In o mal Housing in he
Global No h
Explo ing P ac ices, Ac o s and P ocesses
in a T ans o ming Housing Sys em
Edi ed by Jakub Galuszka
Fi s published 2026
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 64525- 4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 64526- 1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 64529- 2 (ebk)
1 In oduc ion
Pe spec i es on housing in o mali y
in he “No h”
Jakub Galuszka
CC- BY- NC- ND
DOI: 10.4324/ 9781032645292- 1
The unde o his chap e is Ha enCi y Uni e si ä Hambu g.
DOI: 10.4324/9781032645292-1
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
1 In oduc ion
Pe spec i es on housing in o mali y
in he “No h”
Jakub Galuszka
In oduc ion
O e he las decade, housing in o mali ies in he so- called Global No h ha e g ad-
ually gained ecogni ion as an impo an esea ch opic and u ban phenomenon.
Thei inc eased isibili y, in pa icula , has spa ked public deba es in mains eam
media, announcing he e u n o shan y owns o a luen pa s o Eu ope – o en
amed as a mig an - ela ed o “his o ic” phenomenon. A p ominen example
ci ed in his con ex is he “Calais Jungle,” a makeshi se lemen es ablished
by mig an s and e ugees a emp ing o c oss he bo de be ween F ance and he
Uni ed Kingdom in 2015, which housed as many as 10,000 inhabi an s a i s peak.
The se lemen ’s s a k isual cha ac e is ics, associa ed wi h po e y, and in sha p
con as o ela i ely a luen local neighbou hoods, can be conside ed o ha e had
a wo- old e ec . On one hand, he issue o basic shel e en e ed public discou se
in a mo e ob ious way han h ough he mo e long- e m p ocesses o housing
expulsion in majo Eu opean ci ies. On he o he hand, popula unde s andings o
in o mal housing p ocesses we e u he obscu ed by discou ses ein o cing long-
c i icised associa ions be ween in o mali y, speci ic buil o m such as shan y owns
(McFa lane & Waibel, 2012), and mig a ion. In his eading, in o mali y is once
again amed as excep ional, ansi o y and “ex e nal” (Haid & Hilb and , 2019),
e ec i ely opposed o o mali y and he e o e opposed o imagined isions o an
o de ly “No he n” ci y.
Howe e , a odds wi h hese simpli ica ions, mo e igo ous in es iga ions in o
housing in o mali y in he No h ha e ollowed. While d awing on he heo e -
ically ad anced deba es om A ica, Asia and La in Ame ica (Baya , 2000; Roy
& AlSayyad, 2004), as well as s udies acknowledging he p e alence o a ious
in o mal u ban phenomena in No he n ci ies (Mukhija & Loukai ou- Side is,
2014), ecen esea ch on housing in o mali y con ibu es o he discou se h ough
a signi ican numbe o empi ical s udies. These s udies ha e con inued o g apple
wi h he limi a ions and inhe en bina y o o mal- in o mal e minology (see,
o ins ance, McFa lane & Waibel, 2012; Ma x & Kelling, 2019; Acu o e al.,
2019), e ealing he signi ican di e si y o in o mal housing phenomena, which
a e shaped di e en ly ac oss a ious local cul u al, legal and economic con ex s
2 In o mal Housing in he Global No h
(Chiodelli, 2021). A b ie e iew o hese cases illus a es he di e se ways in which
housing in o mali ies can un old. The examples encompass phenomena ma ked by
dis inc isual quali ies associa ed wi h sel - build p ocesses, as well as hose ha
de elop mo e o less undis u bed wi hin he buil en i onmen ypically associa ed
wi h o mal housing sys ems. A selec ion o such cases includes en encampmen s,
sel - buil se lemen s (Finnigan, 2021), and pe iphe al land subdi isions (Reyes
e al., 2024) in he USA, squa ing in public housing in I aly (Esposi o, 2022),
housing in allo men ga dens in Ge many (Hilb and , 2021), a ious o ms o
backya d ex ensions and space con e sions (Fe m e al., 2021; Mendez & Quas el,
2015; Kelling, 2024), boa housing (Galuszka, 2024), co- li ing expe iences in UK
(Hea h, 2021), in o mal en al p ac ices in Aus alia (Gu an e al., 2021; Nas een
& Ruming, 2021) as well as in o mal housing access s a egies in New Yo k and
Be gamo (Usman e al., 2024; Do sey & Amb osini, 2025). Simila ly, a ious
o ms o sho - e m en als (Colomb & de Souza, 2024), empo a y and mic o-
li ing a angemen s, o some ex en sanc ioned by de egula o y planning sys ems,
a e inc easingly ega ded as ep esen ing he in o malisa ion o he housing ma ke
om abo e (Fe e i & Sanyal, 2024).
