A icle
U ban S udies
2024, Vol. 61(7) 1327–1344
ÓU ban S udies Jou nal Limi ed 2023
A icle euse guidelines:
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DOI: 10.1177/00420980231207475
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Ci ies o ci izens! Public alue
sphe es o unde s anding con lic s in
u ban planning
Rico H He zog
TU Del , Ne he lands
Ha enCi y Uni e si y Hambu g, Ge many
Juliana E Goncxal es
TU Del , Ne he lands
Gee je Slinge land
TU Del , Ne he lands
Reinou Kleinhans
TU Del , Ne he lands
Holge P ang
Ha enCi y Uni e si y Hambu g, Ge many
F ances B azie
TU Del , Ne he lands
T i ik Ve ma
TU Del , Ne he lands
Abs ac
Iden i ying he di e se and o en compe ing alues o ci izens, and esol ing he consequen public
alue con lic s, a e o signi ican impo ance o inclusi e and in eg a ed u ban de elopmen .
Schola s ha e highligh ed ha ela ional, alue-laden u ban space gi es ise o many di e se con-
lic s ha a y bo h spa ially and empo ally. Al hough no ions o public alue con lic s ha e been
Co esponding au ho :
Rico H He zog, Ci y Science Lab, Ha enCi y Uni e si y
Hambu g, Henning-Vosche au-Pla z 1, Hambu g 22457,
Ge many.
Email: ico.he zog@hcu-hambu g.de
concei ed in heo y, he e a e ew empi ical s udies ha iden i y such alues and hei con lic s in
u ban space. Building on public alue heo y and using a case-s udy mixed-me hods app oach, his
pape p oposes a new app oach o empi ically in es iga e public alue con lic s in u ban space.
Using uns uc u ed pa icipa o y da a o 4528 ci izen con ibu ions om a Public Pa icipa ion
Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems in Hambu g, Ge many, na u al language p ocessing and spa ial
clus e ing echniques a e used o iden i y a eas o po en ial alue con lic s. Fou expe in e iews
assess and in e p e hese quan i a i e indings. By in eg a ing quan i a i e assessmen s wi h he
quali a i e indings o he in e iews, we iden i y 19 gene al public alues and nine a che ypical
con lic s. On he basis o hese esul s, his pape p oposes a new concep ual model o ‘Public
Value Sphe es’ ha ex ends he unde s anding o public alue con lic s and helps o u he
accoun o he alue-laden na u e o u ban space.
Keywo ds
na u al language p ocessing, public pa icipa ion, public alues, spa ial con lic , u ban planning
Recei ed June 2022; accep ed Sep embe 2023
In oduc ion
Pas and p esen de elopmen p ojec s
demons a e ha plu alis ic alues o a ious
s akeholde s o en lead o con lic abou he
planning o u ban space (McAuli e and
Roge s, 2019). A key challenge o planne s
and decision make s is o iden i y and
add ess hese di e se and o en compe ing
alues o ci izens and o he s akeholde s
(Van de Wal e al., 2015). In eg a ed and
pa icipa o y u ban de elopmen , as high-
ligh ed by bo h he UN’s Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 11 and he EU’s New
Leipzig Cha e , con ibu es o enhancing
he common good and o ansi ioning o a
sus ainable and inclusi e ci y. Howe e , he
iden i ica ion o he public’s unde lying
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1328 U ban S udies 61(7)
alues and hei spa ial con lic s h ough pa -
icipa o y app oaches is a complex and chal-
lenging ask (Naba chi, 2012) as i equi es
me hods o accoun o di e se and plu alis-
ic public alues ela ed o he de elopmen
and usage o u ban space (Campbell, 1996;
Godschalk, 2004; Lomba d and Rakodi,
2016). Viewing u ban space as being con inu-
ously socially p oduced and ela ional
(Le eb e, 1991; Pu cell, 2022), such a con-
cep ualisa ion o en lacks p ac ical applica-
ion in u ban planning o bols e go e nmen
ac ion h ough pa icipa o y means o go -
e nance (Leh o uo i, 2016).
