
58
], 15% ela ed o single a y acids [
59
–
64
], and 50% ocused
on eu ec ic mix u es based on bio-based componen s [
65
–
76
]. These da a a e p esen ed in
Figu e 3.
Polyme s 2025,17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7o 23
Figu e 3. S udies on diffe en ypes o bio-based PCMs p oposed o building applica ions. (Sou ce:
Scopus. The da a p esen ed we e de i ed om an analysis o publica ions om 2020 o 2025, con-
duc ed on 15 Ma ch 2025).
The majo i y o s udies on eu ec ic mix u es, as can be seen in Figu e 3, con i m he
need o de elop PCMs wi h pa icula he mal p ope ies o mee speci ic applica ion e-
qui emen s. Rega ding he me hods o PCM in eg a ion in building ma e ials, 10% o he
s udies epo ed he di ec inco po a ion o PCMs in building ma e ials [45,56,57,71] and
35% p oposed he o m-s able me hod, o en using a na u al suppo ma e ial in o de o
gua an ee he sus ainabili y o he en i e sys em [47,49–51,59,61–67,72]. The widesp ead
use o o m-s able PCMs is jus i ied by he ac ha PCMs c ea ed using his me hod do
no p esen leakage p oblems, as widely epo ed in he li e a u e. Fu he mo e, his
me hod allows he use o ma ices capable o imp o ing he he mal conduc i i y o he
PCM ( o example, using ma e ials such as g aphene, expanded g aphi e, SiO
2
). Finally,
his solu ion is less complex and much less expensi e han encapsula ion, o en allowing
he euse o was e (po ous) ma e ials as ine suppo . A o al o 17.5% o he e iewed
s udies examined encapsula ed PCMs, wi h bio-based capsules, in some cases also syn-
he ic polyme ic [48,52–54,60,70,74]. Finally, 20% o he pape s epo ed he de elopmen
and cha ac e iza ion o bio-based PCMs no in eg a ed in o any ma ix o capsule (i.e.,
“ ee PCMs”). Figu e 4a shows he dis ibu ion o publica ions desc ibing he diffe en
me hodologies used o in eg a e bio-based PCMs in o building ma e ials.
In e ms o applica ions, 40% o he s udies epo ed he inclusion o bio-based PCMs
in mo a s and conc e es. The emaining 60% illus a ed PCMs o mo e gene al pu pose:
in ac , no speci ic applica ion in cons uc ion o hem was p oposed. Figu e 4b summa-
izes hese obse a ions.
Figu e 3. S udies on di e en ypes o bio-based PCMs p oposed o building applica ions. (Sou ce:
Scopus. The da a p esen ed we e de i ed om an analysis o publica ions om 2020 o 2025,
conduc ed on 15 Ma ch 2025).
The majo i y o s udies on eu ec ic mix u es, as can be seen in Figu e 3, con i m he need
o de elop PCMs wi h pa icula he mal p ope ies o mee speci ic applica ion equi emen s.
Rega ding he me hods o PCM in eg a ion in building ma e ials, 10% o he s udies epo ed
he di ec inco po a ion o PCMs in building ma e ials [
45
,
56
,
57
,
71
] and 35% p oposed he o m-
s able me hod, o en using a na u al suppo ma e ial in o de o gua an ee he sus ainabili y o
he en i e sys em [
47
,
49
–
51
,
59
,
61
–
67
,
72
]. The widesp ead use o o m-s able PCMs is jus i ied
by he ac ha PCMs c ea ed using his me hod do no p esen leakage p oblems, as widely
epo ed in he li e a u e. Fu he mo e, his me hod allows he use o ma ices capable o
imp o ing he he mal conduc i i y o he PCM ( o example, using ma e ials such as g aphene,
expanded g aphi e, SiO
2
). Finally, his solu ion is less complex and much less expensi e han
encapsula ion, o en allowing he euse o was e (po ous) ma e ials as ine suppo . A o al
o 17.5% o he e iewed s udies examined encapsula ed PCMs, wi h bio-based capsules, in
some cases also syn he ic polyme ic [
48
,
52
–
54
,
60
,
70
,
74
]. Finally, 20% o he pape s epo ed he
de elopmen and cha ac e iza ion o bio-based PCMs no in eg a ed in o any ma ix o capsule
(i.e., “ ee PCMs”). Figu e 4a shows he dis ibu ion o publica ions desc ibing he di e en
me hodologies used o in eg a e bio-based PCMs in o building ma e ials.
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 8 o 22
Polyme s 2025,17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8o 23
(a)
(b)
Figu e 4. S udies on bio-based PCMs p oposed o building applica ions, published in he las 5 yea s
(2020–2025). (a) Main me hod used o de elop bio-based PCMs o building applica ions; (b) main appli-
ca ions o bio-based PCMs in buildings. (Sou ce: Scopus. Da e o he analysis: 15 Ma ch 2025).
3.3. The mal, Mechanical and In-Se ice Pe o mance o Bio-Based PCMs
Se e al published pape s ha e examined he pe o mance o bio-based PCMs. In ad-
di ion o mechanical and la en -hea he mal ene gy s o age (LHTES) p ope ies, hei
abili y o limi empe a u e luc ua ions in indoo en i onmen s is also o en analyzed.
The effec i eness o bio-based PCMs in imp o ing he he mal egula ion o build-
ings loca ed in high empe a u e egions, such as Alge ia, was analyzed in [45,49,50].
Gue ma e al. [45] in es iga ed he use o a bio-based PCM made by mixing ege a-
ble oils wi h pu i ied beeswax. The PCM was ound o display no able he mal p ope ies,
including an effec i e la en hea and a mel ing ange ha is pa icula ly sui able o wa m
Figu e 4. S udies on bio-based PCMs p oposed o building applica ions, published in he las 5 yea s
(2020–2025). (a) Main me hod used o de elop bio-based PCMs o building applica ions; (b) main
applica ions o bio-based PCMs in buildings. (Sou ce: Scopus. Da e o he analysis: 15 Ma ch 2025).
In e ms o applica ions, 40% o he s udies epo ed he inclusion o bio-based PCMs
in mo a s and conc e es. The emaining 60% illus a ed PCMs o mo e gene al pu pose: in
ac , no speci ic applica ion in cons uc ion o hem was p oposed. Figu e 4b summa izes
hese obse a ions.
