Academic Edi o : Elena Lucchi
Recei ed: 8 Janua y 2025
Re ised: 7 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 8 Feb ua y 2025
Published: 12 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Rezaie, P.; Lopez-Cabeza,
V.P.; Sola-Ca aballo, J.; Galan-Ma in, C.
Cooling He i age Scena ios:
T ans o ming His o ic Squa es o
The mal Com o . Buildings 2025,15,
564. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
buildings15040564
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
Cooling He i age Scena ios: T ans o ming His o ic Squa es o
The mal Com o
Pegah Rezaie 1, Vic o ia Pa icia Lopez-Cabeza 2, Ja ie Sola-Ca aballo 1,3 and Ca men Galan-Ma in 1,3,*
1Depa amen o de Cons ucciones A qui ec ónicas I, Escuela Técnica Supe io de A qui ec u a,
Uni e sidad de Se illa, 41012 Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (P.R.); [email p o ec ed] (J.S.-C.)
2Cen o de In es igación en Tecnología, Ene gía y Sos enibilidad, Uni e sidad de Huel a,
21810 Huel a, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
3Ins i u o Uni e si a io de A qui ec u a y Ciencias de la Cons ucción, Uni e sidad de Se illa,
41012 Se ille, Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : U ban squa es in his o ic neighbo hoods a e i al public spaces, o en he only
nea by op ion a ailable o an aging popula ion. Howe e , hese spaces ace inc easing
he mal discom o exace ba ed by u ban hea island (UHI) e ec s. This esea ch ocuses
on imp o ing he mal com o o wo case s udies loca ed in Se ille’s high-densi y and
his o ically ich Casco An iguo neighbo hood. Al hough hei signi icance and social
alue make hem cen al mee ing poin s o locals and isi o s, hese squa es ace majo
challenges ega ding he mal com o , mainly due o a lack o g eene y o adequa e shading.
This s udy examines he condi ions by conduc ing in-pe son moni o ing and simula ions,
iden i ying ac o s con ibu ing o discom o . On he basis o his, he esea ch p oposes
mi iga ion s a egies o add ess hese issues. These solu ions include he ins alla ion o
g een walls, he addi ion o canopies, and he applica ion o speci ic su ace ma e ials o
imp o e he condi ions o hese squa es. Canopies p o ided he mos signi ican cooling,
educing uni e sal he mal clima e index (UTCI) alues by up o 6.5
◦
C. G een walls
deli e ed localized cooling, lowe ing he mean adian empe a u e (MRT) by up o 5
◦
C.
The esul s e eal how hese app oaches can b ing abou changes in he mal com o in a
way ha bene i s his o ic ci y en i onmen s.
Keywo ds: he mal com o ; he i age conse a ion; his o ic neighbo hoods; mi iga ion
s a egies; u ban hea island (UHI); u ban in e en ion; ENVI-me simula ion
1. In oduc ion
The expansion o u ban a eas, ueled by he ising mig a ion o indi iduals o ci ies,
cu en ly home o hal he global popula ion, is o ecas o con inue in he coming yea s.
A he beginning o he 21s cen u y, u baniza ion has sped up no ably as o e hal o
he popula ion cu en ly li es in ci ies; his igu e is expec ed o inc ease o a ound 60%
by 2030 [
1
]. The clus e ing o popula ions in u ban a eas ampli ies he u ban hea island
(UHI) e ec [
2
], which becomes mo e p onounced wi h inc easing popula ion densi y and
en i onmen al changes [3–5].
The de elopmen and ope a ion o u ban a eas play a c ucial ole in shaping he o e all
well-being o ci izens [
6
]. Acco ding o esea ch, a e age empe a u es in u ban cen e s
wo ldwide could ise by 1.4–4.8
◦
C by he end o he 21s cen u y [
7
]. Consequen ly, ci ies
a e becoming inc easingly ulne able o he e ec s o u baniza ion and clima e change,
which include ele a ed empe a u es and concen a ed pollu ion. As he popula ion
Buildings 2025,15, 564 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/buildings15040564
Buildings 2025,15, 564 2 o 27
g ows and he p opo ion o open a eas in he ci ies dec eases, especially in ci y cen e s,
he e is a g owing demand o high-quali y ou doo a eas o e ing heal hy ec ea ional
ameni ies [
8
]. These spaces play a c ucial ole in enhancing he li abili y and ib ancy o
u ban en i onmen s. Encou aging inc eased use o ou doo spaces can yield subs an ial
bene i s o he physical, en i onmen al, economic, and social aspec s o ci ies [9].