Se e al schola s ha e discussed he p es-
ence o alues in he public sphe e (Bozeman,
2007; G aebe , 2013; Hillie , 1999), including
de eloping public alues heo y o ins i u-
ions (Naba chi, 2018). O igina ing om
public adminis a ion esea ch, public alues
heo y is conce ned wi h he unde lying
no ms, p inciples and s anda ds o public
policy and go e nmen . This domain empha-
sises inclusi e elici a ion o public alues
(Naba chi, 2012). The li e a u e also high-
ligh s he use ulness o mapping (assumed)
s akeholde alues and demons a es how
pa icipa o y mapping can suppo iden i i-
ca ion o a eas wi h po en ial land-use con-
lic s and p o ide esolu ion among
s akeholde s (B ody e al., 2004; B own and
Raymond, 2014). While hese s udies a e
highly in luen ial, cu en app oaches can be
imp o ed in a eas ha a e lacking, in e ms
o implici ly assuming alue(s) o educing
con lic o a pai o alues. A p e-speci ied
lis o alues (B own and Raymond, 2014;
Ka imi e al., 2015) leads o a mapping o
p e-imposed alues while an empi ical iden i-
ica ion in e s alues om da a p o ided by
ci izens in which hey exp ess hei alues
wi hou cons ain s (Naba chi, 2012). A na -
ow in es iga ion on ei he a singula alue
o on a dicho omic alue con lic (Ty a
¨inen
e al., 2007) does no ecognise he need o a
plu alis ic app oach o unde s anding he
inhe en con lic s in u ban de elopmen
(McAuli e and Roge s, 2019). Thus, an
empi ical and cohesi e app oach is necessa y
o suppo inclusi e u ban de elopmen .
Inclusion o public alues as one ‘o he
mos impo an aspi a ions o public pa ici-
pa ion p og ams’ (Beie le and Konisky, 2000:
588) lies a he co e o in eg a ed u ban de el-
opmen . Tha is o en e lec ed in he daily
wo k o planne s (Fo es e , 1999), bu no in
hei own job pe cep ion (Leh o uo i, 2016).
Following he calls o Naba chi (2012) o
le e age pa icipa o y da a o he iden i ica-
ion o public alues and hei con lic s, he e
seem o be only limi ed a emp s o heo e i-
cally es ablish, and empi ically iden i y, alue
con lic s wi h he help o la ge-scale public pa -
icipa o y da a in an u ban con ex . P e ious
heo e ical wo k ocused on analysing alue
con lic s in u ban egions p oposed a sus ain-
abili y/li eabili y p ism o iden i y and discuss
key alues in a ela ional se ing, bo h physi-
cally and me apho ically (Campbell, 1996;
Godschalk, 2004). O he s udies ind six con-
lic ypes in pe i-u ban a eas ha ‘eme ge[s]
om si e-speci ic social, economic and ecologi-
cal in e ac ions’, namely ‘noise pollu ion’,
‘ isual bligh ’, ‘heal h haza ds’, ‘na u e conse -
a ion’, ‘p ese a ion o he pas ’ and ‘changes
o he neighbo hood’ (Von De Dunk e al.,
2011: 149). These indings implici ly ma k al-
ues as s a ic. Howe e , such seminal wo k can
be expanded o a con inuously changing land-
scape o alues in u ban a eas ha a e also
geoloca ed and mani es a ious ypes o
dynamic con lic s. Fu he , in e alua ing se -
e al me hods o iden i y social-ecological ho -
spo s, Ka imi e al. (2015) call o addi ional
case s udies o include social alues in spa ial
decision suppo ools.
By building upon he heo y o public al-
ues, his pape p oposes a new app oach: A
case s udy–mixed me hods design aids in
unde s anding which public alues a e p es-
en and how hey can lead o con lic in
u ban space. Applying na u al language
He zog e al. 1329
p ocessing and spa ial clus e ing echniques
o pa icipa o y da a om Hambu g,
Ge many, public alues and a eas o po en-
ial con lic s a e iden i ied. Subsequen ly,
expe in e iews se e as a means o quali a-
i ely discuss and in e p e he indings o he
quan i a i e analysis. Ou goal is wo old:
i s , o illus a e he po en ial o open-sou ce
pa icipa o y da a o elici geoloca ed public
alues in an u ban egion and iden i y po en-
ial con lic s associa ed wi h u ban de elop-
men p ojec s; and second, o con ibu e o
he p esen heo y in u ban s udies by p o-
posing a concep ual model ha suppo s
unde s anding he plu alism o public alues
and hei con lic s ac oss ime and space.