3.3. The mal, Mechanical and In-Se ice Pe o mance o Bio-Based PCMs
Se e al published pape s ha e examined he pe o mance o bio-based PCMs. In
addi ion o mechanical and la en -hea he mal ene gy s o age (LHTES) p ope ies, hei
abili y o limi empe a u e luc ua ions in indoo en i onmen s is also o en analyzed.
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 9 o 22
The e ec i eness o bio-based PCMs in imp o ing he he mal egula ion o buildings
loca ed in high empe a u e egions, such as Alge ia, was analyzed in [45,49,50].
Gue ma e al. [
45
] in es iga ed he use o a bio-based PCM made by mixing ege able
oils wi h pu i ied beeswax. The PCM was ound o display no able he mal p ope ies,
including an e ec i e la en hea and a mel ing ange ha is pa icula ly sui able o
wa m clima es. The esea ch also analyzed he e ec i eness o he bio-based PCM when
applied in buildings loca ed in ou di e en Alge ian ci ies. The au ho s demons a ed
ha he in eg a ion o he PCM in o building walls was able o educe he empe a u e
luc ua ions in he in e nal en i onmen by app oxima ely 3–4
◦
C, pa icula ly du ing he
summe mon hs, in all he ci ies examined. In a di e en s udy, Kehli e al. [
49
] de eloped
a ligh weigh gypsum composi e in ended o ho and d y clima ic egions, such as hose
o sou he n Alge ia. The composi e was c ea ed by inco po a ing in gypsum, ho wa e -
ea ed ba ley s aws and bio-based palm oil (PO) as he PCM. The use o he o iginal
PCM allowed he composi e o ha e a high capaci y o s o e and elease he mal ene gy,
wi h high he mal egula ion p ope ies. The mechanical p ope ies we e also e alua ed,
highligh ing a sligh dec ease due o he educ ion in densi y, consis en wi h he expec ed
beha io o ligh weigh ma e ials. Howe e , a educ ion in densi y is s ill bene icial o
imp o ing he insula ion p ope ies o he ma e ial.
Dehmous e al. [
50
] de eloped a conc e e ha inco po a ed ligh weigh agg ega es
(cLWA) imp egna ed wi h a low-cos , bio-based PCM de i ed om ege able oil. Conc e e
con aining he bio-based PCM was p oposed o buildings loca ed in wa m Medi e anean
clima es, such as in Alge ia. Th ee ypes o mine als, namely ben oni e, sepioli e, and silica
gel, we e es ed as he LWA, and wo imp egna ion me hods, namely di ec imp egna ion
and acuum imp egna ion, we e compa ed. The use o ligh weigh agg ega es imp egna ed
wi h PCM led o an a e age inc ease o 25% in he ene gy s o age capaci y o he conc e e.
On he o he hand, he au ho s obse ed a ce ain dec ease in bo h he comp essi e and
lexu al s eng h o he cLWA.
In a wo k published by Fabiani e al. [
46
], calo ime ic analysis e ealed ha an
expi ed palm oil-based PCM exhibi ed wo dis inc mel ing peaks (i.e.,
−
9
◦
C and 24
◦
C),
which allowed i o e ec i ely bu e bo h he hea loss in he win e season and excessi e
empe a u e inc eases in summe . The mal deg ada ion analyses o palm oil indica ed
i s s able pe o mance in low- o medium- empe a u e applica ions. The de eloped PCM
showed good he mal s abili y, main aining i s pe o mance e en a e housands o he mal
cycles. The wide a ailabili y o bio-based PCMs, combined wi h he low cos and sa e y o
people and he en i onmen , makes hem a sus ainable choice o building applica ions.
The low cos o ma e ials and echnology o p oduce hese PCMs makes hem accessible
o la ge-scale use, such as in building applica ions.
The s udy conduc ed by Ju e al. [
47
] in es iga ed he de elopmen o a no el shape-
s abilized PCM (SCS@PCM) made om cenosphe es (i.e., was e om coal- i ed powe
plan s), imp egna ed wi h a bio-based PCM (by-p oduc o ege able oil) and coa ed wi h
silica coa ing. The composi e ma e ial was in eg a ed in o cemen mo a s o use in
building oo s. The applica ion o a silica coa ing was able o limi he nega i e impac o
SCS@PCM on he mechanical p ope ies o mo a samples, wi h only a sligh dec ease in
comp essi e s eng h compa ed o he e e ence mo a . The silica coa ing was also able
o imp o e he he mal conduc i i y o abou 13%. The de eloped PCM demons a ed
excellen la en hea s o age capabili ies (mel ing/solidi ica ion en halpy g ea e han 100
J/g) and good he mal s abili y, wi h a minimal mass loss e en a e ex ended exposu e
o mode a e empe a u es. The in eg a ion o SCS@PCM in he cemen mo a led o a
educ ion o app oxima ely 5
◦
C in he peak empe a u e, con i ming i s abili y o imp o e
he mal egula ion in buildings.
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 16 o 22
polyp opylene (PP) non-wo en ma s, his la e was ob ained om su gical mask il e
was e. The me hod de eloped o p oduce he wo was e PCMs is illus a ed in Figu e 9.
Polyme s 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 23
o a mix u e o diffe en ege able a s om he ood indus y, showed a mel ing empe -
a u e o abou 35 °C and a signi ican la en hea capaci y. I was, he e o e, p oposed as a
passi e long- e m he mal ene gy s o age (LHTES) sys em o buildings cha ac e ized by
la ge empe a u e a ia ions. The esul s o he s udy sugges ed ha he ma e ial is capa-
ble o imp o ing indoo he mal com o , in pa icula by mi iga ing empe a u e a ia-
ions du ing summe hea wa es i included in non-s uc u al elemen s.
B agaglia e al. [85] s udied he use o was e a om he po k sausage cooking p ocess
o p oduce was e PCMs. The was e a , composed o bo h sa u a ed and unsa u a ed a y
acids, p esen ed a mel ing empe a u e o 32 °C, i.e., s ill sui able o indoo applica ions. The
was e a was included in wo di e en ma ices, namely, biosilica (dia omi e) and polyp o-
pylene (PP) non-wo en ma s, his la e was ob ained om su gical mask il e was e. The
me hod de eloped o p oduce he wo was e PCMs is illus a ed in Figu e 9.
Bo h ma ices we e able o effec i ely encapsula e a high amoun o was e PCM,
while main aining unchanged he mal p ope ies. A simpli ied analy ical model has been
de eloped o simula e he he mal pe o mance o a building wall inco po a ing he de-
eloped PCM: a 37% educ ion in he mal powe was calcula ed compa ed o he wall
wi hou PCM. These esul s con i med ha was e cooking a can ep esen an effec i e
and eco-sus ainable solu ion o passi e hea ing/cooling applica ions in buildings.