Ou doo he mal com o measu es he pe cep ion ha exp esses sa is ac ion wi h
he su ounding ou doo he mal en i onmen . This is in luenced by a numbe o ac o s,
including ai empe a u e (AT), ela i e humidi y (RH), wind speed (WS), sola adia ion,
and he p esence o shading o g eene y [
10
]. In addi ion o he clima ic a iables, u ban
design elemen s such as building shape [
11
], ma e ials [
12
], and ege a ion [
13
] in luence
ou doo he mal com o [
14
]. Howe e , he eeling o com o di e s among indi iduals,
as i is in luenced by pe sonal a iables such as how people a e eeling on a gi en day
o hei cul u al and social backg ound [
15
]. Ne e heless, in his case, clima e akes
he lead in shaping he le el o heal h and sa is ac ion humans eel in ela ion o hei
su ounding en i onmen [
16
,
17
]. Human biome eo ology esea ch is hea ily dependen
on an unde s anding o how clima e impac s human he mal com o , well-being, and
men al pe o mance [18].
The uni e sal he mal clima e index (UTCI) eam’s mul idisciplina y app oach [
19
]
was a signi ican depa u e om pas e o s o unde s and he mal indices—o en isola ed
endea o s. Collabo a i e esea ch was os e ed by in eg a ing insigh s om a ious ields,
leading o a uni e sal solu ion o assessing human he mal en i onmen s. This p ojec ,
housed wi hin an In e na ional Socie y o Biome eo ology Commission and a Eu opean
COST Ac ion, es ablished an in e na ional amewo k o s anda dizing he UTCI as a
clima ic index [
19
]. UTCI applies ad anced modeling echniques o e alua e ou doo
he mal condi ions, simula ing physiological esponses o he human body, aking in o
conside a ion ac o s such as clo hing and en i onmen al elemen s such as humidi y,
adia ion, and wind [
20
]. The ope a ional p ocedu e, a ailable as so wa e on he UTCI
websi e [
21
], demons a es c edible assessmen s o he mal condi ions in ho and cold
en i onmen s, aligning closely wi h exis ing s anda ds [22–24].
U ban a eas expe ience no able luc ua ions in he mal com o due o changes in he
adia ion balance, wind low, he layou o buildings [
25
], and u ban ea u es [
26
] such as
ege a ion [
27
]. These a ia ions c ea e mic oclima e scena ios o e pe iods ha impac
how people pe cei e local he mal com o [
28
]. G een and open spaces play a ole in
enhancing en i onmen s and c ea ing a ac i e ci y landscapes [
29
–
31
]. Since he 1980s,
g owing conce ns abou esiden s’ well-being ha e p omp ed an inc ease in esea ch in o
he com o o people in u ban spaces such as pa ks and squa es [
32
]. This end has led o
s udies ocusing on c ea ing mic oclima es o imp o e he com o o pedes ians [33]. As
isi o s a e mo e likely o use u ban spaces when hey a e com o able, ou doo he mal
com o plays a c ucial ole in how hese loca ions a e u ilized [34].
Se e al me hods ha e been used in p e ious s udies o mi iga e he impac o hea
in u ban a eas, imp o ing he mal com o [
35
–
37
]. These me hods could be classi ied by
s a egy [
38
], wi h he mos common and success ul being: 1. he modi ica ion o su ace
p ope ies o inc ease e lec ion and educe hea s o age [
39
,
40
]; 2. he p o ision o shade
o dec ease sola adia ion abso p ion [
39
]; 3. he use o g een s uc u es o inc ease RH
while educing AT; 4. he enhancemen o u ban ai low [
41
]; and 5. he u iliza ion o ac i e
cooling echniques such as wa e and g ound cooling [
39
,
42
]. Nume ous examples can
be ound in he li e a u e on he e ec i eness o hese s a egies, ei he indi idually o
in combina ion.
The concep o albedo, ep esen ing he p opo ion o sola adia ion e lec ed by
a su ace compa ed o he o al amoun ecei ed, signi ican ly in luences he he mal
Buildings 2025,15, 564 3 o 27
p ope ies o g ound su aces and he UHI e ec [
43
]. The e ec i eness o supe cool
ma e ials depends on ac o s such as hea capaci y, he po en ial amoun o hea s o ed;
sola e lec ance, he amoun o sunligh e lec ed; hea ans e a es, he speed a which
hea mo es h ough hese; su ace oughness; and pe meabili y, showing how easily wa e
can pass h ough hese ma e ials. Al hough high-albedo ma e ial is an ex emely p omising
s a egy, some s udies sugges i can ha m he mal com o as a esul o an inc eased mean
adian empe a u e (MRT) [
44
]. In o de o achie e he highes he mal com o possible,
albedo mus be op imized o each case.