The pape is s uc u ed as ollows: i s ,
we lay ou seminal heo e ical wo k on pub-
lic alues and illus a e he impo ance o
iden i ica ion o alues o u ban planning.
Second, we explain he da a and me hods
used. Thi d, we s a e he quan i a i e and
quali a i e esul s sepa a ely and hen in e-
g a e he indings o bo h s ands o o m a
mo e comp ehensi e model o con lic ing
public alues in u ban planning. Las ly, we
discuss ou app oach and s a e conclusions
o he applica ion o he concep ual model
and u u e esea ch.
Public alues and u ban planning
Iden i ica ion o public alues
Se e al schola s in a ious ields –
An h opology, Philosophy, Psychology,
Economics and Public Adminis a ion
esea ch – ha e de eloped a dis inc heo y o
alue(s) o hei pu poses (e.g. Bozeman,
2007; G aebe , 2013; Hillie , 1999). The mos
p o ound and eoccu ing dis inc ion is he
one be ween singula and plu al: A alue (sin-
gula ) is ypically concei ed as some hing an-
gible, alloca able and aceable in ela ion o
a speci ic objec , o ins ance he mone a y
exchange alue o a p ope y (Bozeman,
2007). In con as , alues (plu al) a e
conside ed non-compa able, co-exis ing and
ela i e, and a e ela ed o a much b oade ,
‘socie al’ and ‘poli ical’ con ex (G aebe ,
2013). Values comp ise ‘bo h cogni i e and
emo i e elemen s’, a e connec ed o one’s de -
ini ion o onesel , a e ha dly changeable, and
ha e ‘ he po en ial o elici ac ion’ (Bozeman,
2007: 117). Hillie (1999) u he di e en ia es
be ween ins umen al and in insic alues.
In insic alues a e ends in hemsel es, hei
ealisa ion being hei pu pose. In con as ,
ins umen al alues se e ano he end han
i sel . One could, o example, alue na u e
p ese a ion as an in insic means in i sel , ye
ano he one alues na u e p ese a ion as an
ins umen al means o hei pe sonal heal h.
Public alues, as concep ualised by Bozeman
(2007: 132), conce n he alues ha ough o
be p esen in he public sphe e ac oss a ious
le els. On an indi idual le el, people hold
bo h public and p i a e alues, he o me
being alues ha one wishes o be ealised in
he public ealm (e.g. ecological p ese a ion)
and he la e conce ning alues in hei p i-
a e li es (e.g. in e cul u al expe iences
b ough by ca bon-in ensi e long-dis ance
a el). On an agg ega e le el, socie ies and
go e nmen s also emb ace public alues, ide-
ally eme ging om he indi idual’s alues
and se ing he public in e es .
The heo y o public alues is hus con-
ce ned wi h ‘ hose p o iding no ma i e con-
sensus abou . . . he p inciples on which
go e nmen s and policies should be based’
(Bozeman, 2007: 13) and ‘ he social s an-
da ds, p inciples, and ideals o be pu sued
and upheld by go e nmen agen s and o ga-
niza ions’ (Naba chi, 2018: 60). As he li e a-
u e ecognises ha in eali y, he u opia o
no ma i e consensus on alues seldom ma e-
ialises (Naba chi, 2012), plu alism o equally
alid, co ec and undamen al alues exis s.
The ‘mos undamen al’ (Fukumo o and
Bozeman, 2019) challenge in his esea ch
a ea is he iden i ica ion o public alues.
P e ious app oaches include he analysis o
1330 U ban S udies 61(7)
go e nmen al documen s (Fukumo o and
Bozeman, 2019), in ui ion, elec ions, su eys
and academic li e a u e (Bozeman, 2007:
133–141). Naba chi (2012), howe e , a gues
ha any app oach o public alues iden i i-
ca ion o he han including he public, ends
o be exclusiona y by highligh ing only ce -
ain p i ileged alues.