Figu e 9. (a) Was e a in liquid o m and (b) was e a in solid o m used du ing he imp egna ion
p ocedu e o (c) su gical mask il e and (d) dia omi e. Rep in ed om [85], wi h pe mission om
Else ie (Ap il 2025).
In an expe imen al s udy pe o med by Rashid e al. [86], he pe o mance o diffe -
en was e ma e ials and indus ial by-p oduc s as po en ial PCMs o buildings was e al-
ua ed. These ma e ials we e inse ed in o a sandwich made up o laye s o geopolyme
conc e e. The e e ence was a geopolyme conc e e block. The ma e ials es ed included
expanded polys y ene oam, polyu e hane oam, ubbe i es om indus ial was e, da e
palm om ag icul u al was e, and wo ype o pa affin-based PCMs (PCM-30 and PCM-
Figu e 9. (a) Was e a in liquid o m and (b) was e a in solid o m used du ing he imp egna ion
p ocedu e o (c) su gical mask il e and (d) dia omi e. Rep in ed om [
85
], wi h pe mission om
Else ie (Ap il 2025).
Bo h ma ices we e able o e ec i ely encapsula e a high amoun o was e PCM,
while main aining unchanged he mal p ope ies. A simpli ied analy ical model has
been de eloped o simula e he he mal pe o mance o a building wall inco po a ing he
de eloped PCM: a 37% educ ion in he mal powe was calcula ed compa ed o he wall
wi hou PCM. These esul s con i med ha was e cooking a can ep esen an e ec i e
and eco-sus ainable solu ion o passi e hea ing/cooling applica ions in buildings.
In an expe imen al s udy pe o med by Rashid e al. [
86
], he pe o mance o di e en
was e ma e ials and indus ial by-p oduc s as po en ial PCMs o buildings was e alua ed.
These ma e ials we e inse ed in o a sandwich made up o laye s o geopolyme conc e e.
The e e ence was a geopolyme conc e e block. The ma e ials es ed included expanded
polys y ene oam, polyu e hane oam, ubbe i es om indus ial was e, da e palm om
ag icul u al was e, and wo ype o pa a in-based PCMs (PCM-30 and PCM-42), ob ained
as by-p oduc s om he pe ochemical indus y. Wi h an app op ia e choice o was e
ma e ials, a 47% educ ion in cooling equi emen s in ho clima es and a 59% educ ion in
hea ing equi emen s in cold clima es ha e been measu ed.
An in es iga ion conduc ed by Sa cinella e al. [
87
] explo ed he possibili y o exploi -
ing by-p oduc s om he los wax cas ing indus y as low-cos o ganic PCMs. Wi h he
wo PCMs ob ained as by-p oduc s om he los wax cas ing indus y, wo comme cial
PCMs, namely pa a in and mic oencapsula ed PCMs, we e analyzed o compa ison pu -
poses. The esul s showed ha he waxy by-p oduc s om he cas ing indus y o e ed
s abili y unde epea ed (100) he mal cycles compa able, and in some cases supe io , o
comme cial PCMs. In ac , a e 100 he mal cycles, all PCMs main ained hei chemical
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 17 o 22
and he mal p ope ies, ensu ing excellen ene gy s o age capaci y in se ice. Fu he mo e,
while comme cial PCMs we e mo e sensi i e o high empe a u es, he waxy by-p oduc
showed highe he mal esis ance.
F om an LCA pe spec i e, only a ew o he p e ious s udies has measu ed he impac
o hese ma e ials on he en i onmen ; hei abili y o imp o e he mal e iciency in he
buildings in which hey a e applied is mainly demons a ed. On he o he hand, conside -
ing ha adi ional PCMs a e de i ed om pe oleum and equi e a lo o ene gy du ing
hei p oduc ion, was e-de i ed PCMs u ilize indus ial and ag icul u al by-p oduc s, hus
helping o educe en i onmen al impac s. A li e cycle analysis o a y acid-based PCMs
om used cooking oil has shown a 40% educ ion in g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
compa ed o he p oduc ion o pa a in-based PCMs [
46
]. This esul s in a sa ing o app ox-
ima ely 2.5 kg o CO
2
equi alen o e e y kilog am o PCM p oduced. The sus ainabili y
o PCMs ob ained as ag icul u al by-p oduc s, such as soybean oil was e, is demons a ed
by a 35% educ ion in ene gy equi emen s du ing hei p oduc ion, wi h a sa ing o
app oxima ely 1.2 MJ/kg. Finally, was e-based PCMs (i.e., biomass) used in sola ene gy
sys ems can o se 15 ons o CO2pe yea o a 50 kW sola he mal sys em [88].
5. Conclusions
The use o phase change ma e ials, PCMs, is an e ec i e and sus ainable way o
ensu ing he he mal com o o buildings. In ac , he in eg a ion o PCMs in cons uc ion
ma e ials allows a educ ion in he use o ossil esou ces o indoo hea ing/cooling, a he
same ime allowing a signi ican educ ion in CO
2
emissions. I o ganic PCMs a e de el-
oped om sus ainable aw ma e ials, such as bio-based ma e ials o indus ial/ag icul u al
was e, he en i onmen al bene i will be wo old. Each o he di e en ypologies analyzed
p esen s ad an ages, no only om an en i onmen al poin o iew, bu also applica i e
disad an ages. As an example, bio-based PCMs a e cos -e ec i e bu ha e a wide mel -
ing empe a u e ange and no e y high mel ing en halpies, alues ha a e no always
adequa e o all p ac ical applica ions. They may also p esen he mal s abili y p oblems
and leakage phenomena du ing he mal cycles. The o m-s able me hod by which hese
PCMs a e embedded in building ma e ials can sol e he leakage phenomena, also allowing
he exploi a ion o po ous was e ma e ials capable o abso bing he PCM. Fu he mo e,
he de elopmen o eu ec ics ob ained om bio-based PCM mix u es allows sys ems o be
ob ained wi h e y low mel ing anges and highe mel ing hea s.