Fu he mo e, he e ec o adding ege a ion is wo- old: i o e s shade-blocking di ec
sola adia ion, while g een e apo anspi a ion educes AT. G een s uc u es play a c ucial
ole in mi iga ing he mal condi ions. S udies indica e ha su aces co e ed wi h g eene y
expe ience coole empe a u es han su aces made o a i icial ma e ials such as conc e e
and asphal [
39
], e en i he albedo alues a e simila . Con e sely, ees can se e as
ba ie s agains wind cu en s, po en ially hinde ing hea dissipa ion [
45
]. Complemen a y
o ege a ion, a i icial canopies such as sun sails o o he ex ile memb anes help educe
sola adia ion wi hou inc easing RH o excessi ely hinde ing wind low [4,46].
While u ban geome y can in luence how hea mo es h ough a eas because o adia-
ion and con ec ion p ocedu es, design esul s a e c ucial o de e mining he wind low
eloci y and di ec ion [
47
]. Wa e bodies and i iga ions can use ully help o cool spaces
h ough e apo a ion and hei high hea capaci y. Al hough he cooling e ec s o bodies o
wa e depend on aspec s such as size, shape, posi ion, wind pa e ns, and nea by buildings
and s uc u es, in gene al, he li e a u e no es a conside able po en ial AT educ ion [
38
].
Howe e , hese lead o a was e o a high olume o wa e , which could be de imen al in
d y egions.
The e alua ion o he mi iga ing capaci y o some o he s a egies abo e has been
add essed p e iously [
38
]. Some o hese expe imen al s udies measu e he e ec s o he
applica ion o speci ic echniques. Va ious s udies ha e ocused on [
48
] ma e ials and
hei p ope ies, demons a ing he g ea po en ial o he use o cooling ma e ials [
49
] and
esul ing in educ ions in su ace empe a u e (ST) o up o 10
◦
C. Fu he mo e, o he
expe imen s [
50
] ha e been conduc ed by combining s a egies in de ined spaces, also
p o iding p omising esul s wi h educ ions o up o 11 ◦C in ansi ional spaces. Despi e
he pa icula di icul ies p esen ed by he e alua ion o ma e ials in la ge u ban spaces,
success ul examples can be ound in o he s udies [
51
], whe e a conside able educ ion in
empe a u e (4 ◦C) is obse ed in expe imen al u ban spaces.
The di icul ies men ioned abo e ha e con ibu ed o he inc eased ele ance o com-
pu a ional simula ions. Compu a ional Fluid Dynamics (CFD) p og ams such as ENVI-
me [
51
] acili a e simula ed expe imen a ion based on scien i ic da a, in u n educing
cos s. Nume ous s udies ha e e alua ed a ious mi iga ion s a egies (MS) using ENVI-
me simula ions [
38
]. In some cases, heo e ical possible scena ios explici ly designed
o expe imen a ion ha e been e alua ed [
52
,
53
]. Howe e , o he e alua ions examined
eal case s udies [
54
], inc easing he di ec con ex ual applicabili y o esul s. This has
esul ed in a UTCI educ ion o 6
◦
C in u ban pa ks hanks o he use o g eene y. In o he
s udies ocused on his o ical-he i age a eas [
55
,
56
], mi iga ion scena ios ha e been es ed
and e alua ed in complex a eas, albei on a la ge scale, wi hou a pa icula ly de ailed
examina ion o ep esen a i e small spaces wi hin he his o ic cen e s udied.
In con as , ecen s udies ha e ocused on he use o inno a i e ma e ials wi h g ea
cooling po en ial, including acade ma e ials, making hem doubly bene icial. San amou is
and Yun [
57
] emphasize he po en ial o inno a i e ma e ials, such as pho onic, he -
moch omic, and PCM-doped su aces, in mi iga ing UHI e ec s. Thei esea ch con i ms
Buildings 2025,15, 564 4 o 27
ha hese ma e ials can subs an ially educe he ST, occasionally achie ing sub-ambien
le els and lowe empe a u es han con en ional ma e ials.
Howe e , he p o ec ion o he u ban ab ic and con igu a ion in his o ic ci ies is a
c ucial aspec o u ban planning and he i age conse a ion, as seen in p e ious esea ch [
58
].
