Cities for citizens! Public value spheres for understanding conflicts in urban planning

A icle U ban S udies 2024, Vol. 61(7) 1327–1344 ÓU ban S udies Jou nal Limi ed 2023 A icle euse guidelines: sagepub.com/jou nals-pe missions DOI: 10.1177/00420980231207475 jou nals.sagepub.com/home/usj Ci ies o ci izens! Public alue sphe es o unde s anding con lic s in u ban planning Rico H He zog TU Del , Ne he lands Ha enCi y Uni e si y Hambu g, Ge many Juliana E Goncxal es TU Del , Ne he lands Gee je Slinge land TU Del , Ne he lands Reinou Kleinhans TU Del , Ne he lands Holge P ang Ha enCi y Uni e si y Hambu g, Ge many F ances B azie TU Del , Ne he lands T i ik Ve ma TU Del , Ne he lands Abs ac Iden i ying he di e se and o en compe ing alues o ci izens, and esol ing he consequen public alue con lic s, a e o signi ican impo ance o inclusi e and in eg a ed u ban de elopmen . Schola s ha e highligh ed ha ela ional, alue-laden u ban space gi es ise o many di e se con- lic s ha a y bo h spa ially and empo ally. Al hough no ions o public alue con lic s ha e been Co esponding au ho : Rico H He zog, Ci y Science Lab, Ha enCi y Uni e si y Hambu g, Henning-Vosche au-Pla z 1, Hambu g 22457, Ge many. Email: ico.he zog@hcu-hambu g.de concei ed in heo y, he e a e ew empi ical s udies ha iden i y such alues and hei con lic s in u ban space. Building on public alue heo y and using a case-s udy mixed-me hods app oach, his pape p oposes a new app oach o empi ically in es iga e public alue con lic s in u ban space. Using uns uc u ed pa icipa o y da a o 4528 ci izen con ibu ions om a Public Pa icipa ion Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems in Hambu g, Ge many, na u al language p ocessing and spa ial clus e ing echniques a e used o iden i y a eas o po en ial alue con lic s. Fou expe in e iews assess and in e p e hese quan i a i e indings. By in eg a ing quan i a i e assessmen s wi h he quali a i e indings o he in e iews, we iden i y 19 gene al public alues and nine a che ypical con lic s. On he basis o hese esul s, his pape p oposes a new concep ual model o ‘Public Value Sphe es’ ha ex ends he unde s anding o public alue con lic s and helps o u he accoun o he alue-laden na u e o u ban space. Keywo ds na u al language p ocessing, public pa icipa ion, public alues, spa ial con lic , u ban planning Recei ed June 2022; accep ed Sep embe 2023 In oduc ion Pas and p esen de elopmen p ojec s demons a e ha plu alis ic alues o a ious s akeholde s o en lead o con lic abou he planning o u ban space (McAuli e and Roge s, 2019). A key challenge o planne s and decision make s is o iden i y and add ess hese di e se and o en compe ing alues o ci izens and o he s akeholde s (Van de Wal e al., 2015). In eg a ed and pa icipa o y u ban de elopmen , as high- ligh ed by bo h he UN’s Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 11 and he EU’s New Leipzig Cha e , con ibu es o enhancing he common good and o ansi ioning o a sus ainable and inclusi e ci y. Howe e , he iden i ica ion o he public’s unde lying ᪈㾱 䇶࡛ޜ≁ཊṧф㓿ᑨ⴨ӂߢケⲴԧ٬㿲ˈᒦ䀓ߣ䲿ѻ㘼ᶕⲴޜޡԧ٬㿲ߢケˈሩҾ ᇩᙗ઼㶽ᙗⲴ෾ᐲኅާᴹ䟽㾱᜿ѹDŽ⹄ウӪઈᕪ䈳ˈ⴨ޣⲴǃ᢯䖭Ҷѫ㿲ԧ٬Ⲵ෾ ᐲオ䰤ᕅҶ䇨ཊ൘オ䰤઼ᰦ䰤к䜭н⴨ⲴǃཊṧⲴߢケDŽቭ㇑ޜޡԧ٬㿲ߢケ Ⲵᾲᘥ൘⨶䇪кᐢ㓿㻛ᶴᜣࠪᶕˈնᖸቁᴹᇎ䇱⹄ウᶕ䇶࡛䘉Ӌԧ٬㿲৺ަ൘෾ᐲオ䰤 ѝⲴߢケDŽᵜ᮷ԕޜޡԧ٬㿲⨶䇪Ѫส⹰ˈ䟷⭘Ṹֻ⹄ウ␧ᯩ⌅䘋䐟ˈᨀࠪҶа⿽ሩ ෾ᐲオ䰤ޜޡԧ٬㿲ߢケ䘋㹼ᇎ䇱⹄ウⲴᯠᯩ⌅DŽᵜ᮷࡙⭘ᶕ㠚ᗧഭ≹๑ᐲĀޜޡ৲о ൠ⨶ؑ᚟㌫㔏āⲴǃ⭡ޜ≁䍑⥞Ⲵ䶎㔃ᶴ৲оᔿᮠᦞˈ֯⭘㠚❦䈝䀰༴⨶઼ オ䰤㚊㊫ᢰᵟᶕ䇶࡛ᆈ൘▌൘ԧ٬㿲ߢケⲴฏDŽഋ⅑уᇦ䇯䈸䇴ՠᒦ䀓䟺Ҷ䘉Ӌᇊ䟿 ⹄ウ㔃󰵭DŽ䙊䗷ሶᇊ䟿䇴ՠо䇯䈸Ⲵᇊᙗ㔃󰵭⴨㔃ˈᡁԜ⺞ᇊҶ⿽а㡜ޜޡԧ٬ 㿲઼⿽ިරߢケDŽสҾ䘉Ӌ㔃󰵭ˈᵜ᮷ᨀࠪҶа⿽ᯠⲴĀޜޡԧ٬亶ฏāᾲᘥ⁑රˈ ᢙኅҶሩޜޡԧ٬㿲ߢケⲴ⨶䀓ˈᴹࣙҾ䘋а↕䀓䟺෾ᐲオ䰤Ⲵԧ٬㿲᢯䖭ᙗ䍘DŽ  ޣ䭞䇽 㠚❦䈝䀰༴⨶ǃޜՇ৲оǃޜޡԧ٬㿲ǃオ䰤ߢケǃ෾ᐲ㿴ࡂ  1328 U ban S udies 61(7) alues and hei spa ial con lic s h ough pa - icipa o y app oaches is a complex and chal- lenging ask (Naba chi, 2012) as i equi es me hods o accoun o di e se and