On he o he hand, he e is a g owing in e es in using was e ma e ials and indus ial
by-p oduc s o p oduce o ganic PCMs capable o s o ing he mal ene gy in buildings. The
use o was e ma e ials/indus ial by-p oduc s, o en easily a ailable in la ge quan i ies
and a limi ed cos s, in ma e ials capable o s o ing ene gy also bene i s he en i onmen
om o he poin s o iew; i limi s he need o new esou ces, educing he en y o was e
in o he en i onmen , and minimizing he ela ed disposal cos s. Howe e , conside ing
he a iabili y in composi ion and cha ac e is ics o was e, u he esea ch is needed o
op imize he p ope ies o hese was e PCMs, imp o e hei du abili y, and ensu e hei
scalabili y in la ge-scale applica ions. Finally, u u e esea ch should add ess he ollowing
aspec s: (1) comp ehensi e li e-cycle cos analysis o highligh he po en ial economic
ad an ages o sus ainable PCMs compa ed o adi ional ones; (2) he de elopmen o
bio-based eu ec ic mix u es wi h ailo ed he mal p ope ies; (3) he op imiza ion o he
s abili y and long- e m pe o mance o was e-de i ed PCMs; (4) he de elopmen o new
speci ic s anda ds o e alua e he pe o mance, du abili y, and en i onmen al impac o
bio-based and was e-de i ed PCMs when in eg a ed in o building ma e ials. I would be
bene icial, and no only o he en i onmen , o achie e an in e disciplina y in eg a ion
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 18 o 22
be ween ma e ials science and building design o p omo e he ield implemen a ion o
hese sus ainable solu ions.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.F. and A.S.; me hodology, A.S. and S.C.; so wa e, A.S.;
alida ion, A.S. and S.C.; esou ces, A.S. and S.C.; da a cu a ion, A.S.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa-
a ion, A.S.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, S.C., I.A., J.A. and M.F.; isualiza ion, A.S.; supe ision,
M.F. and J.A.; p ojec adminis a ion, M.F. and S.C.; unding acquisi ion, M.F. and S.C. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was pa ially unded by PON Rice ca e Inno azione 2014–2020 Riso se Reac
Eu—DM 1062/2021 Azione IV. 4, “Do o a i e con a i di ice ca su ema iche dell’inno azione e
Azione IV. 6”, “Con a i di ice ca su ema iche g een”. This wo k was also de eloped wi hin he
scope o he REBORN p ojec , unded by FCT (h ps://doi.o g/10.54499/2023.11323.PEX). This wo k
was also pa ially unded by FCT/MCTES h ough na ional unds (PIDDAC) unde he R&D Uni
o Te i o y, En i onmen and Cons uc ion (CTAC) unde e e ence UIDB/04047/2020 and PhD
g an 2023.00281.BD.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
Shah, M.M. Sus ainable De elopmen . In Encyclopedia o Ecology; Jø gensen, S.E., Fa h, B.D., Eds.; Academic P ess: Ox o d, UK,
2008; pp. 3443–3446. ISBN 978-0-08-045405-4.
2.
Popescu, C.; Dissanayake, H.; Mansi, E.; S ancu, A. Eco B eak h oughs: Sus ainable Ma e ials T ans o ming he Fu u e o Ou
Plane . Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 10790. [C ossRe ]
3.
Sh ee, V.; Dwi edi, A.; Saxena, A.; Pa hak, S.K.; Ag awal, N.; T ipa hi, B.M.; Shukla, S.K.; Kuma , R.; Goel, V. A Comp ehensi e
Re iew o Ha nessing he Po en ial o Phase Change Ma e ials (PCMs) in Ene gy-E icien Building En elopes. J. Build. Eng. 2025,
101, 111841. [C ossRe ]
4.
Awas hi, A.; Ni malka , N.; Tiwa i, A.K. A Re iew o PCM Based Hyb id Ba e y The mal Managemen Sys ems o he P isma ic
Li hium-Ion Ba e ies o he Elec ic Vehicle. Fu u e Ba e . 2025,5, 100035. [C ossRe ]
5.
Takash, A.A.; Fa aj, K.; Fa aj, J.; Hage, H.E.; Hage-Diab, A.; Khaled, M.; Salameh, T.; Hamid, A.-K.; Hussein, M. A Re iew on
Ad anced Phase Change Ma e ial-Based Cooling o Ene gy-E icien Elec onics. Ene gy Con e s. Manag. X 2025,26, 100994.
[C ossRe ]
6.
Ismail, K.A.R.; Lino, F.A.M.; Tegga , M.; Laoue , A.; Hen iquez, J.R.; Rocha, T.T.M. Po en ial Applica ions o Phase Change
Ma e ials in he Food Indus y: A Re iew. J. Ene gy S o age 2025,115, 115946. [C ossRe ]
7.
Zhao, C.; Li, Y.; Liu, Y.; Zhu, D.; Ma, M.; Yu, W. Polyu e hane Foam Skele on-Based Phase Change Hyd ogel o E icien Ba e y
The mal Managemen wi h Fa o able An i ib a ion Pe o mance. ACS Appl. Ma e . In e aces 2023,15, 49653–49664. [C ossRe ]
8.
Li, Y.; Jiang, C.; Zhao, C.; Zhu, D.; Wang, L.; Xie, H.; Yu, W. A Comp ehensi e Re iew o he Hea T aceabili y in Li hium-Ion
Ba e ies: F om Gene a ion and T ans e o The mal Managemen . Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2025,216, 115706. [C ossRe ]
9.
Zhang, A.; Xiong, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Wu, Y.; Xu, Q.; Ding, Y. A Re iew o Passi e Building The mal Managemen wi h Phase-Change
Ma e ials. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2025,211, 115334. [C ossRe ]
10.
Rubio-Aguinaga, A.; Fe nández, J.M.; Na a o-Blasco, Í.; Ál a ez, J.I. Ai Lime Rende s wi h Mic oencapsula ed Phase Change
Ma e ials: Assessmen o Mic os uc u al and The mal P ope ies. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2024,452, 138862. [C ossRe ]
11.
Duan, Q.; Zhang, X.; Lang, S.; Liu, G.; Wang, H.; Zhou, X.; Du, G. Dimensionally S able Deligni ied Bamboo Ma ix Phase-Change
Composi e unde Ambien Tempe a u e o Indoo The mal Regula ion. Polyme s 2023,15, 1727. [C ossRe ]
12.
An e , A.G.; Sul an, A.A.; Hegazi, A.A.; El Bouz, M.A. The mal Pe o mance and Ene gy Sa ing Using Phase Change Ma e ials
(PCM) In eg a ed in Building Walls. J. Ene gy S o age 2023,67, 107568. [C ossRe ]
13. Kalidasan, B.; Pandey, A.K. Nex Gene a ion Phase Change Ma e ials: S a e-o - he-A owa ds Sus ainable Fu u e. P og. Ma e .
