Introduction : Perspectives on housing informality in the “North”

In o mal Housing in he Global No h Explo ing P ac ices, Ac o s and P ocesses in a T ans o ming Housing Sys em Edi ed by Jakub Galuszka Fi s published 2026 ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 64525- 4 (hbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 64526- 1 (pbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 64529- 2 (ebk) 1 In oduc ion Pe spec i es on housing in o mali y in he “No h” Jakub Galuszka CC- BY- NC- ND DOI: 10.4324/ 9781032645292- 1 The unde o his chap e is Ha enCi y Uni e si ä Hambu g. DOI: 10.4324/9781032645292-1 This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license. 1 In oduc ion Pe spec i es on housing in o mali y in he “No h” Jakub Galuszka In oduc ion O e he las decade, housing in o mali ies in he so- called Global No h ha e g ad- ually gained ecogni ion as an impo an esea ch opic and u ban phenomenon. Thei inc eased isibili y, in pa icula , has spa ked public deba es in mains eam media, announcing he e u n o shan y owns o a luen pa s o Eu ope – o en amed as a mig an - ela ed o “his o ic” phenomenon. A p ominen example ci ed in his con ex is he “Calais Jungle,” a makeshi se lemen es ablished by mig an s and e ugees a emp ing o c oss he bo de be ween F ance and he Uni ed Kingdom in 2015, which housed as many as 10,000 inhabi an s a i s peak. The se lemen ’s s a k isual cha ac e is ics, associa ed wi h po e y, and in sha p con as o ela i ely a luen local neighbou hoods, can be conside ed o ha e had a wo- old e ec . On one hand, he issue o basic shel e en e ed public discou se in a mo e ob ious way han h ough he mo e long- e m p ocesses o housing expulsion in majo Eu opean ci ies. On he o he hand, popula unde s andings o in o mal housing p ocesses we e u he obscu ed by discou ses ein o cing long- c i icised associa ions be ween in o mali y, speci ic buil o m such as shan y owns (McFa lane & Waibel, 2012), and mig a ion. In his eading, in o mali y is once again amed as excep ional, ansi o y and “ex e nal” (Haid & Hilb and , 2019), e ec i ely opposed o o mali y and he e o e opposed o imagined isions o an o de ly “No he n” ci y. Howe e , a odds wi h hese simpli ica ions, mo e igo ous in es iga ions in o housing in o mali y in he No h ha e ollowed. While d awing on he heo e - ically ad anced deba es om A ica, Asia and La in Ame ica (Baya , 2000; Roy & AlSayyad, 2004), as well as s udies acknowledging he p e alence o a ious in o mal u ban phenomena in No he n ci ies (Mukhija & Loukai ou- Side is, 2014), ecen esea ch on housing in o mali y con ibu es o he discou se h ough a signi ican numbe o empi ical s udies. These s udies ha e con inued o g apple wi h he limi a ions and inhe en bina y o o mal- in o mal e minology (see, o ins ance, McFa lane & Waibel, 2012; Ma x & Kelling, 2019; Acu o e al., 2019), e ealing he signi ican di e si y o in o mal housing phenomena, which a e shaped di e en ly ac oss a ious local cul u al, legal and economic con ex s 2 In o mal Housing in he Global No h (Chiodelli, 2021). A b ie e iew o hese cases illus a es he di e se ways in which housing in o mali ies can un old. The examples encompass phenomena ma ked by dis inc isual quali ies associa ed wi h sel - build p ocesses, as well as hose ha de elop mo e o less undis u bed wi hin he buil en i onmen ypically associa ed wi h o mal housing sys ems. A selec ion o such cases includes en encampmen s, sel - buil se lemen s (Finnigan, 2021), and pe iphe al land subdi isions (Reyes e al., 2024) in he USA, squa ing in public housing in I aly (Esposi o, 2022), housing in allo men ga dens in Ge many (Hilb and , 2021), a ious o ms o backya d ex ensions and space con e sions (Fe m e al., 2021; Mendez & Quas el, 2015; Kelling, 2024), boa housing (Galuszka, 2024), co- li ing expe iences in UK (Hea h, 2021), in o mal en al p ac ices in Aus alia (Gu an e al., 2021; Nas een & Ruming, 2021) as well as in o mal housing access s a egies in New Yo k and Be gamo (Usman e al., 2024; Do sey & Amb osini, 2025). Simila ly, a ious o ms o sho - e m en als (Colomb & de Souza, 2024), empo a y and mic o- li ing a angemen s, o some ex en sanc ioned by de egula o y planning sys ems, a e inc easingly ega ded as ep esen ing he in o malisa ion o he housing ma ke om abo e (Fe e i & Sanyal, 2024). Gi en he di e se ocus o hese s udies, e o s ha e been made o sys ema ise and gene alise he deba e. These e o s cap u e he main heo e ical o ien a ions in discussions o in o mali y (Chiodelli e al., 2024), ypi y housing phenomena acco ding o hei spa ial cha ac e is ics (He be e al., 2024) and examine hei ela i e equency, mode o p oduc ion and isibili y in he public sphe e (Ha is, 2018). They also explo e he ela ionali y be ween public sec o app oaches and he de elopmen o in o mal housing (Chiodelli e al., 2021; Du s & Wegmann, 2017). The deba es men ioned abo e a y no only in e ms o ypology o analy ical ca ego y bu also in hei ocus on issues o powe , legali y, oles o he s a e and he ma ke , housing p eca i y, exclusion and ma ginalisa ion. While, om one pe spec i e, his mul i- laye ed app oach highligh s he challenges o clea ly delimi ing he bounda ies o he deba e, he di e si y o app oaches o in o mali y also unde sco es i s po en ial as a heu is ic de ice o in es iga ing b oade u ban phenomena. He e, in o mali y eme ges as a c oss- cu ing concep ha se es as a si e o c i ical analysis (Banks e al., 2020), iable ac oss geog aphic bounda ies (Tu ikene e al., 2017; G asho , 2020; Galuszka, 2022). In o he wo ds, he s udy o in o mali y, e en i ocusing on a pa icula issue such as housing, also p o ides an oppo uni y o examine b oade socie al mechanisms ha shape con empo a y u ban li e and un old ac oss s uc u al ac o s and e e yday agency (Lomba d, 2019). This olume akes a simila app oach, p esen ing s udies om ou con inen s, cha ac e ised by a a ie y o social, spa ial and legal con ex s. This b oad pe - spec i e and ocus on dissimila cases (Robinson, 2011) seeks o p o ide insigh s no only om di e en geog aphical loca ions bu also om di e en in ellec ual adi ions, encompassing Anglophone, F ancophone and non- Eu opean con ex s and a ious me hodological app oaches, including insigh s ac oss academia and p ac ice. This includes cases om Be lin, Pa is, Ox o d and Naples as well as insigh s om Sydney, Hong Kong and Johannesbu g. The wo la e ci ies do no In oduc ion 3 ep esen he geog aphically pe cei ed “No h” (a e m ha is i sel an epis emic cons uc a he han a ixed ca ego y). The Hong Kong case (see Chap e 3), how- e e , o e s a glimpse o one o he wo ld’s iches and highly de eloped ci ies, which su e s om housing sho ages and socio- economic dispa i ies eminiscen o hose o majo Eu opean o No h Ame ican me opolises. The Johannesbu g case (see Chap e 8) p o ides insigh s in o a once ela i ely a luen and o mally planned neighbou hood ha has unde gone a ajec o y o in o malisa ion and sub- sequen e o s o e- o malise i , ep esen ing ano he common ajec o y in la ge ci ies a ound he wo ld. Though con ex ually dis inc in many ways, pa icula ly in e ms o he scale and isibili y o in o mal phenomena, i se es as a mi o case s udy, shedding ligh on in o mal p ac ices ha esona e ac oss geog aphical bounda ies, in e ms o ela ionships be ween he powe o on- he- g ound local ac o s and a - he- op o mal s uc u es. While all hese cases may di e in many aspec s, se e al commonali ies eme ge