plu alis- ic public alues ela ed o he de elopmen and usage o u ban space (Campbell, 1996; Godschalk, 2004; Lomba d and Rakodi, 2016). Viewing u ban space as being con inu- ously socially p oduced and ela ional (Le eb e, 1991; Pu cell, 2022), such a con- cep ualisa ion o en lacks p ac ical applica- ion in u ban planning o bols e go e nmen ac ion h ough pa icipa o y means o go - e nance (Leh o uo i, 2016). Se e al schola s ha e discussed he p es- ence o alues in he public sphe e (Bozeman, 2007; G aebe , 2013; Hillie , 1999), including de eloping public alues heo y o ins i u- ions (Naba chi, 2018). O igina ing om public adminis a ion esea ch, public alues heo y is conce ned wi h he unde lying no ms, p inciples and s anda ds o public policy and go e nmen . This domain empha- sises inclusi e elici a ion o public alues (Naba chi, 2012). The li e a u e also high- ligh s he use ulness o mapping (assumed) s akeholde alues and demons a es how pa icipa o y mapping can suppo iden i i- ca ion o a eas wi h po en ial land-use con- lic s and p o ide esolu ion among s akeholde s (B ody e al., 2004; B own and Raymond, 2014). While hese s udies a e highly in luen ial, cu en app oaches can be imp o ed in a eas ha a e lacking, in e ms o implici ly assuming alue(s) o educing con lic o a pai o alues. A p e-speci ied lis o alues (B own and Raymond, 2014; Ka imi e al., 2015) leads o a mapping o p e-imposed alues while an empi ical iden i- ica ion in e s alues om da a p o ided by ci izens in which hey exp ess hei alues wi hou cons ain s (Naba chi, 2012). A na - ow in es iga ion on ei he a singula alue o on a dicho omic alue con lic (Ty a ¨inen e al., 2007) does no ecognise he need o a plu alis ic app oach o unde s anding he inhe en con lic s in u ban de elopmen (McAuli e and Roge s, 2019). Thus, an empi ical and cohesi e app oach is necessa y o suppo inclusi e u ban de elopmen . Inclusion o public alues as one ‘o he mos impo an aspi a ions o public pa ici- pa ion p og ams’ (Beie le and Konisky, 2000: 588) lies a he co e o in eg a ed u ban de el- opmen . Tha is o en e lec ed in he daily wo k o planne s (Fo es e , 1999), bu no in hei own job pe cep ion (Leh o uo i, 2016). Following he calls o Naba chi (2012) o le e age pa icipa o y da a o he iden i ica- ion o public alues and hei con lic s, he e seem o be only limi ed a emp s o heo e i- cally es ablish, and empi ically iden i y, alue con lic s wi h he help o la ge-scale public pa - icipa o y da a in an u ban con ex . P e ious heo e ical wo k ocused on analysing alue con lic s in u ban egions p oposed a sus ain- abili y/li eabili y p ism o iden i y and discuss key alues in a ela ional se ing, bo h physi- cally and me apho ically (Campbell, 1996; Godschalk, 2004). O he s udies ind six con- lic ypes in pe i-u ban a eas ha ‘eme ge[s] om si e-speci ic social, economic and ecologi- cal in e ac ions’, namely ‘noise pollu ion’, ‘ isual bligh ’, ‘heal h haza ds’, ‘na u e conse - a ion’, ‘p ese a ion o he pas ’ and ‘changes o he neighbo hood’ (Von De Dunk e al., 2011: 149). These indings implici ly ma k al- ues as s a ic. Howe e , such seminal wo k can be expanded o a con inuously changing land- scape o alues in u ban a eas ha a e also geoloca ed and mani es a ious ypes o dynamic con lic s. Fu he , in e alua ing se - e al me hods o iden i y social-ecological ho - spo s, Ka imi e al. (2015) call o addi ional case s udies o include social alues in spa ial decision suppo ools. By building upon he heo y o public al- ues, his pape p oposes a new app oach: A case s udy–mixed me hods design aids in unde s anding which public alues a e p es- en and how hey can lead o con lic in u ban space. Applying