I in ol es p ese ing he unique spa ial s uc u es, a chi ec u al s yles, and cul u al
signi icance o his o ic a eas while aking in o accoun mode n de elopmen needs, as
highligh ed in s udies on adi ional u banism and housing [
59
,
60
]. These wo ks illus a e
how adi ional a chi ec u al solu ions align wi h local en i onmen al condi ions while
p ese ing cul u al iden i y. This p inciple is essen ial when de eloping clima e- esponsi e
s a egies o his o ic u ban squa es. The e alua ion o he mal com o in hese sca ce
communal spaces goes beyond me e luxu y and can be conside ed indispensable when
os e ing an en i onmen conduci e o social ga he ings and communi y in e ac ions, gi en
he impo ance o hese squa es o he well-being o ci izens.
Se ille, a ci y in he sou h o Spain, is amous o i s his o ic cen e . The Casco An iguo,
o Old Town, o Se ille is one o he la ges in Eu ope, co e ing app oxima ely 4 squa e
kilome e s. Known o i s well-p ese ed a chi ec u e and ib an cul u al he i age, Old
Town is a la ge, sp awling his o ic a ea. The ci y o Se ille, known o ha ing some o he
highes empe a u es no only in Spain bu also in Eu ope [
61
], has been selec ed o de elop
a me hodology o assessing he mal com o in his o ic squa es based on de ailed analysis.
A p e ious s udy [
61
] has ound ha Se ille’s Old Town is coole han he pe iphe y du ing
he day. Howe e , due o i s high densi y, i is mo e p one o su e om he UHI e ec
a nigh . This is why, due o i s high densi y, u ban hea mi iga ion in e en ions a e
di icul o unde ake. Expansion and elaxa ion spaces, such as squa es, o e he mos
oppo uni ies o public space imp o emen .
This analysis p o ides a ho ough assessmen o a ious ac o s in luencing com o
le els. Nume ical simula ions, conduc ed using ENVI-me so wa e, play a signi ican ole
in his app aisal, ocusing on unde s anding he e ec on he mal com o o ac o s such
as he AT, RH, WS, and MRT in he squa es. This a icle u he explo es he mul i ace ed
aspec s o he mal com o assessmen in inc easing hea condi ions a ec ing his o ic ci y
squa es. I ollows a comp ehensi e app oach ha in eg a es empi ical analyses, simula ion
echniques, and inno a i e solu ions. These a e applied in a his o ic he i age ci y cen e ,
whe e he cha ac e is ic u ban ab ic, he dila a ions in he o m o small squa es, and
he adi ional cons uc ion sys em play a c ucial ole in he he mal pe o mance and
pe cep ion o social space. The in e en ions mus , he e o e, ake hese p oblema ic
conside a ions in o accoun .
Thus, he esea ch is s uc u ed as ollows: an ini ial me hodology is p esen ed, which
includes he case s udy desc ip ion, he ield measu emen s, and he se up o he ENVI-me
simula ion o he a ious scena ios. The esul s a e hen o ganized by scena ios wi hin
each speci ic case s udy be o e being discussed om a ious pe spec i es and p esen ing
he inal conclusions.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
This s udy p oposes MSs o he ypical u ban squa es loca ed in a his o ic ci y such
as Se ille in o de o imp o e use s’ he mal com o unde ex emely ho condi ions.
The
wo case
s udies selec ed in Se ille ha e been moni o ed o calib a e he simula ion
so wa e, modeling di e en s a egies in o de o p opose he op imal s a egy. The
ollowing me hodological low has been summa ized in Figu e 1.
Buildings 2025,15, 564 5 o 27
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 5 o 30
Figu e 1. Me hodology lowcha .
2.1. Resea ch Philosophy and S a egy
This s udy adop s a p agma ic esea ch philosophy, ocusing on eal-wo ld applica-
ions and he in eg a ion o quan i a i e da a (e.g., eco ded clima ic da a and ENVI-me
simula ions) in o de o p opose speci ic MSs o he mal com o wi h quan i a i e e-
sul s. The case s udy app oach selec ed aimed o emphasize wo ep esen a i e his o ic
squa es in Se ille. I includes a de ailed examina ion o he mic oclima ic condi ions and
he impac o p oposed in e en ions wi hin he s udy a ea’s unique his o ical and cul-
u al con ex s. The esea ch employs a mixed-me hod app oach, combining obse a ional
da a, nume ical simula ion, and a compa a i e analysis o baseline and mi iga ed scena -
ios. Based on his combina ion, a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he mal beha io and
he effec i eness o he s a egies p oposed can be gua an eed.