Public alues and u ban space
The ole o alues in u ban planning gained
signi ican ac ion since he ecogni ion o
ela ional u ban space and i s inhe en ly
social p oduc ion (Jacobs, 1961; Le eb e,
1991; Soja, 2000). In con as o an absolu e
and Euclidean concep ualisa ion, ela ional
u ban space implies ha he pe cep ion o
u ban space, including i s social ealm, is ela-
i e o i s obse e and canno ully be com-
p ehended objec i ely. Subsequen ly, schola s
ha e desc ibed planne s as ‘p ac ical e hicis s’
(Fo es e , 1999: 31), ejec ed he idea o
alue-neu al planning (Sande cock, 2004),
and u ged planne s o econside he plu ali y
o alues and explo e mo e e ec i e alue-
inco po a ion s a egies o inclusi e u ban
de elopmen (Hillie , 1999). Mo e ecen ly in
U ban S udies, se e al a icles in es iga ed
how u ban alues ela e o u ban quali ies
(Me zge and Wibe g, 2018; Molna , 2023).
Howe e , he a o emen ioned li e a u e does
no adhe e o a single cohe en heo y o al-
ues and alls sho in concep ualising he an-
si ion om indi idual alues o ins i u ional
decisions in, o example, pa icipa o y p o-
cesses. Thus, in line wi h ecen esea ch, we
con ibu e o ad ancing he heo y o public
alues in he ield o u ban s udies (Candel
and Paulsson, 2023).
Iden i ica ion o alue con lic s in space
The exis ence o alue con lic s in u ban
space is uncon es ed (De G aa e al., 2016;
Hillie , 1999; Naba chi, 2018). Schola s
poin ou ha ‘emo ional’ eac ions owa ds
land and places a e an in eg al pa o u ban
li e and i s esul ing con lic s in ci ies ac oss
he globe (Lomba d and Rakodi, 2016).
Since he en ance o sus ainabili y p inci-
ples in o u ban planning, schola s poin ou
he esul ing alue con lic s be ween social,
economic and ecological aspec s (Campbell,
1996). O he s add addi ional dimensions, o
example, by in es iga ing con lic s wi h he
alue o li eabili y (Godschalk, 2004) o
explo ing alues speci ically ela ed o u ban
woodlands (Ty a
¨inen e al., 2007). Mul iple
con lic a che ypes a e also in es iga ed in
pe i-u ban a eas (Von De Dunk e al.,
2011) and speci ically a u ban wa e on
p ojec s (A ni and Teschne , 2019).
In a democ a ic de elopmen o u ban
space, he e is a con inuous p oduc ion o
con lic ing alues (Pu cell, 2022), which, by
hei e y na u e, a e dependen on he pe son
exp essing hem, and hus incommensu able
be ween people (Bozeman, 2007; G aebe ,
2013; Rokeach, 1973). Value con lic s ma e i-
alise in space whe e he ealisa ion o one
alue o en imes p ohibi s o impai s he ea-
lisa ion o ano he . F om a ela ional iew-
poin , alue con lic s a e no only
una oidable, bu inhe en o he planning
p ocess i sel and a e con inually changing.
E en hough mul iple schola s p o ide
insigh in o how analysing he aming elici s
u ban alues (Me zge and Wibe g, 2018,
Molna , 2023) and o he s ad oca e o
inc eased delibe a ion and pa icipa ion in
u ban planning (Naba chi, 2012), a cohe en
o e iew o public alues in u ban planning is
ye o be ob ained (McAuli e and Roge s,
2019). The ques ion o u ban decision mak-
e s hen is how o anscend incommensu -
abili y and iden i y public alues and hei
con lic sinanempi icalandinclusi emanne .
Me hods and da a
We conduc ed a case s udy–mixed me hods
app oach ha embeds a mixed me hods
He zog e al. 1331

s udy wi hin an o e a ching case s udy
(Gue e man and Fe e s, 2018). Fo he
mixed-me hods design, we ollowed an
explana o y sequen ial app oach wi h (1) a
quan i a i e esea ch s and ollowed by (2)
a smalle quali a i e s udy (C eswell and
Cla k, 2010). The esul s om bo h s ands
(3) we e in eg a ed and in e p e ed o o m a
be e concep ual model o (con lic ing) pub-
lic alues in u ban space. In public alues’
elici a ion, he quali y o he quan i a i e
analysis o pa icipa o y ex ual da a is
dependen on he esea che s conduc ing
such a s udy (Chang e al., 2009). To add ess
his conce n ou app oach encapsula es a
quali a i e s and ha makes use o expe
knowledge o he pu pose o in e p e a ion
and e alua ion.