na u al language He zog e al. 1329 p ocessing and spa ial clus e ing echniques o pa icipa o y da a om Hambu g, Ge many, public alues and a eas o po en- ial con lic s a e iden i ied. Subsequen ly, expe in e iews se e as a means o quali a- i ely discuss and in e p e he indings o he quan i a i e analysis. Ou goal is wo old: i s , o illus a e he po en ial o open-sou ce pa icipa o y da a o elici geoloca ed public alues in an u ban egion and iden i y po en- ial con lic s associa ed wi h u ban de elop- men p ojec s; and second, o con ibu e o he p esen heo y in u ban s udies by p o- posing a concep ual model ha suppo s unde s anding he plu alism o public alues and hei con lic s ac oss ime and space. The pape is s uc u ed as ollows: i s , we lay ou seminal heo e ical wo k on pub- lic alues and illus a e he impo ance o iden i ica ion o alues o u ban planning. Second, we explain he da a and me hods used. Thi d, we s a e he quan i a i e and quali a i e esul s sepa a ely and hen in e- g a e he indings o bo h s ands o o m a mo e comp ehensi e model o con lic ing public alues in u ban planning. Las ly, we discuss ou app oach and s a e conclusions o he applica ion o he concep ual model and u u e esea ch. Public alues and u ban planning Iden i ica ion o public alues Se e al schola s in a ious ields – An h opology, Philosophy, Psychology, Economics and Public Adminis a ion esea ch – ha e de eloped a dis inc heo y o alue(s) o hei pu poses (e.g. Bozeman, 2007; G aebe , 2013; Hillie , 1999). The mos p o ound and eoccu ing dis inc ion is he one be ween singula and plu al: A alue (sin- gula ) is ypically concei ed as some hing an- gible, alloca able and aceable in ela ion o a speci ic objec , o ins ance he mone a y exchange alue o a p ope y (Bozeman, 2007). In con as , alues (plu al) a e conside ed non-compa able, co-exis ing and ela i e, and a e ela ed o a much b oade , ‘socie al’ and ‘poli ical’ con ex (G aebe , 2013). Values comp ise ‘bo h cogni i e and emo i e elemen s’, a e connec ed o one’s de - ini ion o onesel , a e ha dly changeable, and ha e ‘ he po en ial o elici ac ion’ (Bozeman, 2007: 117). Hillie (1999) u he di e en ia es be ween ins umen al and in insic alues. In insic alues a e ends in hemsel es, hei ealisa ion being hei pu pose. In con as , ins umen al alues se e ano he end han i sel . One could, o example, alue na u e p ese a ion as an in insic means in i sel , ye ano he one alues na u e p ese a ion as an ins umen al means o hei pe sonal heal h. Public alues, as concep ualised by Bozeman (2007: 132), conce n he alues ha ough o be p esen in he public sphe e ac oss a ious le els. On an indi idual le el, people hold bo h public and p i a e alues, he o me being alues ha one wishes o be ealised in he public ealm (e.g. ecological p ese a ion) and he la e conce ning alues in hei p i- a e li es (e.g. in e cul u al expe iences b ough by ca bon-in ensi e long-dis ance a el). On an agg ega e le el, socie ies and go e nmen s also emb ace public alues, ide- ally eme ging om he indi idual’s alues and se ing he public in e es . The heo y o public alues is hus con- ce ned wi h ‘ hose p o iding no ma i e con- sensus abou . . . he p inciples on which go e nmen s and policies should be based’ (Bozeman, 2007: 13) and ‘ he social s an- da ds, p inciples, and ideals o be pu sued and upheld by go e nmen agen s and o ga- niza ions’ (Naba chi, 2018: 60). As he li e a- u e ecognises ha in eali y, he u opia o no ma i e consensus on alues seldom ma e- ialises (Naba chi, 2012), plu alism o equally alid, co ec and undamen al alues exis s. The ‘mos undamen al’ (Fukumo o and Bozeman, 2019) challenge in his esea ch a ea is he iden i ica