Gi en he di e se ocus o hese s udies, e o s ha e been made o sys ema ise
and gene alise he deba e. These e o s cap u e he main heo e ical o ien a ions
in discussions o in o mali y (Chiodelli e al., 2024), ypi y housing phenomena
acco ding o hei spa ial cha ac e is ics (He be e al., 2024) and examine hei
ela i e equency, mode o p oduc ion and isibili y in he public sphe e (Ha is,
2018). They also explo e he ela ionali y be ween public sec o app oaches and he
de elopmen o in o mal housing (Chiodelli e al., 2021; Du s & Wegmann, 2017).
The deba es men ioned abo e a y no only in e ms o ypology o analy ical
ca ego y bu also in hei ocus on issues o powe , legali y, oles o he s a e and
he ma ke , housing p eca i y, exclusion and ma ginalisa ion.
While, om one pe spec i e, his mul i- laye ed app oach highligh s he
challenges o clea ly delimi ing he bounda ies o he deba e, he di e si y o
app oaches o in o mali y also unde sco es i s po en ial as a heu is ic de ice o
in es iga ing b oade u ban phenomena. He e, in o mali y eme ges as a c oss-
cu ing concep ha se es as a si e o c i ical analysis (Banks e al., 2020), iable
ac oss geog aphic bounda ies (Tu ikene e al., 2017; G asho , 2020; Galuszka,
2022). In o he wo ds, he s udy o in o mali y, e en i ocusing on a pa icula
issue such as housing, also p o ides an oppo uni y o examine b oade socie al
mechanisms ha shape con empo a y u ban li e and un old ac oss s uc u al ac o s
and e e yday agency (Lomba d, 2019).
This olume akes a simila app oach, p esen ing s udies om ou con inen s,
cha ac e ised by a a ie y o social, spa ial and legal con ex s. This b oad pe -
spec i e and ocus on dissimila cases (Robinson, 2011) seeks o p o ide insigh s
no only om di e en geog aphical loca ions bu also om di e en in ellec ual
adi ions, encompassing Anglophone, F ancophone and non- Eu opean con ex s
and a ious me hodological app oaches, including insigh s ac oss academia and
p ac ice. This includes cases om Be lin, Pa is, Ox o d and Naples as well as
insigh s om Sydney, Hong Kong and Johannesbu g. The wo la e ci ies do no
In oduc ion 3
ep esen he geog aphically pe cei ed “No h” (a e m ha is i sel an epis emic
cons uc a he han a ixed ca ego y). The Hong Kong case (see Chap e 3), how-
e e , o e s a glimpse o one o he wo ld’s iches and highly de eloped ci ies,
which su e s om housing sho ages and socio- economic dispa i ies eminiscen
o hose o majo Eu opean o No h Ame ican me opolises. The Johannesbu g
case (see Chap e 8) p o ides insigh s in o a once ela i ely a luen and o mally
planned neighbou hood ha has unde gone a ajec o y o in o malisa ion and sub-
sequen e o s o e- o malise i , ep esen ing ano he common ajec o y in la ge
ci ies a ound he wo ld. Though con ex ually dis inc in many ways, pa icula ly
in e ms o he scale and isibili y o in o mal phenomena, i se es as a mi o
case s udy, shedding ligh on in o mal p ac ices ha esona e ac oss geog aphical
bounda ies, in e ms o ela ionships be ween he powe o on- he- g ound local
ac o s and a - he- op o mal s uc u es.