We selec ed Hambu g, Ge many, as a
case s udy o h ee easons. Fi s , he ci y
aces subs an ial u banisa ion challenges
wi h a po en ial o al popula ion inc ease
o 200,000 people by 2040, he eby c ossing
he wo million inhabi an h eshold.
Second, Hambu g’s Sena e ounded he
‘S ad we ks a ’ (‘u ban wo kshop’) o s i-
mula e a new planning cul u e by p oac-
i ely in ol ing he ci izen y in in o mal
pa icipa ion p ocesses in u ban planning
and deploying he digi al on-si e and online
pa icipa ion pla o m DIPAS on a ci y-
wide scale (Lie en, 2017). Thi d,
Hambu g’s own anspa ency law p e-
sc ibes he publica ion o in o ma ion p o-
cessed wi hin he ci y’s adminis a ion in a
cen al online eposi o y ha is accessible
in an anonymous way wi hou any associ-
a ed cos s.
In he quan i a i e s and, we le e aged
4528 ci izen con ibu ions om a o al o 24
pa icipa ion p ocesses be ween 2016 and
2021 on he DIPAS pla o m whe e people
inpu open ex ual commen s on he e oge-
neous local u ban planning ma e s ( o
mo e de ailed in o ma ion abou he p oj-
ec s, see Online Supplemen al Ma e ial).
Con ibu ions a e a ibu ed o a ce ain
ca ego y and ype (Lie en, 2017). O hese
con ibu ions, 3584 we e geoloca ed.
P ep ocessing o he da a included basic da a
cleaning, named en i y emo al, lemma isa-
ion, n-g am modelling and s opwo d, num-
be and punc ua ion emo al (G imme and
S ewa , 2013); see he Online Supplemen al
In o ma ion o de ails. Subsequen ly, he
da a was ans o med o a bag o wo ds and
he mos in equen 0.75% o wo ds we e
emo ed be o e applying S uc u al Topic
Modelling (STM) (Robe s e al., 2019), an
unsupe ised clus e ing algo i hm o la ge
ex co po a o in e la en opics behind
documen s in he ex co pus while allowing
me ada a o in luence opic assignmen s.
S uc u al Topic Modelling as an unsupe -
ised machine lea ning me hod does no ely
on p e-exis en aining da a, bu aims o
ind s uc u es in he da a by i sel . In con-
as , supe ised machine lea ning algo-
i hms would only p edic labels in he da a
ha we e manually speci ied be o ehand.
Hence we a gue ha he me hodology – by
design – enables a much be e induc i e
analysis and can unco e s uc u es in pa i-
cipa o y da a ha we e p e iously unknown.
Addi ionally, using he Google T ansla e
API, he con ibu ions we e ansla ed o
English and sen imen analysis was applied
o add mo e nuanced me ada a o STM. We
chose k= 30 opics as a hype pa ame e
based on he me ics o esidual analysis and
seman ic cohe ence and manually assigned
opics o a public alue, whe e e such an
assignmen was jus i iable. We based his
decision on he close in es iga ion o con i-
bu ions ound in each speci ic opic clus e
(see Supplemen al In o ma ion). To examine
a eas o po en ial public alue con lic s, he
di e en assigned public alues we e spa-
ially clus e ed using he HDBSCAN algo-
i hm (Campello e al., 2015) and con e ed
in o spa ial polygons by applying he alpha
shape algo i hm, as illus a ed by Chen e al.
1332 U ban S udies 61(7)
(2019). Using his me hod, a eas o po en ial
public alue con lic s can be in es iga ed by
explo ing he in e sec ion o polygons. To
in es iga e hese con lic s, we la gely buil
upon he heo e ical wo k o Godschalk
(2004) and Campbell (1996) since hey p o-
ide an in en o y o a che ypal con lic s on
a ci y-wide scale ha encompasses gene ic
alues as opposed o speci ic con ex s, spa-
ial scales and geog aphies.