in e ms o he issues, p ocesses and heo e ical conside a ions hey e eal. These componen s a e amed a ound ou key p inciples, which esona e wi h p e ious discussions in he ield and he con ibu ions o he au ho s in his olume. In pa icula , he deba e laid ou in he olume con i ms he in e p e a ion o in o - mali y as bo h local (Haid & Hilb and , 2019) and widesp ead, hea ily shaped by s a e and ma ke ope a ions (Chiodelli e al., 2024; Fe e i & Sanyal, 2024) and in ensi ying alongside he housing c isis (Po s, 2020). Finally, i ocuses on he ques ion o agency embedded in e e yday and decen alised in o mal housing p ac ices (Sh es ha e al., 2021; Lomba d, 2019; Chiodelli e al., 2024). This ocus, o en imes o e looked in con empo a y s udies o housing in o mali y beyond he Sou h, a once acknowledges he impo ance o s uc u al ac o s in in luencing he sp ead o in o mal solu ions and comple es he pic u e o how con empo a y housing sys ems in he No h a e cons an ly ein e p e ed and co- p oduced by hei use s. Guided by hese ou key p inciples, his olume examines a ious mani es a ions o housing in o mali y. Th ough his seemingly niche ocus, i aims o shed ligh on he b oade p ocesses o ans o ma ion a ec ing con empo a y ci ies in he Global No h and beyond. Housing in o mali ies as a local, pe manen and widesp ead ea u e o housing sys ems Fi s ly, his olume ecognises ha a ious o ms o housing in o mali y in he No h a e locally embedded, pe manen and ubiqui ous ea u es o he housing sys em a he han ex e nal, impo ed o ansi ional phenomena. When discussing he localised na u e o in o mali ies, a his o ical pe spec i e is o en adop ed o illus a e he now la gely in isible o igins o speci ic u ban a eas. In mos cases, hese phenomena e lec a compelling a ionale – whe he in he Global No h o Sou h (Adegun, 2020) – ha apid u banisa ion is a key ac o behind la ge- scale and uncon olled u ban expansion. Fo ins ance, subu ban shan y owns o he nine een h and wen ie h cen u ies eme ged bo h in majo ci ies 4 In o mal Housing in he Global No h ac oss Eu ope and No h Ame ica, including Rome, Pa is, London, Vienna and Mon eal (Ha is, 1999; Chiodelli e al., 2024), as well as in less known bu apidly u banising ci ies such as Łódź in Poland (Zysiak, 2014). While hese schola ly examples illus a e ha in o mali y was p e alen in Eu ope and No h Ame ica in he pas , hey could also be easily misin e p e ed as p oo ha housing in o mali y is con ined o a speci ic de elopmen al phase and is, he e o e, me ely ansi ional. Al hough his assump ion e lec s he p ocess o g adually elimina ing shan y owns om he u ban landscapes o many No he n ci ies, i o e s limi ed insigh in o he b oade ajec o ies o in o mali y. As Ha is (2018) a gues, in o mal housing ends o sp ead la en ly un il i becomes o e , p omp ing au ho i ies o ac . In he weal hies s a es o he No h, whe e shan y owns p oli e a ed, a ious o ms o public social housing p og ammes we e indeed implemen ed. Howe e , he pa hways o hese p ocesses di e ed ac oss con ex s. Fo example, in Pa is, pe sis en e o s o e adica e sel - buil se lemen s (Aguile a, 2016) and de elop la ge housing es a es o low- income popula ion (now o ming he banlieues) domina ed he housing agenda. Con e sely, in Vienna, many sub- u ban sel - buil se lemen s unde wen g adual consolida ion h ough a blend o app oaches ha also allowed indi iduals o o malise hei dwellings (Haue & K ame , 2023). While such examples may sugges he “end” o in o mal housing in hese ci ies, hey do no ule ou he possibili y ha in o mal p ac ices ha e gone om widesp ead and isible o la en and in isible. This shi complica es ou unde s anding o he scale o in o mal housing phenomena, including con empo a y mani es a ions, egula