2.2. Time Ho izon, Da a Collec ion Techniques, and Analysis Tools
This s udy, which ocuses on wa m clima es, examines he ini ial da a, simula ions,
and esul s o a ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023) in o de o cap u e peak he -
mal condi ions, p o iding a snapsho o he ex eme hea impac in he case s udy a eas.
Clima e da a we e collec ed om official me eo ological eco ds, while on-si e measu e-
men s wi h calib a ed ins umen s we e used o calib a e he simula ion p ocess. S a is i-
cal alida ion me ics, including calcula ed s a is ical e o s, we e employed o e alua e
he accu acy and eliabili y o he simula ion esul s. The da a analysis inco po a es ENVI-
me so wa e o simula e mic oclima ic condi ions unde baseline and o p opose mi iga-
ion scena ios.
2.3. Case S udies
Loca ed in Spain a 37.3891° N, 5.9845° W, wi h an a e age ele a ion o 6 m abo e
sea le el, Se ille co e s 141.28 km2. I is cha ac e ized by a Medi e anean clima e wi h
ho , d y summe s and mild win e s. The a e age annual empe a u e is app oxima ely 19
°C, al hough summe highs equen ly exceed 35 °C (104 days in 2023), and on mul iple
occasions each yea , empe a u es emain abo e 40 °C o se e al consecu i e days [62].
Acco ding o a p e ious s udy and classi ica ion [61], Se ille has nume ous high-
densi y esiden ial neighbo hoods. The mos p ominen o hese, Casco An iguo, se es
as he his o ic cen e o Se ille. Casco An iguo is s ill densely popula ed and cha ac e ized
by na ow s ee s and adi ional a chi ec u e, consis ing o a mix o esiden ial buildings,
shops, and ou is a ac ions. E en hough la ge g een spaces a e conspicuously absen ,
se e al small ha d-pa ed squa es ound in he a ea se e as ga he ing spo s o esiden s
and isi o s. The s udy o hese spaces is pa icula ly impo an o imp o ing he mal
Figu e 1. Me hodology lowcha .
2.1. Resea ch Philosophy and S a egy
This s udy adop s a p agma ic esea ch philosophy, ocusing on eal-wo ld applica-
ions and he in eg a ion o quan i a i e da a (e.g., eco ded clima ic da a and ENVI-me
simula ions) in o de o p opose speci ic MSs o he mal com o wi h quan i a i e esul s.
The case s udy app oach selec ed aimed o emphasize wo ep esen a i e his o ic squa es
in Se ille. I includes a de ailed examina ion o he mic oclima ic condi ions and he impac
o p oposed in e en ions wi hin he s udy a ea’s unique his o ical and cul u al con ex s.
The esea ch employs a mixed-me hod app oach, combining obse a ional da a, nume ical
simula ion, and a compa a i e analysis o baseline and mi iga ed scena ios. Based on his
combina ion, a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he mal beha io and he e ec i eness o
he s a egies p oposed can be gua an eed.
2.2. Time Ho izon, Da a Collec ion Techniques, and Analysis Tools
This s udy, which ocuses on wa m clima es, examines he ini ial da a, simula ions,
and esul s o a ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023) in o de o cap u e peak he mal
condi ions, p o iding a snapsho o he ex eme hea impac in he case s udy a eas. Clima e
da a we e collec ed om o icial me eo ological eco ds, while on-si e measu emen s wi h
calib a ed ins umen s we e used o calib a e he simula ion p ocess. S a is ical alida ion
me ics, including calcula ed s a is ical e o s, we e employed o e alua e he accu acy and
eliabili y o he simula ion esul s. The da a analysis inco po a es ENVI-me so wa e o
simula e mic oclima ic condi ions unde baseline and o p opose mi iga ion scena ios.
2.3. Case S udies
Loca ed in Spain a 37.3891
◦
N, 5.9845
◦
W, wi h an a e age ele a ion o 6 m abo e
sea le el, Se ille co e s 141.28 km
2
. I is cha ac e ized by a Medi e anean clima e wi h
ho , d y summe s and mild win e s. The a e age annual empe a u e is app oxima ely
19 ◦C,
al hough summe highs equen ly exceed 35
◦
C (104 days in 2023), and on mul iple
occasions each yea , empe a u es emain abo e 40 ◦C o se e al consecu i e days [62].