Sci. 2025,148, 101380. [C ossRe ]
14.
Manikandan, S.; De a ajan, Y.; Vick am, S. Ad ancing The mal Ene gy S o age wi h Indus ial and Ag icul u al Was e-De i ed
Phase Change Ma e ials: A Pa h owa ds Sus ainable Ene gy Sys ems. P ocess Sa . En i on. P o . 2025,198, 107068. [C ossRe ]
15.
Cabeza, L.F.; Cas ell, A.; Pé ez, G. 13—Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) o Phase Change Ma e ials (PCMs) Used in Buildings. In
Eco-E icien Cons uc ion and Building Ma e ials; Pacheco-To gal, F., Cabeza, L.F., Lab incha, J., de Magalhães, A., Eds.; Woodhead
Publishing: Camb idge, UK, 2014; pp. 287–310. ISBN 978-0-85709-767-5.
16.
Menou i, K.; Cas ell, A.; Fa id, M.M.; Boe , D.; Cabeza, L.F. Li e Cycle Assessmen o Expe imen al Cubicles Including PCM
Manu ac u ed om Na u al Resou ces (Es e s): A Theo e ical S udy. Renew. Ene gy 2013,51, 398–403. [C ossRe ]
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 19 o 22
17.
A idi, R.; Yehya, A. Re iew on he Sus ainabili y o Phase-Change Ma e ials Used in Buildings. Ene gy Con e s. Manag. X 2022,
15, 100237. [C ossRe ]
18.
Simonsen, G.; Ra o i, R.; O’Neill, P.; S ama iou, A. Biobased Phase Change Ma e ials in Ene gy S o age and The mal Managemen
Technologies. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2023,184, 113546. [C ossRe ]
19.
Benho ma, A.; Bensenouci, A.; Tegga , M.; Ismail, K.A.R.; A ıcı, M.; Mezaache, E.; Laoue , A.; Lino, F.A.M. P ospec s and
Challenges o Bio-Based Phase Change Ma e ials: An up o Da e Re iew. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,90, 111713. [C ossRe ]
20.
Malode, S.J.; She i, N.P. The mal Ene gy S o age Sys ems Using Bio-Based Phase Change Ma e ials: A Comp ehensi e Re iew
o Building Ene gy E iciency. J. Ene gy S o age 2025,105, 114709. [C ossRe ]
21.
Pielichowska, K.; Nowicka-Dunal, K.; Pielichowski, K. Bio-Based Polyme s o En i onmen ally F iendly Phase Change Ma e ials.
Polyme s 2024,16, 328. [C ossRe ]
22.
Mohaisen, K.O.; Hasan Zahi , M.; Maslehuddin, M.; Al-Dulaijan, S.U. De elopmen o a Shape-S abilized Phase Change Ma e ial
U ilizing Na u al and Indus ial Byp oduc s o The mal Ene gy S o age in Buildings. J. Ene gy S o age 2022,50, 104205. [C ossRe ]
23.
Bošnjak Ho do , J.; Niže i´c, S.; Ju ˇce i´c, M.; ˇ
Coko, D.; ´
Cosi´c, M.; Jaki´c, M.; A ıcı, M. Re iew o O ganic and Ino ganic Was e-Based
Phase Change Composi es in La en The mal Ene gy S o age: The mal P ope ies and Applica ions. Ene gy 2024,306, 132421.
[C ossRe ]
24.
Wu, W.-Y.; Yeap, I.S.R.; Wang, S.; Tomczak, N.; Lin, M.; Kai, D.; Ye, E.; Thi sa a n, W.; Tan, J.B.H.; Yin, X.; e al. Ad ancemen s
in Sus ainable Phase Change Ma e ials: Valo izing Was e o Eco-F iendly Applica ions. Ma e . Today Chem. 2024,39, 102163.
[C ossRe ]
25.
Sa cinella, A.; de Aguia , J.L.B.; F igione, M. Use o Sus ainable Phase Change Ma e ial (PCM) in Mo a s o Building Ene gy
E iciency. J. Phys. Con . Se . 2022,2385, 012009. [C ossRe ]
26.
Cabeza, L.F.; Cas ell, A.; de Ba eneche, C.; De G acia, A.; Fe nández, A. Ma e ials Used as PCM in The mal Ene gy S o age in
Buildings: A Re iew. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2011,15, 1675–1695. [C ossRe ]
27.
Wang, X.; Li, W.; Luo, Z.; Wang, K.; Shah, S.P. A C i ical Re iew on Phase Change Ma e ials (PCM) o Sus ainable and Ene gy
E icien Building: Design, Cha ac e is ic, Pe o mance and Applica ion. Ene gy Build. 2022,260, 111923. [C ossRe ]
28.
Magend an, S.S.; Khan, F.S.A.; Muba ak, N.M.; Vaka, M.; Wal eka , R.; Khalid, M.; Abdullah, E.C.; Nizamuddin, S.; Ka i, R.R.
Syn hesis o O ganic Phase Change Ma e ials (PCM) o Ene gy S o age Applica ions: A Re iew. Nano-S uc . Nano-Objec s 2019,
20, 100399. [C ossRe ]
29.
Cunha, S.; Sa cinella, A.; Aguia , J.; F igione, M. Pe spec i e on he De elopmen o Ene gy S o age Technology Using Phase
Change Ma e ials in he Cons uc ion Indus y: A Re iew. Ene gies 2023,16, 4806. [C ossRe ]
30.
Jaya hunga, D.S.; Ka una hilake, H.P.; Na ayana, M.; Wi ha ana, S. Phase Change Ma e ial (PCM) Candida es o La en Hea
The mal Ene gy S o age (LHTES) in Concen a ed Sola Powe (CSP) Based The mal Applica ions—A Re iew. Renew. Sus ain.
Ene gy Re . 2024,189, 113904. [C ossRe ]
31.
Anand, A.; Manso , M.; Sha ma, K.; Shukla, A.; Sha ma, A.; Siddiqui, M.I.H.; Sadasi uni, K.K.; P iyada shi, N.; Twala, B.
A Comp ehensi e Re iew on Eu ec ic Phase Change Ma e ials: De elopmen , The mophysical P ope ies, The mal S abili y,
Reliabili y, and Applica ions. Alex. Eng. J. 2025,112, 254–280. [C ossRe ]
32.
Duquesne, M.; Mailhé, C.; Ruiz-Ono e, K.; Achchaq, F. Biosou ced O ganic Ma e ials o La en Hea S o age: An Economic and
Eco-F iendly Al e na i e. Ene gy 2019,188, 116067. [C ossRe ]
33.