While all hese cases may di e in many aspec s, se e al commonali ies eme ge
in e ms o he issues, p ocesses and heo e ical conside a ions hey e eal. These
componen s a e amed a ound ou key p inciples, which esona e wi h p e ious
discussions in he ield and he con ibu ions o he au ho s in his olume. In
pa icula , he deba e laid ou in he olume con i ms he in e p e a ion o in o -
mali y as bo h local (Haid & Hilb and , 2019) and widesp ead, hea ily shaped
by s a e and ma ke ope a ions (Chiodelli e al., 2024; Fe e i & Sanyal, 2024)
and in ensi ying alongside he housing c isis (Po s, 2020). Finally, i ocuses on
he ques ion o agency embedded in e e yday and decen alised in o mal housing
p ac ices (Sh es ha e al., 2021; Lomba d, 2019; Chiodelli e al., 2024). This ocus,
o en imes o e looked in con empo a y s udies o housing in o mali y beyond he
Sou h, a once acknowledges he impo ance o s uc u al ac o s in in luencing
he sp ead o in o mal solu ions and comple es he pic u e o how con empo a y
housing sys ems in he No h a e cons an ly ein e p e ed and co- p oduced by
hei use s.
Guided by hese ou key p inciples, his olume examines a ious mani es a ions
o housing in o mali y. Th ough his seemingly niche ocus, i aims o shed ligh on
he b oade p ocesses o ans o ma ion a ec ing con empo a y ci ies in he Global
No h and beyond.
Housing in o mali ies as a local, pe manen and widesp ead
ea u e o housing sys ems
Fi s ly, his olume ecognises ha a ious o ms o housing in o mali y in he
No h a e locally embedded, pe manen and ubiqui ous ea u es o he housing
sys em a he han ex e nal, impo ed o ansi ional phenomena.
When discussing he localised na u e o in o mali ies, a his o ical pe spec i e
is o en adop ed o illus a e he now la gely in isible o igins o speci ic u ban
a eas. In mos cases, hese phenomena e lec a compelling a ionale – whe he
in he Global No h o Sou h (Adegun, 2020) – ha apid u banisa ion is a key
ac o behind la ge- scale and uncon olled u ban expansion. Fo ins ance, subu ban
shan y owns o he nine een h and wen ie h cen u ies eme ged bo h in majo ci ies
4 In o mal Housing in he Global No h
ac oss Eu ope and No h Ame ica, including Rome, Pa is, London, Vienna and
Mon eal (Ha is, 1999; Chiodelli e al., 2024), as well as in less known bu apidly
u banising ci ies such as Łódź in Poland (Zysiak, 2014).
While hese schola ly examples illus a e ha in o mali y was p e alen in
Eu ope and No h Ame ica in he pas , hey could also be easily misin e p e ed as
p oo ha housing in o mali y is con ined o a speci ic de elopmen al phase and
is, he e o e, me ely ansi ional. Al hough his assump ion e lec s he p ocess o
g adually elimina ing shan y owns om he u ban landscapes o many No he n
ci ies, i o e s limi ed insigh in o he b oade ajec o ies o in o mali y. As Ha is
(2018) a gues, in o mal housing ends o sp ead la en ly un il i becomes o e ,
p omp ing au ho i ies o ac . In he weal hies s a es o he No h, whe e shan y
owns p oli e a ed, a ious o ms o public social housing p og ammes we e indeed
implemen ed. Howe e , he pa hways o hese p ocesses di e ed ac oss con ex s.
Fo example, in Pa is, pe sis en e o s o e adica e sel - buil se lemen s (Aguile a,
2016) and de elop la ge housing es a es o low- income popula ion (now o ming
he banlieues) domina ed he housing agenda. Con e sely, in Vienna, many sub-
u ban sel - buil se lemen s unde wen g adual consolida ion h ough a blend o
app oaches ha also allowed indi iduals o o malise hei dwellings (Haue &
K ame , 2023).