ion o public alues. P e ious app oaches include he analysis o 1330 U ban S udies 61(7) go e nmen al documen s (Fukumo o and Bozeman, 2019), in ui ion, elec ions, su eys and academic li e a u e (Bozeman, 2007: 133–141). Naba chi (2012), howe e , a gues ha any app oach o public alues iden i i- ca ion o he han including he public, ends o be exclusiona y by highligh ing only ce - ain p i ileged alues. Public alues and u ban space The ole o alues in u ban planning gained signi ican ac ion since he ecogni ion o ela ional u ban space and i s inhe en ly social p oduc ion (Jacobs, 1961; Le eb e, 1991; Soja, 2000). In con as o an absolu e and Euclidean concep ualisa ion, ela ional u ban space implies ha he pe cep ion o u ban space, including i s social ealm, is ela- i e o i s obse e and canno ully be com- p ehended objec i ely. Subsequen ly, schola s ha e desc ibed planne s as ‘p ac ical e hicis s’ (Fo es e , 1999: 31), ejec ed he idea o alue-neu al planning (Sande cock, 2004), and u ged planne s o econside he plu ali y o alues and explo e mo e e ec i e alue- inco po a ion s a egies o inclusi e u ban de elopmen (Hillie , 1999). Mo e ecen ly in U ban S udies, se e al a icles in es iga ed how u ban alues ela e o u ban quali ies (Me zge and Wibe g, 2018; Molna , 2023). Howe e , he a o emen ioned li e a u e does no adhe e o a single cohe en heo y o al- ues and alls sho in concep ualising he an- si ion om indi idual alues o ins i u ional decisions in, o example, pa icipa o y p o- cesses. Thus, in line wi h ecen esea ch, we con ibu e o ad ancing he heo y o public alues in he ield o u ban s udies (Candel and Paulsson, 2023). Iden i ica ion o alue con lic s in space The exis ence o alue con lic s in u ban space is uncon es ed (De G aa e al., 2016; Hillie , 1999; Naba chi, 2018). Schola s poin ou ha ‘emo ional’ eac ions owa ds land and places a e an in eg al pa o u ban li e and i s esul ing con lic s in ci ies ac oss he globe (Lomba d and Rakodi, 2016). Since he en ance o sus ainabili y p inci- ples in o u ban planning, schola s poin ou he esul ing alue con lic s be ween social, economic and ecological aspec s (Campbell, 1996). O he s add addi ional dimensions, o example, by in es iga ing con lic s wi h he alue o li eabili y (Godschalk, 2004) o explo ing alues speci ically ela ed o u ban woodlands (Ty a ¨inen e al., 2007). Mul iple con lic a che ypes a e also in es iga ed in pe i-u ban a eas (Von De Dunk e al., 2011) and speci ically a u ban wa e on p ojec s (A ni and Teschne , 2019). In a democ a ic de elopmen o u ban space, he e is a con inuous p oduc ion o con lic ing alues (Pu cell, 2022), which, by hei e y na u e, a e dependen on he pe son exp essing hem, and hus incommensu able be ween people (Bozeman, 2007; G aebe , 2013; Rokeach, 1973). Value con lic s ma e i- alise in space whe e he ealisa ion o one alue o en imes p ohibi s o impai s he ea- lisa ion o ano he . F om a ela ional iew- poin , alue con lic s a e no only una oidable, bu inhe en o he planning p ocess i sel and a e con inually changing. E en hough mul iple schola s p o ide insigh in o how analysing he aming elici s u ban alues (Me zge and Wibe g, 2018, Molna , 2023) and o he s ad oca e o inc eased delibe a ion and pa icipa ion in u ban planning (Naba chi, 2012), a cohe en o e iew o public alues in u ban planning is ye o be ob ained (McAuli e and Roge s, 2019). The ques ion o u ban decision mak- e s hen is how o anscend incommensu - abili y and iden i y public alues and hei con lic sinanempi icalandinclusi emanne . Me hods and da a We conduc ed a case s udy–mixed me hods app oach ha embeds a mixed me hods He zog e al. 1331 s udy wi hin an o e a ching