Acco ding o a p e ious s udy and classi ica ion [
61
], Se ille has nume ous high-
densi y esiden ial neighbo hoods. The mos p ominen o hese, Casco An iguo, se es as
he his o ic cen e o Se ille. Casco An iguo is s ill densely popula ed and cha ac e ized
by na ow s ee s and adi ional a chi ec u e, consis ing o a mix o esiden ial buildings,
shops, and ou is a ac ions. E en hough la ge g een spaces a e conspicuously absen ,
se e al small ha d-pa ed squa es ound in he a ea se e as ga he ing spo s o esiden s
and isi o s. The s udy o hese spaces is pa icula ly impo an o imp o ing he mal

Buildings 2025,15, 564 6 o 27
com o in ho wea he , gi en he po en ial isks posed by ele a ed empe a u es o public
heal h and he usabili y o hese a eas.
Two squa es, conside ed ypical u ban a che ypes o his o ic ci ies in Medi e anean
clima es, in his case Se ille, ha e been selec ed. Bo h squa es sha e s anda d ea u es, such
as compac u ban mo phology, high-densi y su oundings wi h adi ional cons uc i e
sys ems [
58
], and limi ed g een in as uc u e, all ai s equen ly ound in his o ic ci y
cen e s ac oss sou he n Eu ope (Figu e 2):
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 6 o 30
com o in ho wea he , gi en he po en ial isks posed by ele a ed empe a u es o public
heal h and he usabili y o hese a eas.
Two squa es, conside ed ypical u ban a che ypes o his o ic ci ies in Medi e anean
clima es, in his case Se ille, ha e been selec ed. Bo h squa es sha e s anda d ea u es,
such as compac u ban mo phology, high-densi y su oundings wi h adi ional cons uc-
i e sys ems [58], and limi ed g een in as uc u e, all ai s equen ly ound in his o ic
ci y cen e s ac oss sou he n Eu ope (Figu e 2):
Figu e 2. Casco An iguo neighbo hood and San Julian Squa e (SJS) and C is o de Bu gos Squa e
(CBS) loca ions.
• San Julian Squa e (SJS) has been chosen o he assessmen o he mal com o , as i s
shape, design ea u es, and lack o wa e elemen s and g eene y a e also a ea u e o
many small squa es nea by. SJS is app oxima ely 28.5 m wide and 44 m long, while
he su ounding buildings a e age a heigh o 9.5 m. T adi ional cons uc ion ech-
niques ha e played a c ucial ole in shaping he he mal p ope ies o hese squa es:
he su ounding acades a e p ima ily made o local adi ional mass b icks, wi h
mo a ende pain ed in ligh colo s, while he oo s a e ce amic iles. G ani e cob-
bles one co e s he oad su ounding wo sides o he squa e, while he pa hways
a e pa ed in cemen mo a ile o s one iles, as shown in Figu e 3. The cobbles ones,
laid using compac ed sand beds and in e locked wi h mo a , p o ide s abili y bu
lack pe meabili y and con ibu e o su ace hea ing.
Figu e 2. Casco An iguo neighbo hood and San Julian Squa e (SJS) and C is o de Bu gos Squa e
(CBS) loca ions.
•
San Julian Squa e (SJS) has been chosen o he assessmen o he mal com o , as i s
shape, design ea u es, and lack o wa e elemen s and g eene y a e also a ea u e o
many small squa es nea by. SJS is app oxima ely 28.5 m wide and 44 m long, while he
su ounding buildings a e age a heigh o 9.5 m. T adi ional cons uc ion echniques
ha e played a c ucial ole in shaping he he mal p ope ies o hese squa es: he
su ounding acades a e p ima ily made o local adi ional mass b icks, wi h mo a
ende pain ed in ligh colo s, while he oo s a e ce amic iles. G ani e cobbles one
co e s he oad su ounding wo sides o he squa e, while he pa hways a e pa ed
in cemen mo a ile o s one iles, as shown in Figu e 3. The cobbles ones, laid
using compac ed sand beds and in e locked wi h mo a , p o ide s abili y bu lack
pe meabili y and con ibu e o su ace hea ing.
Buildings 2025,15, 564 7 o 27
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 7 o 30
Figu e 3. Gene al iew o SJS.
• In con as , C is o de Bu gos Squa e (CBS) has an abundance o ege a ion. The
squa e, which is 40.2 m wide and 132.9 m long, is su ounded by buildings wi h a
heigh o 10.5 m. The ma e ials o su ounding buildings a e also adi ional mass
b ick walls wi h mo a ende and ligh pain colo s, while he oo s s ill use ce amic
iles. On he g ound, an asphal oad su ounds he squa e, while he pedes ian a ea
is pa ed wi h ed b ick ile (Figu e 4). The dimensions and ma e ials signi ican ly
in luence he a ea’s en i onmen al si ua ion. The design elemen s o he squa e—
mos ly exis ing g eene y ha p o ides shade—play an essen ial pa in shaping is-
i o s’ he mal expe iences and will guide us in analyzing i s mic oclima e and com-
pa ing i wi h he p e ious one o bo h squa es. Valuable inpu on he mal s anda ds
can be ob ained hanks o he po en ial pe cep ion o a iables such as sola exposu e
and wind low posi ioning. CBS ea u es ed b ick iles laid o e conc e e laye s,
which enhance du abili y bu es ic na u al cooling mechanisms. Howe e , in hei
cu en o m, hese his o ically au hen ic me hods limi he mal mi iga ion op ions.