While such examples may sugges he “end” o in o mal housing in hese
ci ies, hey do no ule ou he possibili y ha in o mal p ac ices ha e gone
om widesp ead and isible o la en and in isible. This shi complica es ou
unde s anding o he scale o in o mal housing phenomena, including con empo a y
mani es a ions, egula isa ion modali ies and po en ial ebi h as ma ke d i en
bu eb anded housing o ma s like a ious mic o- housing and sho - e m en al
models. Add essing hese issues has eme ged as one o he majo esea ch gaps in
con empo a y housing s udies, ansla ing in o a g owing in e es in in es iga ing
and challenging p eca i y as he new no m (Ha is & Nowicki, 2018). Recen wo k
has also examined his issue om he pe spec i e o in o mali y, documen ing he
exis ence o la ge, hidden housing ma ke s h i ing in con empo a y ci ies (Gu an
e al., 2021). These ma ke s o en lou ish wi hin buil en i onmen s pe cei ed
as en i ely o mal. They mani es h ough ans o ma ions such as backya d
ex ensions, basemen adap a ions o la subdi isions, he cha ac e is ics o which
make eliable quan i a i e es ima es o hei scale di icul . Some da a, such as ha
documen ing he p oli e a ion o backya d dwellings in Cali o nia, e eal ha while
he annual g ow h o o mal housing s ock be ween 1990 and 2010 was es ima ed
a 1.3%, in o mal uni s accoun ed o an addi ional 0.4% (Wegmann & Mawho e ,
2017). Many o ma s ha exis in a g ey a ea be ween legali y and illegali y,
shi ing ac oss he o mal- in o mal spec um – depending on he legal and policy
en i onmen a any gi en ime – a e excluded om such es ima es. Fo mal ules
and laws, in his con ex , a e suscep ible o in e p e a ion, idiosync a ic and open-
ended (Roy, 2009). In his sense, legali y ep esen s an inhe en ly uns able ea u e
o u ban de elopmen (Caldei a, 2017) (changes in law, a he han s a ic legal
de ini ions, p o ide a mo e ui ul analy ical lens o examine he dynamic in e -
play be ween legali y, o mali y and in o mali y). Visible o semi- isible in o mal

In oduc ion 5
phenomena ha a ac he mos public a en ion (Lomba d, 2019) appea o be on
he ise. Howe e , hese phenomena may be quan i a i ely smalle compa ed o
hidden housing p ac ices, which d aw a less public a en ion. Such p ac ices a e
ei he aci ly igno ed in he policy en i onmen , g adually ecognised as legally
accep able o , less commonly, subjec ed o e ec i e egula ion and o e sigh .
Se e al chap e s in his collec ion explo e his issue, illus a ing ha wha
su aces in public discou ses as in o mal o en h i es wi hin housing o ma s his-
o ically pe cei ed as en i ely o mal. Indeed, he a che ypes o wha is conside ed
o mal housing, including p i a e owne ship, equen ly pe pe ua e di e en o ms
o in o mal p ac ices, ega dless o public sec o app oaches o ha p oblema ic.
Fo example, as discussed by Kingsley and Lam in a chap e ocused on Hong
Kong (see Chap e 3), p i a e landlo ds acili a e he subdi ision o p ope ies
o c ea e subs anda d mic o- la s, suppo ed by, un il ecen ly, he laissez- ai e
app oach o he public sec o . Simila ly, as Elsne and colleagues documen in he
Be lin case s udy (see Chap e 9), head enan s bene i om en caps and legal
p o ec ions. Howe e , sys emic loopholes enable hem o engage in semi- o mal
suble ing p ac ices o supplemen hei incomes.