case s udy (Gue e man and Fe e s, 2018). Fo he mixed-me hods design, we ollowed an explana o y sequen ial app oach wi h (1) a quan i a i e esea ch s and ollowed by (2) a smalle quali a i e s udy (C eswell and Cla k, 2010). The esul s om bo h s ands (3) we e in eg a ed and in e p e ed o o m a be e concep ual model o (con lic ing) pub- lic alues in u ban space. In public alues’ elici a ion, he quali y o he quan i a i e analysis o pa icipa o y ex ual da a is dependen on he esea che s conduc ing such a s udy (Chang e al., 2009). To add ess his conce n ou app oach encapsula es a quali a i e s and ha makes use o expe knowledge o he pu pose o in e p e a ion and e alua ion. We selec ed Hambu g, Ge many, as a case s udy o h ee easons. Fi s , he ci y aces subs an ial u banisa ion challenges wi h a po en ial o al popula ion inc ease o 200,000 people by 2040, he eby c ossing he wo million inhabi an h eshold. Second, Hambu g’s Sena e ounded he ‘S ad we ks a ’ (‘u ban wo kshop’) o s i- mula e a new planning cul u e by p oac- i ely in ol ing he ci izen y in in o mal pa icipa ion p ocesses in u ban planning and deploying he digi al on-si e and online pa icipa ion pla o m DIPAS on a ci y- wide scale (Lie en, 2017). Thi d, Hambu g’s own anspa ency law p e- sc ibes he publica ion o in o ma ion p o- cessed wi hin he ci y’s adminis a ion in a cen al online eposi o y ha is accessible in an anonymous way wi hou any associ- a ed cos s. In he quan i a i e s and, we le e aged 4528 ci izen con ibu ions om a o al o 24 pa icipa ion p ocesses be ween 2016 and 2021 on he DIPAS pla o m whe e people inpu open ex ual commen s on he e oge- neous local u ban planning ma e s ( o mo e de ailed in o ma ion abou he p oj- ec s, see Online Supplemen al Ma e ial). Con ibu ions a e a ibu ed o a ce ain ca ego y and ype (Lie en, 2017). O hese con ibu ions, 3584 we e geoloca ed. P ep ocessing o he da a included basic da a cleaning, named en i y emo al, lemma isa- ion, n-g am modelling and s opwo d, num- be and punc ua ion emo al (G imme and S ewa , 2013); see he Online Supplemen al In o ma ion o de ails. Subsequen ly, he da a was ans o med o a bag o wo ds and he mos in equen 0.75% o wo ds we e emo ed be o e applying S uc u al Topic Modelling (STM) (Robe s e al., 2019), an unsupe ised clus e ing algo i hm o la ge ex co po a o in e la en opics behind documen s in he ex co pus while allowing me ada a o in luence opic assignmen s. S uc u al Topic Modelling as an unsupe - ised machine lea ning me hod does no ely on p e-exis en aining da a, bu aims o ind s uc u es in he da a by i sel . In con- as , supe ised machine lea ning algo- i hms would only p edic labels in he da a ha we e manually speci ied be o ehand. Hence we a gue ha he me hodology – by design – enables a much be e induc i e analysis and can unco e s uc u es in pa i- cipa o y da a ha we e p e iously unknown. Addi ionally, using he Google T ansla e API, he con ibu ions we e ansla ed o English and sen imen analysis was applied o add mo e nuanced me ada a o STM. We chose k= 30 opics as a hype pa ame e based on he me ics o esidual analysis and seman ic cohe ence and manually assigned opics o a public alue, whe e e such an assignmen was jus i iable. We based his decision on he close in es iga ion o con i- bu ions ound in each speci ic opic clus e (see Supplemen al In o ma ion). To examine a eas o po en ial public alue con lic s, he di e en assigned public alues we e spa- ially clus e ed using he HDBSCAN algo- i hm (Campello e al., 2015) and con e ed in o spa ial polygons by applying he alpha shape algo i hm, as illus a ed by Chen e al. 1332 U ban S udies 61(7) (2019). Using his me hod, a eas o po en