Figu e 3. Gene al iew o SJS.
•
In con as , C is o de Bu gos Squa e (CBS) has an abundance o ege a ion. The squa e,
which is 40.2 m wide and 132.9 m long, is su ounded by buildings wi h a heigh o
10.5 m. The ma e ials o su ounding buildings a e also adi ional mass b ick walls
wi h mo a ende and ligh pain colo s, while he oo s s ill use ce amic iles. On he
g ound, an asphal oad su ounds he squa e, while he pedes ian a ea is pa ed wi h
ed b ick ile (Figu e 4). The dimensions and ma e ials signi ican ly in luence he a ea’s
en i onmen al si ua ion. The design elemen s o he squa e—mos ly exis ing g eene y
ha p o ides shade—play an essen ial pa in shaping isi o s’ he mal expe iences
and will guide us in analyzing i s mic oclima e and compa ing i wi h he p e ious
one o bo h squa es. Valuable inpu on he mal s anda ds can be ob ained hanks o
he po en ial pe cep ion o a iables such as sola exposu e and wind low posi ioning.
CBS ea u es ed b ick iles laid o e conc e e laye s, which enhance du abili y bu
es ic na u al cooling mechanisms. Howe e , in hei cu en o m, hese his o ically
au hen ic me hods limi he mal mi iga ion op ions.
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 8 o 30
•
Figu e 4. Cen al pe spec i e o CBS.
Figu e 4. Cen al pe spec i e o CBS.
Buildings 2025,15, 564 8 o 27
2.4. Field Measu emen s
Field measu emen s a e c ucial o alida ing he accu acy o simula ions wi hin he
esea ch si e. Da a collec ion was conduc ed a di e en imes in he wo squa es on a
ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023). The AT, RH, and globe empe a u e (using a
TROTEC TC100 he mo-hyg ome e ), WS (using a TROTEC TA300 anemome e ), and ST
(using a TESTO 905 T2 he mome e ) we e measu ed. Ten poin s we e selec ed in each o
hese squa es o he pu poses o measu emen (Figu e 5). These da a a e used o calib a e
he ENVI-me simula ion models, enabling he simula ion o mic oclima e and he mal
com o unde di e en con igu a ions o he MS. A summa y o he echnical speci ica ions
o he ins umen s used can be ound in Table 1.
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 9 o 30
2.4. Field Measu emen s
Field measu emen s a e c ucial o alida ing he accu acy o simula ions wi hin he
esea ch si e. Da a collec ion was conduc ed a diffe en imes in he wo squa es on a
ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023). The AT, RH, and globe empe a u e (using a
TROTEC TC100 he mo-hyg ome e ), WS (using a TROTEC TA300 anemome e ), and ST
(using a TESTO 905 T2 he mome e ) we e measu ed. Ten poin s we e selec ed in each o
hese squa es o he pu poses o measu emen (Figu e 5). These da a a e used o calib a e
he ENVI-me simula ion models, enabling he simula ion o mic oclima e and he mal
com o unde diffe en con igu a ions o he MS. A summa y o he echnical speci ica-
ions o he ins umen s used can be ound in Table 1.
(a)
SJS
(b)
CBS
Figu e 5. Selec ed measu emen poin s in SJS and CBS.
Table 1. Measu ing ins umen s speci ica ions.