As Kelling (2024) a gues, hese o en- hidden phenomena epi omise he insep-
a abili y o o mali y and in o mali y. Fo mal ules, in his in e p e a ion, se e
as p esc ip ions o wha indi iduals should do. Howe e , in p ac ice, hese
p esc ip ions a e no always known o adhe ed o. While o mal ules may shape
beha iou in ce ain con ex s, hey can become i ele an in he ace o dominan
social p ac ices. In o mali y, he e o e, ep esen s p ecisely such p ac ices ha com-
plemen , con es o enego ia e o mal ules, unc ioning as a “s uc u ing ea u e
o e e yday li e” (Kelling, 2024: 425). Wha is mo e, as McFa lane and Vasude an
(2014) no e, he below- he- ada p ac ices o e e yday li e do no me ely acili a e
he unc ioning o o mal ealms; hey may, in ac , be mo e signi ican han o mal
s uc u es hemsel es. Wi h his ocus, he in e p e a ion o in o mal housing
p ac ices eme ges in a ans e sal manne h ough a ious p ocesses, including
eal- es a e ope a ions, changing pa e ns o labou , mobili y and mig a ion, ising
digi al economies and land sho ages, amids he e ol ing spa ial con igu a ions o
ci ies. Thus, in line wi h he in e p e a ion o in o mali y adop ed in his olume,
wha is con en ionally ega ded as ma ginal in o mal p ac ices may, in ac , exis
wi hin a majo i y o housing o ma s ac oss all s a a o socie y, mani es ing in
di e se ways and se ing he e ogeneous in e es s.
In p ac ical e ms, as he cases in his olume illus a e, such housing p ac ices
a ely align en i ely wi h o mal o in o mal ca ego ies. They emain well-
ecognised social ac s, include widesp ead phenomena bu a e di icul o quan i y
and, o ha ma e , ully egula e o , in some cases, e en be in ended o egula ion
by he public sec o .
In o mal housing on he ise amids an in ensi ying housing c isis
The second p inciple e lec ed in his collec ion is ha in he wake o an in ensi-
ying housing c isis, in o mal housing p ac ices a e on he ise. Howe e , while
6 In o mal Housing in he Global No h
encompassing a as a ay o p eca ious housing o ma s, in o mali y is aceable
ac oss all income le els.
The implica ions o he housing c isis a e s aigh o wa d – he decline in
a o dable op ions wi hin he o mal ma ke pushes indi iduals o ely on in o mal
solu ions ha a e o en p eca ious, subs anda d and ola ile (Po s, 2020). Fo
ins ance, as discussed in Esposi io’s and Vénia ’s chap e s (see Chap e s 6 and
7) on squa ing p ac ices in housing es a es in Naples and in o mal se lemen s
a ound Pa is, espec i ely, inancial o legal ma ginalisa ion mobilises insu gen
housing p ac ices (Hols on, 2009). Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha while
in o mali y in hese cases esul s om imposed s uc u al condi ions, i may also
ep esen a pa o longe - e m housing s a egies, whe eby access o o mally
sanc ioned housing is achie ed h ough ac s o s uggle and spa ial app op ia ion
such as squa ing o acan buildings. Such s uggles may, in speci ic ins ances, be
o ma i e in how we in e p e ques ions o igh s and obliga ions in he con em-
po a y ci y (Vasude an, 2015).
While he sha p inc ease in he isibili y o he mos p eca ious o ms o in o -
mali y, including ough sleeping, en se lemen s o shan y owns, may be a ibu ed
o new pa e ns o o ced mig a ion (Chiodelli e al., 2024), and, as El- Kayed’s
chap e shows (see Chap e 5), access o housing is gene ally mo e di icul o
e ugees, he b oade issue o housing in o mali y is ce ainly no limi ed o new
a i als in No he n ci ies. On he one hand, he expe ience o housing s uggles
in he mos “a luen ” ci ies has become so commonplace ha i anscends solely
ma ginalised g oups and is sha ed, albei wi h a ying in ensi y, by hose who p e-
iously could expec o secu e a pe manen and com o able home wi h ela i e
ease. This issue ine i ably pe mea es e e yday li e, becoming a o m o sha ed
gene a ional expe ience. Fo ins ance, as discussed in he Be lin case s udy by
Elsne e al. (see Chap e 9), he likelihood o secu ing an indi idual en al con ac
in a ac i e pa s o he ci y has become so low ha o mal channels o inding
accommoda ion a e inc easingly being eplaced by in o mal social ne wo ks.
Simila ly, he expec a ion o inding a decen home is inc easingly being eplaced
by he accep ance o subs anda d op ions in spa ial, social and inancial e ms, as
long as hese op ions o e mo e o less pe manen housing in a desi ed loca ion.