isa ion modali ies and po en ial ebi h as ma ke d i en bu eb anded housing o ma s like a ious mic o- housing and sho - e m en al models. Add essing hese issues has eme ged as one o he majo esea ch gaps in con empo a y housing s udies, ansla ing in o a g owing in e es in in es iga ing and challenging p eca i y as he new no m (Ha is & Nowicki, 2018). Recen wo k has also examined his issue om he pe spec i e o in o mali y, documen ing he exis ence o la ge, hidden housing ma ke s h i ing in con empo a y ci ies (Gu an e al., 2021). These ma ke s o en lou ish wi hin buil en i onmen s pe cei ed as en i ely o mal. They mani es h ough ans o ma ions such as backya d ex ensions, basemen adap a ions o la subdi isions, he cha ac e is ics o which make eliable quan i a i e es ima es o hei scale di icul . Some da a, such as ha documen ing he p oli e a ion o backya d dwellings in Cali o nia, e eal ha while he annual g ow h o o mal housing s ock be ween 1990 and 2010 was es ima ed a 1.3%, in o mal uni s accoun ed o an addi ional 0.4% (Wegmann & Mawho e , 2017). Many o ma s ha exis in a g ey a ea be ween legali y and illegali y, shi ing ac oss he o mal- in o mal spec um – depending on he legal and policy en i onmen a any gi en ime – a e excluded om such es ima es. Fo mal ules and laws, in his con ex , a e suscep ible o in e p e a ion, idiosync a ic and open- ended (Roy, 2009). In his sense, legali y ep esen s an inhe en ly uns able ea u e o u ban de elopmen (Caldei a, 2017) (changes in law, a he han s a ic legal de ini ions, p o ide a mo e ui ul analy ical lens o examine he dynamic in e - play be ween legali y, o mali y and in o mali y). Visible o semi- isible in o mal In oduc ion 5 phenomena ha a ac he mos public a en ion (Lomba d, 2019) appea o be on he ise. Howe e , hese phenomena may be quan i a i ely smalle compa ed o hidden housing p ac ices, which d aw a less public a en ion. Such p ac ices a e ei he aci ly igno ed in he policy en i onmen , g adually ecognised as legally accep able o , less commonly, subjec ed o e ec i e egula ion and o e sigh . Se e al chap e s in his collec ion explo e his issue, illus a ing ha wha su aces in public discou ses as in o mal o en h i es wi hin housing o ma s his- o ically pe cei ed as en i ely o mal. Indeed, he a che ypes o wha is conside ed o mal housing, including p i a e owne ship, equen ly pe pe ua e di e en o ms o in o mal p ac ices, ega dless o public sec o app oaches o ha p oblema ic. Fo example, as discussed by Kingsley and Lam in a chap e ocused on Hong Kong (see Chap e 3), p i a e landlo ds acili a e he subdi ision o p ope ies o c ea e subs anda d mic o- la s, suppo ed by, un il ecen ly, he laissez- ai e app oach o he public sec o . Simila ly, as Elsne and colleagues documen in he Be lin case s udy (see Chap e 9), head enan s bene i om en caps and legal p o ec ions. Howe e , sys emic loopholes enable hem o engage in semi- o mal suble ing p ac ices o supplemen hei incomes. As Kelling (2024) a gues, hese o en- hidden phenomena epi omise he insep- a abili y o o mali y and in o mali y. Fo mal ules, in his in e p e a ion, se e as p esc ip ions o wha indi iduals should do. Howe e , in p ac ice, hese p esc ip ions a e no always known o adhe ed o. While o mal ules may shape beha iou in ce ain con ex s, hey can become i ele an in he ace o dominan social p ac ices. In o mali y, he e o e, ep esen s p ecisely such p ac ices ha com- plemen , con es o enego ia e o mal ules, unc ioning as a “s uc u ing ea u e o e e yday li e” (Kelling, 2024: 425). Wha is mo e, as McFa lane and Vasude an (2014) no e, he below- he- ada p ac ices o e e yday li e do no me ely acili a e he unc ioning o o mal ealms; hey may, in ac , be mo e signi ican han o