ial public alue con lic s can be in es iga ed by explo ing he in e sec ion o polygons. To in es iga e hese con lic s, we la gely buil upon he heo e ical wo k o Godschalk (2004) and Campbell (1996) since hey p o- ide an in en o y o a che ypal con lic s on a ci y-wide scale ha encompasses gene ic alues as opposed o speci ic con ex s, spa- ial scales and geog aphies. In he quali a i e s and, ou expe in e - iews wi h u ban planne s based in Hambu g and amilia wi h he local con ex we e con- duc ed. Thei di e en domains we e g een space and playg ound planning, esiden ial de elopmen , mobili y planning, and noise p o ec ion planning. Due o es ic ions ega ding he sp ead o he Co ona i us, in e iews we e conduc ed in an online Zoom en i onmen . The S ad we ks a Hambu g ac edasanin e media y oes ablishcon ac s wi h planning expe s. To ensu e a mu ual bene i o he in e iews, only planning expe s wi h backg ound knowledge in he DIPAS pla o m and pa icipa ion p ocesses we e selec ed. Expe in e iews we e s uc- u ed in h ee main pa s: Sec ion one, ‘In oduc ion’, se he scene and in oduced pa icipan s o he concep o public alues. Sec ion wo, a sho semi-s uc u ed in e - iew, sough o gain insigh s in o he pe cep- ion o public alues and hei con lic s by expe planne s (see Online Supplemen al In o ma ion). Sec ion h ee was an in e ac i e wo king session: Toge he , he STM esul s we e in es iga ed and ia emo e con olled sc een sha ing, an in e ac i e map o con i- bu ions and a eas o possible public alue con lic s we e explo ed. A e wa ds, in e - iews we e bo h ansc ibed and coded o he ex ac ion o ele an knowledge. Las ly, bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e esea ch s ands we e in eg a ed o o mula e a mo e comp ehensi e model o public al- ues and hei spa ial con lic s in u ban plan- ning. By building on exis en me apho ical desc ip ions o plu alis ic alues as sphe es and uni e ses (G aebe , 2013; Van de Wal e al., 2015) we sugges di e en isualisa- ions ha depic he iden i ied public alues and spa ial con lic s as a snapsho in he case s udy o Hambu g. Quan i a i e esul s Using STM on Hambu g da a, 30 opics we e iden i ied ha we e discussed in ela- ion o u ban de elopmen p ojec s. Twen y- eigh opics we e assigned wi h a cap ion ha ep esen s he o e a ching concep s dis- cussed in each opic, and wo showed no b oade cohe en heme. In hese opics, i e b oad public alues we e iden i ied: eco- nomic oppo uni y, ecologic quali y, social equi y, li eabili y and sa e y/heal h. A single public alue is e lec ed in 19 opics; he emaining ones con ain a ious public alues ( o mo e de ails see Online Supplemen al In o ma ion). As shown in Figu e 1a, he public alue o ecologic quali y e ol es a ound he wo main ideas o p o ec ion and c ea ion o g een spaces. The mos p obable wo ds o he public alue o social equi y (as shown in Figu e 1b) a e ‘ca ’, ‘bicycle’, ‘p o ide’, ‘good’ and ‘wide’. They e lec he idea ha he ci y should be mo e accessible o cyclis s wi h he imp o emen o bike lanes, o example, by widening hem. Con ibu ions o opic 11, ‘Li ing o ma - ginalised g oups’, in ano he no ion o social equi y, lamen exploding apa men en s, wish o subsidised and accessible li ing space o disabled people, sugges inc eased in es men in neighbou hood ac i i ies due o inc easing loneliness o he elde ly/ he you h o ac i ely look ou o pa ne s o p o ide li ing space o he homeless. As Campbell (1996: 297) desc ibes he alue o economic oppo uni y ealised as he ‘space o highways, ma ke a eas and commu e zones’, he issue o p o iding pa king spo s o esiden s in public spaces was assigned o He zog e al. 1333 Figu e 1. Wo dclouds show he mos p obable wo