On he o he hand, hese ypes o in o mal p ac ices do no exis in a acuum,
no a e hey adap ed solely by hose seeking housing. P ope y owne s and head
enan s a e equally implica ed in hese p ocesses – mos ypically when hose
wi h powe , knowledge and esou ces exploi inancial oppo uni ies a ising om
hei asse s (owne ship, pe manen con ac ) by in o mally con e ing and en ing
spaces a p ices ha do no align wi h he s anda ds o e ed. In addi ion o owne s,
in e media ies such as middle- o s ee - le el bu eauc a s, immig a ion o ice s,
housing adminis a o s, in o mal b oke s bu also p o i - seeking p i a e companies
appea o play an impo an ole in media ing access o housing oppo uni ies. This
is documen ed, o ins ance, in a mi o chap e by Mkhize (see Chap e 8), which
p esen s he daily p ac ices o p ope y ca e ake s wi hin an imp o emen dis-
ic in Hillb ow, Johannesbu g; El- Kayed’s accoun o e ugee housing pa hways
in Ge many (see Chap e 5); and Kingsley and Lam’s inqui y in o he ole o
In oduc ion 7
a chi ec s and building p o essionals in Hong Kong (see Chap e 3). Howe e , as
highligh ed by he wo o me cases, exploi a i e p ac ices a e also accompanied
by ac s o solida i y ha enable access o housing ma ke s ha a e o he wise sealed
o by s a e egula o y mechanisms and bo de egimes. In his sense, in o mali y is
in ensi ied in he ace o he housing c isis, bu in some cases, i helps o o e come
he sho comings c ea ed by he o mal housing sys em. In o he s, i is abused by
hose who ha e access o asse s, powe and knowledge.
Finally, some schola ship sugges s ha in o mali y among he a luen is no
limi ed o accep ing o acili a ing in o mal uses o hei p ope y. I also includes
imp o ing hei li ing condi ions h ough no - ye - codi ied solu ions, such as lux-
u ious basemen de elopmen s (Bu ows e al., 2022) o le e aging de egula ed
p o isions, o ins ance, backya d ex ensions in London (Galuszka & Wilk-
Pham, 2022). In o he cases, in o mali y in ol es acili a ing access o land and
cons uc ion p ocesses ha ci cum en legal p ocedu es (Chiodelli, 2019; Vieda
Ma inez, 2024) o exploi ing legal g ey a eas, aiming a he ex ac ion o asse s
(Kusiak, 2019). When addi ionally conside ing he ole o digi al economies and
sho - e m en als as a new o m o landlo dism, he ocus o he s udy o in o -
mali y, as sugges ed by Fe e i and Sanyal (2024), shi s beyond he ealm o
po e y. These issues a e also highligh ed in he discussion on in o mal housing
p ac ices in Sydney, Be lin and Hong Kong in his olume (see Chap e 2, 9 and
3), including an example o in o mal subdi ision and en ing businesses acili a ed
by o mally ope a ing, la ge- scale comme cial o ganisa ions in he la e . Howe e ,
u he in es iga ion in o hese issues emains necessa y, and he in o mali y o
he ich emains an impo an esea ch gap in cu en deba es on housing in he
Global No h.
In o mal housing in a conjunc u e be ween s a e and ma ke ac ion
The hi d p inciple applied in his collec ion is ha in o mali y does no ope a e
independen ly o he s a e; a he , he s a e is implica ed in he p oduc ion o in o -
mali y (Roy & AlSayyad, 2004; Chiodelli e al., 2021), wo king in conjunc ion wi h
ma ke - d i en logics o housing deli e y. These dynamics a e mani es in he ise
o new o ms o landlo dism and en exploi a ion. The oles o he s a e a e highly
di e se and can be ca ego ised in o h ee main policy app oaches: igh e egula-
ion, ole a ion/ non- en o cemen and de egula ion (Chiodelli e al., 2021; Du s &
Wegmann, 2017). Impo an ly, e en hough hese app oaches may ep esen dom-
inan ends in speci ic con ex s, hey can also co- exis , as public sec o ac o s
embody di e se agendas wi hin a single ins i u ional se ing (Galuszka, 2024;
Hilb and , 2019).