mal s uc u es hemsel es. Wi h his ocus, he in e p e a ion o in o mal housing p ac ices eme ges in a ans e sal manne h ough a ious p ocesses, including eal- es a e ope a ions, changing pa e ns o labou , mobili y and mig a ion, ising digi al economies and land sho ages, amids he e ol ing spa ial con igu a ions o ci ies. Thus, in line wi h he in e p e a ion o in o mali y adop ed in his olume, wha is con en ionally ega ded as ma ginal in o mal p ac ices may, in ac , exis wi hin a majo i y o housing o ma s ac oss all s a a o socie y, mani es ing in di e se ways and se ing he e ogeneous in e es s. In p ac ical e ms, as he cases in his olume illus a e, such housing p ac ices a ely align en i ely wi h o mal o in o mal ca ego ies. They emain well- ecognised social ac s, include widesp ead phenomena bu a e di icul o quan i y and, o ha ma e , ully egula e o , in some cases, e en be in ended o egula ion by he public sec o . In o mal housing on he ise amids an in ensi ying housing c isis The second p inciple e lec ed in his collec ion is ha in he wake o an in ensi- ying housing c isis, in o mal housing p ac ices a e on he ise. Howe e , while 6 In o mal Housing in he Global No h encompassing a as a ay o p eca ious housing o ma s, in o mali y is aceable ac oss all income le els. The implica ions o he housing c isis a e s aigh o wa d – he decline in a o dable op ions wi hin he o mal ma ke pushes indi iduals o ely on in o mal solu ions ha a e o en p eca ious, subs anda d and ola ile (Po s, 2020). Fo ins ance, as discussed in Esposi io’s and Vénia ’s chap e s (see Chap e s 6 and 7) on squa ing p ac ices in housing es a es in Naples and in o mal se lemen s a ound Pa is, espec i ely, inancial o legal ma ginalisa ion mobilises insu gen housing p ac ices (Hols on, 2009). Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha while in o mali y in hese cases esul s om imposed s uc u al condi ions, i may also ep esen a pa o longe - e m housing s a egies, whe eby access o o mally sanc ioned housing is achie ed h ough ac s o s uggle and spa ial app op ia ion such as squa ing o acan buildings. Such s uggles may, in speci ic ins ances, be o ma i e in how we in e p e ques ions o igh s and obliga ions in he con em- po a y ci y (Vasude an, 2015). While he sha p inc ease in he isibili y o he mos p eca ious o ms o in o - mali y, including ough sleeping, en se lemen s o shan y owns, may be a ibu ed o new pa e ns o o ced mig a ion (Chiodelli e al., 2024), and, as El- Kayed’s chap e shows (see Chap e 5), access o housing is gene ally mo e di icul o e ugees, he b oade issue o housing in o mali y is ce ainly no limi ed o new a i als in No he n ci ies. On he one hand, he expe ience o housing s uggles in he mos “a luen ” ci ies has become so commonplace ha i anscends solely ma ginalised g oups and is sha ed, albei wi h a ying in ensi y, by hose who p e- iously could expec o secu e a pe manen and com o able home wi h ela i e ease. This issue ine i ably pe mea es e e yday li e, becoming a o m o sha ed gene a ional expe ience. Fo ins ance, as discussed in he Be lin case s udy by Elsne e al. (see Chap e 9), he likelihood o secu ing an indi idual en al con ac in a ac i e pa s o he ci y has become so low ha o mal channels o inding accommoda ion a e inc easingly being eplaced by in o mal social ne wo ks. Simila ly, he expec a ion o inding a decen home is inc easingly being eplaced by he accep ance o subs anda d op ions in spa ial, social and inancial e ms, as long as hese op ions o e mo e o less pe manen housing in a desi ed loca ion. On he o he hand, hese ypes o in o mal p ac ices do no exis in a acuum, no a e hey adap ed solely by hose seeking housing. P ope y owne s and head enan s a e equally