In he quali a i e s and, ou expe in e -
iews wi h u ban planne s based in Hambu g
and amilia wi h he local con ex we e con-
duc ed. Thei di e en domains we e g een
space and playg ound planning, esiden ial
de elopmen , mobili y planning, and noise
p o ec ion planning. Due o es ic ions
ega ding he sp ead o he Co ona i us,
in e iews we e conduc ed in an online Zoom
en i onmen . The S ad we ks a Hambu g
ac edasanin e media y oes ablishcon ac s
wi h planning expe s. To ensu e a mu ual
bene i o he in e iews, only planning
expe s wi h backg ound knowledge in he
DIPAS pla o m and pa icipa ion p ocesses
we e selec ed. Expe in e iews we e s uc-
u ed in h ee main pa s: Sec ion one,
‘In oduc ion’, se he scene and in oduced
pa icipan s o he concep o public alues.
Sec ion wo, a sho semi-s uc u ed in e -
iew, sough o gain insigh s in o he pe cep-
ion o public alues and hei con lic s by
expe planne s (see Online Supplemen al
In o ma ion). Sec ion h ee was an in e ac i e
wo king session: Toge he , he STM esul s
we e in es iga ed and ia emo e con olled
sc een sha ing, an in e ac i e map o con i-
bu ions and a eas o possible public alue
con lic s we e explo ed. A e wa ds, in e -
iews we e bo h ansc ibed and coded o
he ex ac ion o ele an knowledge.
Las ly, bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e
esea ch s ands we e in eg a ed o o mula e
a mo e comp ehensi e model o public al-
ues and hei spa ial con lic s in u ban plan-
ning. By building on exis en me apho ical
desc ip ions o plu alis ic alues as sphe es
and uni e ses (G aebe , 2013; Van de Wal
e al., 2015) we sugges di e en isualisa-
ions ha depic he iden i ied public alues
and spa ial con lic s as a snapsho in he case
s udy o Hambu g.
Quan i a i e esul s
Using STM on Hambu g da a, 30 opics
we e iden i ied ha we e discussed in ela-
ion o u ban de elopmen p ojec s. Twen y-
eigh opics we e assigned wi h a cap ion
ha ep esen s he o e a ching concep s dis-
cussed in each opic, and wo showed no
b oade cohe en heme. In hese opics, i e
b oad public alues we e iden i ied: eco-
nomic oppo uni y, ecologic quali y, social
equi y, li eabili y and sa e y/heal h. A single
public alue is e lec ed in 19 opics; he
emaining ones con ain a ious public alues
( o mo e de ails see Online Supplemen al
In o ma ion). As shown in Figu e 1a, he
public alue o ecologic quali y e ol es
a ound he wo main ideas o p o ec ion and
c ea ion o g een spaces. The mos p obable
wo ds o he public alue o social equi y
(as shown in Figu e 1b) a e ‘ca ’, ‘bicycle’,
‘p o ide’, ‘good’ and ‘wide’. They e lec he
idea ha he ci y should be mo e accessible
o cyclis s wi h he imp o emen o bike
lanes, o example, by widening hem.
Con ibu ions o opic 11, ‘Li ing o ma -
ginalised g oups’, in ano he no ion o social
equi y, lamen exploding apa men en s,
wish o subsidised and accessible li ing
space o disabled people, sugges inc eased
in es men in neighbou hood ac i i ies due
o inc easing loneliness o he elde ly/ he
you h o ac i ely look ou o pa ne s o
p o ide li ing space o he homeless. As
Campbell (1996: 297) desc ibes he alue o
economic oppo uni y ealised as he ‘space
o highways, ma ke a eas and commu e
zones’, he issue o p o iding pa king spo s
o esiden s in public spaces was assigned o
He zog e al. 1333
Figu e 1. Wo dclouds show he mos p obable wo ds ha appea in opics assigned o a single public
alue. (a) The public alue o ecologic quali y cen es a ound he c ea ion and p o ec ion o g een spaces.
(b) The public alue o social equi y mainly e lec s he p o ision o be e bicycle lanes o be e
accessibili y. (c) The public alue o economic oppo uni y is la gely conce ned wi h he p o ision o
pa king spo s o local esiden s. (d) The public alue o li eabili y e lec s ce ain wishes o he buil
en i onmen ega ding design ha should be ealised. (e) The public alue o heal h/sa e y indica es he
wish o be e p o ec ion om dange ous a ic si ua ions.