I a commonali y can be iden i ied ac oss di e en No he n con ex s, i lies
in he s onge connec ions be ween he s a e and he ma ke . This is pa icu-
la ly e iden in con ex s whe e de egula ion emains he dominan app oach.
Au ho i ies in such con ex s may lowe cons uc ion s anda ds o s imula e
housing deli e y by he ma ke . This may in ol e allowing speci ic cons uc ions
o p oceed wi hou planning pe missions. Such is he case wi h he con e sion
8 In o mal Housing in he Global No h
o building uses in he UK, which o en esul s in p eca ious condi ions (Fe m
e al., 2021). E en hough con e sions a e echnically legal, hei moni o ing is
o en inadequa e, and on- he- g ound implemen a ion blu s he bounda y be ween
o mal ou ines and in o mal p ac ices (Galuszka & Wilk- Pham, 2022; Kelling,
2024). This phenomenon, e e ed o as in o malisa ion om abo e, may also
occu wi hou physical in e en ion in space (Fe e i & Senyal, 2024). Ins ead, i
ope a es h ough lexible housing logics, in which egula o y g ey a eas – such
as hose ound in pla o m- based en al p ac ices – enable oppo uni ies o en
ex ac ion.
The ole a ion o non- en o cemen app oach posi ions s a e ac ion and inac ion
(Chiodelli e al., 2024) as s ong de e minan s in how housing p ocesses un old.
This is well illus a ed by ecu ing “amnes ies” in I aly and G eece, which accoun
o millions o housing uni s (Chiodelli e al., 2021; Bu gel & Da ques, 2024). In
hese cases, he s a e e oac i ely legi imises o ms o housing ha i had p e i-
ously igno ed, bu which we e buil in an in o mal way, o en in iola ion o o i-
cial egula ions. On he one hand, his legi imisa ion e lec s cul u ally accep ed
p ac ices, such as sel - made ex ensions ha c ea e addi ional loo s o household
o en al pu poses. On he o he hand, i con enien ly shi s he esponsibili y o
housing p o ision on o indi iduals while main aining he s a e’s ole as egula o
o he housing sys em. Thus, e en he passi i y by s a e ac o s ega ding speci ic
in o mal p ac ices signi ican ly in luences he e olu ion o housing p ac ices in
local con ex s. This dynamic is e iden in he Hong Kong case om his olume
(see Chap e 3), which documen s pas pe missi eness owa ds he c ea ion o sub-
s anda d subdi ided uni s, coinciding wi h he public sec o ’s p e oga i e o enable
housing access o all. Ye , i also poin s o he ac ha on he g ound le el, he e
always exis in e media y ac o s who, o be e o wo se – and in conjunc u e
wi h a ious in e es s – ake on his b oke / nego ia o ole in egula ing in o mal
ela ionships. The Hong Kong case illus a es ha such oles may be aken by
p o essionals such as a chi ec s o building con ac o s en i led o e alua e he
quali y o adap a ions o speci ic la s. Meanwhile, he Johannesbu g case (see
Chap e 8) challenges us o see p ope y ca e ake s as some o he non- s a e ac o s
who beha e like s a e ac o s – s ee - le el bu eauc a s – and ein e p e b oade
ma ke and s a e agendas o add ess complex con ex ual challenges and achie e
p ope y managemen goals.
In mo e egula ed con ex s, such as Ge many o Aus ia, a ious solu ions
(like en caps) o o e sigh o sho - e m en als (including Ai bnb) a e being
p oac i ely implemen ed o con ol dis up o s o a o dable housing sys ems.
Fu he mo e, in egula o y con ex s ha ha e adi ionally been p og essi e
in acili a ing access o a o dable housing, widesp ead ci il socie y campaigns
emain isible and ela i ely in luen ial in he ace o a g owing housing c isis.
These campaigns ocus, o example, on housing igh s and suppo he c ea ion
o new housing oppo uni ies, as exempli ied by ini ia i es like “Regis a ion o
All” and “Righ o he Ci y” in Be lin. Howe e , e en wi hin hese con ex s, and in
line wi h he second p inciple o he olume ou lined ea lie , he gene al decline in
he p o ision o social housing has c ea ed a si ua ion o sca ci y, allowing ma ke
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