implica ed in hese p ocesses – mos ypically when hose wi h powe , knowledge and esou ces exploi inancial oppo uni ies a ising om hei asse s (owne ship, pe manen con ac ) by in o mally con e ing and en ing spaces a p ices ha do no align wi h he s anda ds o e ed. In addi ion o owne s, in e media ies such as middle- o s ee - le el bu eauc a s, immig a ion o ice s, housing adminis a o s, in o mal b oke s bu also p o i - seeking p i a e companies appea o play an impo an ole in media ing access o housing oppo uni ies. This is documen ed, o ins ance, in a mi o chap e by Mkhize (see Chap e 8), which p esen s he daily p ac ices o p ope y ca e ake s wi hin an imp o emen dis- ic in Hillb ow, Johannesbu g; El- Kayed’s accoun o e ugee housing pa hways in Ge many (see Chap e 5); and Kingsley and Lam’s inqui y in o he ole o In oduc ion 7 a chi ec s and building p o essionals in Hong Kong (see Chap e 3). Howe e , as highligh ed by he wo o me cases, exploi a i e p ac ices a e also accompanied by ac s o solida i y ha enable access o housing ma ke s ha a e o he wise sealed o by s a e egula o y mechanisms and bo de egimes. In his sense, in o mali y is in ensi ied in he ace o he housing c isis, bu in some cases, i helps o o e come he sho comings c ea ed by he o mal housing sys em. In o he s, i is abused by hose who ha e access o asse s, powe and knowledge. Finally, some schola ship sugges s ha in o mali y among he a luen is no limi ed o accep ing o acili a ing in o mal uses o hei p ope y. I also includes imp o ing hei li ing condi ions h ough no - ye - codi ied solu ions, such as lux- u ious basemen de elopmen s (Bu ows e al., 2022) o le e aging de egula ed p o isions, o ins ance, backya d ex ensions in London (Galuszka & Wilk- Pham, 2022). In o he cases, in o mali y in ol es acili a ing access o land and cons uc ion p ocesses ha ci cum en legal p ocedu es (Chiodelli, 2019; Vieda Ma inez, 2024) o exploi ing legal g ey a eas, aiming a he ex ac ion o asse s (Kusiak, 2019). When addi ionally conside ing he ole o digi al economies and sho - e m en als as a new o m o landlo dism, he ocus o he s udy o in o - mali y, as sugges ed by Fe e i and Sanyal (2024), shi s beyond he ealm o po e y. These issues a e also highligh ed in he discussion on in o mal housing p ac ices in Sydney, Be lin and Hong Kong in his olume (see Chap e 2, 9 and 3), including an example o in o mal subdi ision and en ing businesses acili a ed by o mally ope a ing, la ge- scale comme cial o ganisa ions in he la e . Howe e , u he in es iga ion in o hese issues emains necessa y, and he in o mali y o he ich emains an impo an esea ch gap in cu en deba es on housing in he Global No h. In o mal housing in a conjunc u e be ween s a e and ma ke ac ion The hi d p inciple applied in his collec ion is ha in o mali y does no ope a e independen ly o he s a e; a he , he s a e is implica ed in he p oduc ion o in o - mali y (Roy & AlSayyad, 2004; Chiodelli e al., 2021), wo king in conjunc ion wi h ma ke - d i en logics o housing deli e y. These dynamics a e mani es in he ise o new o ms o landlo dism and en exploi a ion. The oles o he s a e a e highly di e se and can be ca ego ised in o h ee main policy app oaches: igh e egula- ion, ole a ion/ non- en o cemen and de egula ion (Chiodelli e al., 2021; Du s & Wegmann, 2017). Impo an ly, e en hough hese app oaches may ep esen dom- inan ends in speci ic con ex s, hey can also co- exis , as public sec o ac o s embody di e se agendas wi hin a single ins i u ional se ing (Galuszka, 2024; Hilb and , 2019). I a commonali y can be iden i ied ac oss di e en No he n con ex s, i lies in he s onge connec ions be ween he s a e and he ma ke . This is pa icu- la ly e iden in con ex s whe e de egula