ds ha appea in opics assigned o a single public alue. (a) The public alue o ecologic quali y cen es a ound he c ea ion and p o ec ion o g een spaces. (b) The public alue o social equi y mainly e lec s he p o ision o be e bicycle lanes o be e accessibili y. (c) The public alue o economic oppo uni y is la gely conce ned wi h he p o ision o pa king spo s o local esiden s. (d) The public alue o li eabili y e lec s ce ain wishes o he buil en i onmen ega ding design ha should be ealised. (e) The public alue o heal h/sa e y indica es he wish o be e p o ec ion om dange ous a ic si ua ions. 1334 U ban S udies 61(7) he public alue o economic oppo uni y. As many con ibu ions a e a ibu ed o his speci ic issue, he mos p obable wo ds a e ‘local esiden s’, ‘ a away’, ‘zone’, ‘always’ and ‘es ablish’ (see Figu e 1c). Rep esen ing he mo e angible e e yday en i onmen and i s design, many (pa ially con adic ing) desi es a e subsumed unde li eabili y. Dominan wo ds a e ‘should’, ‘ ind’, ‘ins ead o ’ and ‘design’, indica ing a wish o a di - e en shaping o u ban space. Looking o e ms ha conc e ise hese desi es, wo ds like ‘gas onomy’, ‘subway’, ‘business’, ‘ma - ke ’, ‘bank’ and ‘playg ound’ can be ound. Las ly, he public alue o heal h/sa e y was iden i ied mainly in mobili y- ela ed opics, which explains hei mos p obable wo ds: ‘ a ic’, ‘p o ec ion’, ‘ empo’, ‘high’, ‘side- walks’ and ‘dange ous si ua ions’ (see Figu e 1e). Figu e 2a illus a es he spa ial dis ibu- ion o public alue clus e s de ec ed by he HDBSCAN and alpha shape algo i hm. No e he se e al la ge alue clus e s o equi y, li eabili y and heal h/sa e y in his map. Addi ionally, h ee la ge clus e s o economic alues can also be obse ed. Mul iple smalle clus e s o each alue a e dis ibu ed ac oss he ci y. In e sec ions o o e lapping clus e s show a eas o po en ial public alue con lic s (Figu e 2b). Th ough he lens o Godschalk’s p ism, six ypes o con lic a e dis inguished and illus a ed wi h he help o h ee egions o special in e es in Hambu g (Godschalk, 2004). One, in mul iple a eas a de elopmen con lic mani es s. I s mos common o m is he dedica ion o s ee space o inc eased access o pedes ians and cyclis s as opposed o g een a ea p o ec ion, speci ically along he Jung e ns ieg (Figu e 2b [a]). Two, in he newly de eloped dis ic o he G asb ook (Figu e 2b [b]) and he Sp eeha en ie el (Figu e 2b [c]), he gen i- ica ion con lic becomes isible in a clash be ween he wish o bo h highly li eable en i onmen s and a o dabili y. As hese neighbou hoods a e abou o be de eloped o esiden ial li ing, mul iple people wish o a o dable go e nmen housing while o he people wish o exci ing a chi ec u e and o he appealing places. Th ee, he g een ci ies con lic is only pa - ially e lec ed in he case s udy o Hambu g. In he pe cep ion o mos con ibu o s li e- able and g een spaces go hand in hand. This becomes especially appa en a ound he Jung e ns ieg (Figu e 2b [a]): equen ly, li eabili y alues e lec a desi e o mo e u ban g een ins ead o he buil en i on- men . Howe e , spo adic con ibu ions e lec ing wishes o open-ai cinemas, mo e a and mo e kiosks could esul in a g een ci ies con lic wi h con ibu o s wishing o he es o a ion o na u e. Fou , he g ow h managemen con lic again becomes isible a ound he Jung e ns ieg [a] a ea, which was chosen as a ca - ee pilo p ojec . He e, mul iple people lamen he decay o he inne ci y due o cus ome s’ lack o accessibili y by ca . Simul aneously, many see a mo e li eable en i onmen c ea ed h ough he exclusion o p i a e ca s. Fi e, mul iple smalle sec ions in Hambu g exhibi he p ope y con lic be ween equi y and economic alues. The p ope y con lic ‘be ween p i a