Sha wan, S.; Sika wa , P.; Mazumda , B. Recen Inno a ions in Suppo Ma e ials o Shape-S able O ganic Composi e Phase
Change Ma e ials: A Comp ehensi e Re iew. Sol. Ene gy Ma e . Sol. Cells 2024,272, 112910. [C ossRe ]
34.
Sa cinella, A.; F igione, M. Selec ion o PEG-Ma ix Combina ions o Achie e High Pe o mance Fo m-S able Phase Change
Ma e ials o Building Applica ions. Coa ings 2024,14, 250. [C ossRe ]
35.
Li, D.; Zhuang, B.; Chen, Y.; Li, B.; Land y, V.; Kaboo ani, A.; Wu, Z.; Wang, X.A. Inco po a ion Technology o Bio-Based Phase
Change Ma e ials o Building En elope: A Re iew. Ene gy Build. 2022,260, 111920. [C ossRe ]
36.
Ma his, D.; Blanche , P.; Lagiè e, P.; Land y, V. Pe o mance o Wood-Based Panels In eg a ed wi h a Bio-Based Phase Change
Ma e ial: A Full-Scale Expe imen in a Cold Clima e wi h Timbe -F ame Hu s. Ene gies 2018,11, 3093. [C ossRe ]
37.
Wi, S.; Yang, S.; Yeol Yun, B.; Kim, S. Ex e io Insula ion Finishing Sys em Using Cemen i ious Plas e /Mic oencapsula ed Phase
Change Ma e ial o Imp o ing he Building The mal S o age Pe o mance. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2021,299, 123932. [C ossRe ]
38.
Righe i, G.; Zilio, C.; Gua da, D.; Feo, D.; Aue bach, M.; Bu e s, M.; Mancin, S. Expe imen al Analysis o a Comme cial Size
Bio-Based La en The mal Ene gy S o age o Ai Condi ioning. J. Ene gy S o age 2023,72, 108477. [C ossRe ]
39.
Pa ameshwa an, R.; Na esh, R.; Ram, V.V.; S ini as, P.V. Mic oencapsula ed Bio-Based Phase Change Ma e ial-Mic o Conc e e
Composi e o The mal Ene gy S o age. J. Build. Eng. 2021,39, 102247. [C ossRe ]
40.
Choi, J.Y.; Nam, J.; Yuk, H.; Yang, S.; Kim, S. Enhancing he Hyg o he mal Pe o mance o Co n Cob Residue-Based Eco-F iendly
Building Ma e ials h ough Biocha and Mic oencapsula ed Phase Change Ma e ial Inco po a ion. J. Build. Eng. 2024,89, 109189.
[C ossRe ]
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 20 o 22
41.
E kizia, E.; S unz, C.; Dau e gne, J.-L.; Go acci, G.; Pe al a, I.; Se ano, A.; O ega, A.; Alonso, B.; Zanoni, F.; Düng elde , M.;
e al. S udy o Pa a inic and Biobased Mic oencapsula ed PCMs wi h Reduced G aphene Oxide as The mal Ene gy S o age
Elemen s in Cemen -Based Ma e ials o Building Applica ions. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,84, 110675. [C ossRe ]
42.
Gbekou, F.K.; Benza i, K.; Boudenne, A.; Eddhahak, A.; Duc, M. Mechanical and The mophysical P ope ies o Cemen Mo a s
Including Bio-Based Mic oencapsula ed Phase Change Ma e ials. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2022,352, 129056. [C ossRe ]
43.
Alha bey, R.A.; Daq ouq, K.O.; Alkha eeb, A. Ene gy Exchange o Inse ing Eco-F iendly Bio Phase Change Ma e ial in o he
Ve ical Walls o Make he Buildings Ene gy-E icien . J. Build. Eng. 2022,56, 104777. [C ossRe ]
44.
Gnanachel am, S.; A iyanayagam, A.; Mahend an, M. Fi e Resis ance o LSF Wall Sys ems Lined wi h Di e en Wallboa ds
Including Bio-PCM Ma . J. Build. Eng. 2020,32, 101628. [C ossRe ]
45.
Gue ma , Z.; Kaba , Y.; Kuznik, F.; Boukelia, T.E. Nume ical In es iga ion o he In eg a ion o New Bio-Based PCM in Building
En elopes du ing he Summe in Alge ian Ci ies. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,79, 110111. [C ossRe ]
46.
Fabiani, C.; Pisello, A.L.; Ba bane a, M.; Cabeza, L.F. Palm Oil-Based Bio-PCM o Ene gy E icien Building Applica ions:
Mul ipu pose The mal In es iga ion and Li e Cycle Assessmen . J. Ene gy S o age 2020,28, 101129. [C ossRe ]
47.
Ju, S.; Miao, Y.; Shi, J.; Wang, L.; Wang, F.; Liu, Z.; Jiang, J. The mal S o age Cemen i ious Ma e ials Con aining SiO2-Coa ed
Cenosphe e@bio-Based PCMs: Mic os uc u al, Mechanical, and The mal P ope ies. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2024,437, 137005.
[C ossRe ]
48.
Ismail, A.; Zhou, J.; Aday, A.; Da ido , I.; Odukomaiya, A.; Wang, J. Mic oencapsula ion o Bio-Based Phase Change Ma e ials
wi h Silica Coa ed Ino ganic Shell o The mal Ene gy S o age. J. Build. Eng. 2023,67, 105981. [C ossRe ]
49.
Kehli, K.; Belhadj, B.; Fe ha , A. De elopmen o a New Ligh weigh Gypsum Composi e: E ec o Mixed T ea men o Ba ley
S aws wi h Ho Wa e and Bio-Based Phase Change Ma e ial on he The mo-Mechanical P ope ies. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2023,
389, 131597. [C ossRe ]
50.
Dehmous, M.; F anque , E.; Lam ous, N. Mechanical and The mal Cha ac e iza ions o Va ious The mal Ene gy S o age Conc e es
Including Low-Cos Bio-Sou ced PCM. Ene gy Build. 2021,241, 110878. [C ossRe ]
51.
Ismail, A.; Bahmani, M.; Wang, X.; Aday, A.; Odukomaiya, A.; Wang, J. Enabling The mal Ene gy S o age in S uc u al
Cemen i ious Composi es wi h a No el Phase Change Ma e ial Mic ocapsule Fea u ing an Ino ganic Shell and a Bio-Inspi ed
Silica Coa ing. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,83, 110677. [C ossRe ]
52.