ion emains he dominan app oach. Au ho i ies in such con ex s may lowe cons uc ion s anda ds o s imula e housing deli e y by he ma ke . This may in ol e allowing speci ic cons uc ions o p oceed wi hou planning pe missions. Such is he case wi h he con e sion 8 In o mal Housing in he Global No h o building uses in he UK, which o en esul s in p eca ious condi ions (Fe m e al., 2021). E en hough con e sions a e echnically legal, hei moni o ing is o en inadequa e, and on- he- g ound implemen a ion blu s he bounda y be ween o mal ou ines and in o mal p ac ices (Galuszka & Wilk- Pham, 2022; Kelling, 2024). This phenomenon, e e ed o as in o malisa ion om abo e, may also occu wi hou physical in e en ion in space (Fe e i & Senyal, 2024). Ins ead, i ope a es h ough lexible housing logics, in which egula o y g ey a eas – such as hose ound in pla o m- based en al p ac ices – enable oppo uni ies o en ex ac ion. The ole a ion o non- en o cemen app oach posi ions s a e ac ion and inac ion (Chiodelli e al., 2024) as s ong de e minan s in how housing p ocesses un old. This is well illus a ed by ecu ing “amnes ies” in I aly and G eece, which accoun o millions o housing uni s (Chiodelli e al., 2021; Bu gel & Da ques, 2024). In hese cases, he s a e e oac i ely legi imises o ms o housing ha i had p e i- ously igno ed, bu which we e buil in an in o mal way, o en in iola ion o o i- cial egula ions. On he one hand, his legi imisa ion e lec s cul u ally accep ed p ac ices, such as sel - made ex ensions ha c ea e addi ional loo s o household o en al pu poses. On he o he hand, i con enien ly shi s he esponsibili y o housing p o ision on o indi iduals while main aining he s a e’s ole as egula o o he housing sys em. Thus, e en he passi i y by s a e ac o s ega ding speci ic in o mal p ac ices signi ican ly in luences he e olu ion o housing p ac ices in local con ex s. This dynamic is e iden in he Hong Kong case om his olume (see Chap e 3), which documen s pas pe missi eness owa ds he c ea ion o sub- s anda d subdi ided uni s, coinciding wi h he public sec o ’s p e oga i e o enable housing access o all. Ye , i also poin s o he ac ha on he g ound le el, he e always exis in e media y ac o s who, o be e o wo se – and in conjunc u e wi h a ious in e es s – ake on his b oke / nego ia o ole in egula ing in o mal ela ionships. The Hong Kong case illus a es ha such oles may be aken by p o essionals such as a chi ec s o building con ac o s en i led o e alua e he quali y o adap a ions o speci ic la s. Meanwhile, he Johannesbu g case (see Chap e 8) challenges us o see p ope y ca e ake s as some o he non- s a e ac o s who beha e like s a e ac o s – s ee - le el bu eauc a s – and ein e p e b oade ma ke and s a e agendas o add ess complex con ex ual challenges and achie e p ope y managemen goals. In mo e egula ed con ex s, such as Ge many o Aus ia, a ious solu ions (like en caps) o o e sigh o sho - e m en als (including Ai bnb) a e being p oac i ely implemen ed o con ol dis up o s o a o dable housing sys ems. Fu he mo e, in egula o y con ex s ha ha e adi ionally been p og essi e in acili a ing access o a o dable housing, widesp ead ci il socie y campaigns emain isible and ela i ely in luen ial in he ace o a g owing housing c isis. These campaigns ocus, o example, on housing igh s and suppo he c ea ion o new housing oppo uni ies, as exempli ied by ini ia i es like “Regis a ion o All” and “Righ o he Ci y” in Be lin. Howe e , e en wi hin hese con ex s, and in line wi h he second p inciple o he olume ou lined ea lie , he gene al decline in he p o ision o social housing has c ea ed a si ua ion o sca ci y, allowing ma ke In oduc ion 15 Hea h, S. (2021). 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