1334 U ban S udies 61(7)
he public alue o economic oppo uni y.
As many con ibu ions a e a ibu ed o his
speci ic issue, he mos p obable wo ds a e
‘local esiden s’, ‘ a away’, ‘zone’, ‘always’
and ‘es ablish’ (see Figu e 1c). Rep esen ing
he mo e angible e e yday en i onmen and
i s design, many (pa ially con adic ing)
desi es a e subsumed unde li eabili y.
Dominan wo ds a e ‘should’, ‘ ind’, ‘ins ead
o ’ and ‘design’, indica ing a wish o a di -
e en shaping o u ban space. Looking o
e ms ha conc e ise hese desi es, wo ds
like ‘gas onomy’, ‘subway’, ‘business’, ‘ma -
ke ’, ‘bank’ and ‘playg ound’ can be ound.
Las ly, he public alue o heal h/sa e y was
iden i ied mainly in mobili y- ela ed opics,
which explains hei mos p obable wo ds:
‘ a ic’, ‘p o ec ion’, ‘ empo’, ‘high’, ‘side-
walks’ and ‘dange ous si ua ions’ (see Figu e
1e).
Figu e 2a illus a es he spa ial dis ibu-
ion o public alue clus e s de ec ed by he
HDBSCAN and alpha shape algo i hm.
No e he se e al la ge alue clus e s o
equi y, li eabili y and heal h/sa e y in his
map. Addi ionally, h ee la ge clus e s o
economic alues can also be obse ed.
Mul iple smalle clus e s o each alue a e
dis ibu ed ac oss he ci y. In e sec ions o
o e lapping clus e s show a eas o po en ial
public alue con lic s (Figu e 2b). Th ough
he lens o Godschalk’s p ism, six ypes o
con lic a e dis inguished and illus a ed
wi h he help o h ee egions o special
in e es in Hambu g (Godschalk, 2004).
One, in mul iple a eas a de elopmen
con lic mani es s. I s mos common o m is
he dedica ion o s ee space o inc eased
access o pedes ians and cyclis s as opposed
o g een a ea p o ec ion, speci ically along
he Jung e ns ieg (Figu e 2b [a]).
Two, in he newly de eloped dis ic o
he G asb ook (Figu e 2b [b]) and he
Sp eeha en ie el (Figu e 2b [c]), he gen i-
ica ion con lic becomes isible in a clash
be ween he wish o bo h highly li eable
en i onmen s and a o dabili y. As hese
neighbou hoods a e abou o be de eloped
o esiden ial li ing, mul iple people wish
o a o dable go e nmen housing while
o he people wish o exci ing a chi ec u e
and o he appealing places.
Th ee, he g een ci ies con lic is only pa -
ially e lec ed in he case s udy o Hambu g.
In he pe cep ion o mos con ibu o s li e-
able and g een spaces go hand in hand. This
becomes especially appa en a ound he
Jung e ns ieg (Figu e 2b [a]): equen ly,
li eabili y alues e lec a desi e o mo e
u ban g een ins ead o he buil en i on-
men . Howe e , spo adic con ibu ions
e lec ing wishes o open-ai cinemas, mo e
a and mo e kiosks could esul in a g een
ci ies con lic wi h con ibu o s wishing o
he es o a ion o na u e.
Fou , he g ow h managemen con lic
again becomes isible a ound he Jung e ns ieg
[a] a ea, which was chosen as a ca - ee pilo
p ojec . He e, mul iple people lamen he
decay o he inne ci y due o cus ome s’ lack
o accessibili y by ca . Simul aneously, many
see a mo e li eable en i onmen c ea ed
h ough he exclusion o p i a e ca s.
Fi e, mul iple smalle sec ions in
Hambu g exhibi he p ope y con lic
be ween equi y and economic alues. The
p ope y con lic ‘be ween p i a e in e es
and he public good’ (Campbell, 1996: 298)
is equen ly e lec ed in he wish o ede e-
loping s ee /pa king space o cyclis s and
pedes ians. In ha way, pedes ian and bike
lanes e lec a much mo e social sha ing o
space. P i a e ca s a e conside ed o ake up
public space ha could o he wise be used
o he b oade bene i o socie y.