F o a de Albuque que Landi, F.; Fabiani, C.; Pisello, A.L. Palm Oil o Seasonal The mal Ene gy S o age Applica ions in Buildings:
The Po en ial o Mul iple Mel ing Ranges in Blends o Bio-Based Fa y Acids. J. Ene gy S o age 2020,29, 101431. [C ossRe ]
53.
Baylis, C.; C uickshank, C.A. Economics and Li ecycle Ca bon Assessmen o Coconu Oil as an Al e na i e o Pa a in Phase
Change Ma e ials in No h Ame ica. Ene gy Build. 2023,294, 113268. [C ossRe ]
54.
Elle , C.; Rida, M.; Boudie , K.; O oni, C.; Celani, G.; Labaki, L.; Ho mann, S. Clima e-Based Analysis o he Po en ial Use o
Coconu Oil as Phase Change Ma e ial in Buildings. Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 10731. [C ossRe ]
55.
Naza i Sam, M.; Caggiano, A.; Mankel, C.; Koende s, E. A Compa a i e S udy on he The mal Ene gy S o age Pe o mance o
Bio-Based and Pa a in-Based PCMs Using DSC P ocedu es. Ma e ials 2020,13, 1705. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
56.
Abdulmunem, A.R.; Mazali, I.I.; Samin, P.M.; Sopian, K.; Ghazali, H. Bio-Phase Change Ma e ials Based on S ea in o Sheep
Tail-Fa s Loaded wi h Nanopa icles: Mel ing Pe o mance Analysis in Rec angula Ca i y as a Sus ainable Building En elopes.
Ene gy Build. 2025,336, 115612. [C ossRe ]
57.
Beh uzian, M.; Naja i, G.; Heugebae , T.; Rashidi, A.; Go jian, S.; Banaka , A. High-Pe o mance Shape-S abilized Phase Change
Ma e ial Modi ied by Bio-Based Nano Po ous G aphene o Elec o- o-The mal and Sola - o-The mal Con e sion and S o age. J.
Ene gy S o age 2025,107, 114946. [C ossRe ]
58.
Fabiani, C.; Pisello, A.L.; Ba bane a, M.; Cabeza, L.F.; Co ana, F. Assessing he Po en iali y o Animal Fa Based-Bio Phase
Change Ma e ials (PCM) o Building Applica ions: An Inno a i e Mul ipu pose The mal In es iga ion. Ene gies 2019,12, 1111.
[C ossRe ]
59.
Sawadogo, M.; Benmahiddine, F.; Hamami, A.E.A.; Bela bi, R.; Godin, A.; Duquesne, M. In es iga ion o a No el Bio-Based
Phase Change Ma e ial Hemp Conc e e o Passi e Ene gy S o age in Buildings. Appl. The m. Eng. 2022,212, 118620. [C ossRe ]
60.
El Majd, A.; Sai , S.; Ousaleh, H.A.; Moulakhni , K.; Younsi, Z.; Belouaggadia, N.; El Boua i, A. Ad anced Gypsum/PCM
Composi es Inco po a ing Biopolyme -Encapsula ed Phase Change Ma e ials o Enhanced The mal Managemen in Buildings.
Cons . Build. Ma e . 2024,451, 138872. [C ossRe ]
61.
Do a, S.; Kuznik, F.; Mini, K.M. A No el PCM-Based Foam Conc e e o Hea T ans e in Buildings -Expe imen al De elopmen s
and Simula ion Modelling. J. Ene gy S o age 2025,105, 114625. [C ossRe ]
62.
Sun, M.; Feng, D.; Sun, F.; Di, H.; Wang, Q.; Lin, L. Insigh s in o E ec o Lignocellulosic Biomass F amewo k Types on Bio-Based
Shape S able Composi e Phase Change Ma e ials. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,91, 112103. [C ossRe ]
63.
Hekimo˘glu, G.; Sa ı, A.; Ka , T.; Kele¸s, S.; Kaygusuz, K.; Tyagi, V.V.; Sha ma, R.K.; Al-Ahmed, A.; Al-Sulaiman, F.A.; Saleh, T.A.
Walnu Shell De i ed Bio-Ca bon/Me hyl Palmi a e as No el Composi e Phase Change Ma e ial wi h Enhanced The mal Ene gy
S o age P ope ies. J. Ene gy S o age 2021,35, 102288. [C ossRe ]
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 21 o 22
64.
Suh, W.D.; Yuk, H.; Choi, J.Y.; Nam, J.; Kim, S. Enhancing The mal Pe o mance o Gypsum wi h Lu a Fibe -Based Phase Change
Ma e ials o Applica ion in Ad anced Indoo Finishing Ma e ial. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2024,428, 136248. [C ossRe ]
65.
Hekimo˘glu, G.; Sa ı, A.; Gencel, O.; Önal, Y.; Us ao˘glu, A.; E dogmus, E.; Ha ja, M.; Tyagi, V.V. The mal Ene gy S o age
Pe o mance E alua ion o Bio-Based Phase Change Ma e ial/Ap ico Ke nel Shell De i ed Ac i a ed Ca bon in Ligh weigh
Mo a . J. Ene gy S o age 2023,73, 109122. [C ossRe ]
66.
Yazdani McCo d, M.R.; Kankkunen, A.; Cha zikosmidou, D.; Seppälä, A.; Seppälä, J.; Baniasadi, H. Polypy ole-Modi ied Flax
Fibe Sponge Imp egna ed wi h Fa y Acids as Bio-Based Fo m-S able Phase Change Ma e ials o Enhanced The mal Ene gy
S o age and Con e sion. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,81, 110363. [C ossRe ]
67.
Cao, X.; Zhang, R.; Zhang, N.; Chen, L.; Chen, D.; Li, X. Pe o mance Imp o emen o Lau ic Acid-1-Hexadecanol Eu ec ic Phase
Change Ma e ial wi h Bio-Sou ced Seashell Powde Addi ion o The mal Ene gy S o age in Buildings. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2023,
366, 130223. [C ossRe ]
68.
Naza i, M.; Jeb ane, M.; Te zie , N. Mul icomponen Bio-Based Fa y Acids Sys em as Phase Change Ma e ial o Low Tempe a u e
Ene gy S o age. J. Ene gy S o age 2021,39, 102645. [C ossRe ]
69.