e in e es and he public good’ (Campbell, 1996: 298) is equen ly e lec ed in he wish o ede e- loping s ee /pa king space o cyclis s and pedes ians. In ha way, pedes ian and bike lanes e lec a much mo e social sha ing o space. P i a e ca s a e conside ed o ake up public space ha could o he wise be used o he b oade bene i o socie y. Six, he esou ce con lic be ween eco- nomic and ecologic alues mani es s only in e y spa se sec ions o he ci y. I is iden i- ied in simila spaces as he p ope y con lic , since o en imes, he wish o mo e pa king spo s con adic s he wish o he p ese a- ion o c ea ion o g een a eas. He zog e al. 1335 be open o expansion and/o ea angemen , u u e case s udies in di e ing con ex s migh help wi h d awing a mo e holis ic pic- u e by p o iding addi ional ‘snapsho s’ o (con lic ing) public alues in o he spa io- empo al se ings. Fu u e esea ch Building on he p e ious discussion, h ee main s a ing poin s o u u e esea ch can be explo ed. Fi s , addi ional case s udies in o he social and cul u al con ex s, especially ones in he Global Sou h, would add c ucial pe spec i es on public alue sphe es. Enla ging his public alue ne wo k wi h addi ional alues and a che ypal con lic s will ul ima ely lead o a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o he complex in e ac ions o public alues and u ban space and in o how decision make s could possibly mi iga e o esol e such con lic s. Compa ing spa ial cha ac e is ics o con lic s, bes p ac ices and a che ypes o add ess a ious con lic s can be sys ema ically s udied o aid alue- d i en design. S udying such phenomena h ough he lens o a ma e ial semio ic app oach could e eal connec ions o alues o ce ain ma e ial and social con ex s. Second, in es iga ing he di e en ia ion be ween indi idual and public alues and he sou ces o con lic in be ween hese al- ues would help explain mul iple u ban social phenomena and could p o ide s a ing poin s o mo e e ec i e public pa icipa ion p ocesses (Thoneick, 2021). Thi d, esea ch in o pa icipa o y p ocesses and gene a i e design echniques could aid in imp o ing cu en PPGIS pla o ms o no only in es i- ga e wha ci izens wan , bu also hei unde - lying alues. In his con ex , d awing om a pa icipa o y p ocess ha includes o he ools ailo ed owa ds di e se needs o a socie y could ensu e ha mo e mino i y oices a e hea d. Such u u e esea ch would also c i ically e alua e ou sugges ion o public alue sphe es and i s implica ions o u ban planning and pa icipa o y se ings. Conclusion Unde s anding public alues and especially hei inhe en con lic s is c ucial o achie e he UN’s Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 11 o mo e inclusi e and sus ainable ci ies. Only once such con lic s a e iden i ied, can hey be e ec i ely add essed, mi iga ed and po en ially esol ed. By iewing such con- lic s h ough he lens o public alues sphe es, he p esen case s udy o Hambu g showcases a new app oach o bo h iden i y and concep ualise public alues in u ban space. A emp s o uly unde s and he ci i- zen y should s a a iden i ying hei no ms and alues: he p inciples on which he de elopmen o hei ci y should be based. Eme ging echnology and mul idisciplina y app oaches now enable an in eg a ion o plu alis ic alues ob ained om a la ge-scale sample o ci izens o inclusi e and sus ain- able planning o u ban space. Acknowledgemen s We would like o hank he S ad we ks a Hambu g, especially Ma eusz Lendzinski, o he da a p o ision o mul iple DIPAS pa icipa ion p ocesses and o es ablishing he con ac s o he expe planne s o conduc he wo kshops. Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle. 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