Six, he esou ce con lic be ween eco-
nomic and ecologic alues mani es s only in
e y spa se sec ions o he ci y. I is iden i-
ied in simila spaces as he p ope y con lic ,
since o en imes, he wish o mo e pa king
spo s con adic s he wish o he p ese a-
ion o c ea ion o g een a eas.
He zog e al. 1335
be open o expansion and/o ea angemen ,
u u e case s udies in di e ing con ex s
migh help wi h d awing a mo e holis ic pic-
u e by p o iding addi ional ‘snapsho s’ o
(con lic ing) public alues in o he spa io-
empo al se ings.
Fu u e esea ch
Building on he p e ious discussion, h ee
main s a ing poin s o u u e esea ch can
be explo ed. Fi s , addi ional case s udies in
o he social and cul u al con ex s, especially
ones in he Global Sou h, would add c ucial
pe spec i es on public alue sphe es.
Enla ging his public alue ne wo k wi h
addi ional alues and a che ypal con lic s
will ul ima ely lead o a mo e comp ehensi e
unde s anding o he complex in e ac ions
o public alues and u ban space and in o
how decision make s could possibly mi iga e
o esol e such con lic s. Compa ing spa ial
cha ac e is ics o con lic s, bes p ac ices
and a che ypes o add ess a ious con lic s
can be sys ema ically s udied o aid alue-
d i en design. S udying such phenomena
h ough he lens o a ma e ial semio ic
app oach could e eal connec ions o alues
o ce ain ma e ial and social con ex s.
Second, in es iga ing he di e en ia ion
be ween indi idual and public alues and
he sou ces o con lic in be ween hese al-
ues would help explain mul iple u ban social
phenomena and could p o ide s a ing
poin s o mo e e ec i e public pa icipa ion
p ocesses (Thoneick, 2021). Thi d, esea ch
in o pa icipa o y p ocesses and gene a i e
design echniques could aid in imp o ing
cu en PPGIS pla o ms o no only in es i-
ga e wha ci izens wan , bu also hei unde -
lying alues. In his con ex , d awing om a
pa icipa o y p ocess ha includes o he
ools ailo ed owa ds di e se needs o a
socie y could ensu e ha mo e mino i y
oices a e hea d. Such u u e esea ch would
also c i ically e alua e ou sugges ion o
public alue sphe es and i s implica ions o
u ban planning and pa icipa o y se ings.
Conclusion
Unde s anding public alues and especially
hei inhe en con lic s is c ucial o achie e
he UN’s Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 11
o mo e inclusi e and sus ainable ci ies.
Only once such con lic s a e iden i ied, can
hey be e ec i ely add essed, mi iga ed and
po en ially esol ed. By iewing such con-
lic s h ough he lens o public alues
sphe es, he p esen case s udy o Hambu g
showcases a new app oach o bo h iden i y
and concep ualise public alues in u ban
space. A emp s o uly unde s and he ci i-
zen y should s a a iden i ying hei no ms
and alues: he p inciples on which he
de elopmen o hei ci y should be based.
Eme ging echnology and mul idisciplina y
app oaches now enable an in eg a ion o
plu alis ic alues ob ained om a la ge-scale
sample o ci izens o inclusi e and sus ain-
able planning o u ban space.
Acknowledgemen s
We would like o hank he S ad we ks a
Hambu g, especially Ma eusz Lendzinski, o he
da a p o ision o mul iple DIPAS pa icipa ion
p ocesses and o es ablishing he con ac s o he
expe planne s o conduc he wo kshops.
Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s
The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial con lic s o
in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship,
and/o publica ion o his a icle.
Funding
The au ho (s) ecei ed no inancial suppo o
he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o
his a icle.
1342 U ban S udies 61(7)

ORCID iDs
Rico H He zog h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-
1603-2926
Juliana E Goncxal es h ps://o cid.o g/0000-
0001-6888-3362
Gee je Slinge land h ps://o cid.o g/0000-
0002-3938-2427
Reinou Kleinhans h ps://o cid.o g/0000-
0002-5714-2128
Holge P ang h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-
6480-7044
F ances B azie h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-
7827-2351
T i ik Ve ma h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-
2761-5155
Supplemen al ma e ial
Supplemen al ma e ial o his a icle is a ailable
online.
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