Li, D.; B inke , S.; Mai, C.; Land y, V.; Wang, X. Imp egna ion o Solid Wood wi h 1-Oc adecanol/1-Dodecanol Eu ec ic PCM o
Po en ial Building The mal Ene gy S o age Applica ions. J. Ene gy S o age 2025,114, 115797. [C ossRe ]
70.
Jain, A.; Pal, G. De elopmen and Cha ac e iza ion o Sa u a ed Fa y Acids and Biopolyme Based No el Mul ilaye Encapsula ed
Phase Change Ma e ials Sys em o Buildings. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2024,454, 139115. [C ossRe ]
71.
Taj, S.A.; Khalid, W.; Nazi , H.; Khan, A.; Sajid, M.; Waqas, A.; Hussain, A.; Ali, M.; Zaki, S.A. Expe imen al In es iga ion
o Eu ec ic PCM Inco po a ed Clay B ick o The mal Managemen o Building En elope. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,84, 110838.
[C ossRe ]
72.
Hua, W.; Hu, J.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, X.; Cai, S.; Ji, J. De elopmen and The mal P ope y Analysis o Biobased Bina y Composi e
Hea S o age Ma e ials. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,95, 112556. [C ossRe ]
73.
Li, D.; Len an , T.; Land y, V.; Rod igue, D.; Kaboo ani, A.; Wang, X. De elopmen and In es iga ion o Biobased Bina y
Eu ec ic Phase Change Ma e ials o Low-Tempe a u e Building Applica ions: 1-Hexadecanol/1-Dodecanol and 1-Oc adecanol/1-
Dodecanol. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,103, 114345. [C ossRe ]
74.
Toi ane, H.; Ti elein, P.; Che i , Y.; Zalewski, L.; Leuck, H. The mophysical Cha ac e iza ion o a The mo egula ing In e io
Coa ing Con aining a Bio-Sou ced Phase Change Ma e ial. Appl. Sci. 2022,12, 3827. [C ossRe ]
75.
Duquesne, M.; Mailhé, C.; Doppiu, S.; Dau e gne, J.-L.; San os-Mo eno, S.; Godin, A.; Fleu y, G.; Rouaul , F.; Palomo del Ba io, E.
Cha ac e iza ion o Fa y Acids as Biobased O ganic Ma e ials o La en Hea S o age. Ma e ials 2021,14, 4707. [C ossRe ]
76.
Ra o i, R.; Fellmann, O.; La don, N.; Fische , L.J.; S ama iou, A.; Wo li schek, J. Syn hesis and In es iga ion o The mal P ope ies
o Highly Pu e Ca boxylic Fa y Es e s o Be Used as PCM. Appl. Sci. 2018,8, 1069. [C ossRe ]
77.
Asadi, I.; Ji, G.; S eine , G. Impac o Mic oencapsula ed Phase Change Ma e ials (PCMs) on he The mal and Mechanical
Pe o mance o Cemen Mo a . De . Buil En i on. 2025,21, 100594. [C ossRe ]
78.
Das, D.; C osby, R.; Paul, M.C. A Comp ehensi e Re iew on he Fo m S able Phase Change Ma e ials o S o ing Renewable Hea
P epa a ion, Cha ac e iza ion and Applica ion. J. Ene gy S o age 2025,110, 115284. [C ossRe ]
79.
Ning, N.; Sun, C.; Ma, Z.J.; Guo, S.; Jiang, S.; Zhang, J.; Hou, D.; Wang, C. A Re iew o Inco po a ing PCMs in Va ious Types
o Conc e e: The mal and Mechanical P ope ies, C ack Con ol, F os -Resis ance, and Wo kabili y. J. Ene gy S o age 2025,114,
115814. [C ossRe ]
80.
Cunha, S.; Lima, M.; Aguia , J.B. In luence o Adding Phase Change Ma e ials on he Physical and Mechanical P ope ies o
Cemen Mo a s. Cons . Build. Ma e . 2016,127, 1–10. [C ossRe ]
81.
F igione, M.; Le ie i, M.; Sa cinella, A.; Ba oso de Aguia , J.L. Applica ions o Sus ainable Polyme -Based Phase Change
Ma e ials in Mo a s Composed by Di e en Binde s. Ma e ials 2019,12, 3502. [C ossRe ]
82.
Zhang, Q.; Liu, J.; Zhang, J.; Lin, L.; Shi, J. A Re iew o Composi e Phase Change Ma e ials Based on Biomass Ma e ials. Polyme s
2022,14, 4089. [C ossRe ]
83.
I syad, M.; Am izal; Ha men; Am ul; Susila Es, M.D.; Di a Pu a, A.R. Expe imen al S udy o he The mal P ope ies o Was e
Cooking Oil Applied as The mal Ene gy S o age. Resul s Eng. 2023,18, 101080. [C ossRe ]
84.
Boussaba, L.; Le eb e, G.; Makhlou , S.; G ados, A.; Royon, L. In es iga ion and P ope ies o a No el Composi e Bio-PCM o
Reduce Summe Ene gy Consump ions in Buildings o Ho and D y Clima es. Sol. Ene gy 2021,214, 119–130. [C ossRe ]
85.
B agaglia, M.; Lamas a, F.R.; Be ocal, J.A.; Palea i, L.; Nanni, F. Sus ainable Phase Change Ma e ials (PCMs): Was e Fa om
Cooking Po k Mea Con ined in Polyp opylene Fib ous Ma om Was e Su gical Mask and Po ous Bio-Silica. Ma e . Today Sus ain.
2023,23, 100454. [C ossRe ]
86.
Rashid, Y.; Alnaima , F.; Ma hew, B. Ene gy Pe o mance Assessmen o Was e Ma e ials o Buildings in Ex eme Cold and Ho
Condi ions. Ene gies 2018,11, 3131. [C ossRe ]
Polyme s 2025,17, 1343 22 o 22
87.
Sa cinella, A.; Cunha, S.; Aguia , J.; F igione, M. The mo-Chemical Cha ac e iza ion o O ganic Phase Change Ma e ials (PCMs)
Ob ained om Los Wax Cas ing Indus y. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 7057. [C ossRe ]
88.
Yan, C.; Abed, A.M.; Cha u edi, R.; Daha i, M.; Abdullae , S.; Zhou, X.; Maha iq, I.; Elmas y, Y. Sus ainable Comme cially-Scaled
G eenhouse Building Cooling Solu ion: In eg a ing PCM S o age, Desiccan Wheels, and Abso p ion Chille s Powe ed by
Dual-Sou ce Sola /Biomass Ene gy. J. Ene gy S o age 2024,101, 113871. [C ossRe ]
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