Ins umen
and Model TROTEC TC100 The mo-Hyg ome e TROTEC TA300 Anemome e Tes o 905 T2 The mome e
Range Tempe a u e: −20 °C o 60 °C
Humidi y: 1% o 99% RH
Wind Speed: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s
Ai Veloci y: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s
Tempe a u e: −20 °C o 60 °C
−50 °C o 300 °C
Accu acy
Tempe a u e: ±0.5 °C
a 25 °C
Humidi y: ±3% RH (a 25 °C, 30% o 80% RH);
±5% RH (a 25 °C, <30% RH o >80% RH)
Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y: ±3% o
eading ±0.1 m/s
Tempe a u e: ±0.8 °C
±1 °C (−50 °C o −20.1 °C);
±0.5 °C (−20 °C o 99.9 °C);
±1% o eading ( emaining
ange)
Resolu ion Tempe a u e: 0.1 °C
Humidi y: 0.1% RH
Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y: 0.1 m/s
Tempe a u e: 0.1 °C 0.1 °C
Ope a ing En-
i onmen
Tempe a u e: 0 °C o 50 °C
Humidi y: 0% o 95% RH (non-condensing)
Tempe a u e: 0 °C o 50 °C
Humidi y: 0% o 80% RH (non-con-
densing)
empe a u e: −20 °C o 50 °C
Figu e 5. Selec ed measu emen poin s in SJS and CBS.
Table 1. Measu ing ins umen s speci ica ions.
Ins umen and Model TROTEC TC100 The mo-Hyg ome e TROTEC TA300 Anemome e Tes o 905 T2 The mome e
Range Tempe a u e: −20 ◦C o 60 ◦C
Humidi y: 1% o 99% RH
Wind Speed: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s
Ai Veloci y: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s
Tempe a u e: −20 ◦C o 60 ◦C
−50 ◦C o 300 ◦C
Accu acy
Tempe a u e: ±0.5 ◦C
a 25 ◦C
Humidi y: ±3% RH (a 25 ◦C, 30%
o 80% RH);
±
5% RH (a 25
◦
C, <30% RH o >80% RH)
Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y:
±
3% o
eading ±0.1 m/s
Tempe a u e: ±0.8 ◦C
±1◦C (−50 ◦C o −20.1 ◦C);
±0.5 ◦C (−20 ◦C o 99.9 ◦C);
±
1% o eading ( emaining ange)
Resolu ion Tempe a u e: 0.1 ◦C
Humidi y: 0.1% RH
Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y: 0.1 m/s
Tempe a u e: 0.1 ◦C0.1 ◦C
Ope a ing En i onmen
Tempe a u e: 0 ◦C o 50 ◦C
Humidi y: 0% o 95% RH
(non-condensing)
Tempe a u e: 0 ◦C o 50 ◦C
Humidi y: 0% o 80% RH
(non-condensing)
empe a u e: −20 ◦C o 50 ◦C
2.5. Simula ion Se up
ENVI-me is designed o examine mic oclima es by applying he ounda ional p inci-
ples o luid dynamics and he modynamics [
63
]. I can eplica e he in ica e in e plays
Buildings 2025,15, 564 9 o 27
among buildings, soil, g eene y, and he a mosphe e. I , he e o e, has widesp ead use
in esea ch on u ban mic oclima es. The so wa e is ailo ed o 3D modeling, ea u ing
a ypical ho izon al esolu ion in a 0.5–5 m ange and a empo al scope o 24 o 48 h,
using ime s eps o 1 o 5 s. This le el o esolu ion acili a es he sc u iny o in e ac ions
among indi idual buildings, su aces, and ege a ion [
64
]. The ENVI-me simula ions
we e designed o assess he he mal beha io o he selec ed squa es, u he en iched by
inco po a ing obse a ions om ield s udies. Once he on-si e measu emen s had been
ob ained, simula ions we e conduc ed on he he modynamic pe o mance o he squa es
using he ENVI-me so wa e ( e sion 5.1.1). De ails ela ing o he models and bounda y
condi ions o he simula ed squa es a e ou lined and p esen ed in Tables 2and 3.
Table 2. Simula ion model dimensions and geome y speci ica ions.
Pa ame e s SJS CBS
Numbe o g id cells 80 ×70 ×15 100 ×105 ×30
Size o he cells (m) (x,y,z) 2 ×2×2 2 ×2×2
Nes ing g ids 4 4
Model o a ion ou o no h 0 0
Telescoping ac o (%) 15 15
Telescoping s a s a e heigh (m) 20 20
Image o he model
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 28
2.5. Simula ion Se up
ENVI-me is designed o examine mic oclima es by applying he ounda ional p in-
ciples o luid dynamics and he modynamics [63]. I can eplica e he in ica e in e plays
among buildings, soil, g eene y, and he a mosphe e. I , he e o e, has widesp ead use in
esea ch on u ban mic oclima es. The so wa e is ailo ed o 3D modeling, ea u ing a
ypical ho izon al esolu ion in a 0.5–5 m ange and a empo al scope o 24 o 48 h, using
ime s eps o 1 o 5 s. This le el o esolu ion acili a es he sc u iny o in e ac ions among
indi idual buildings, su aces, and ege a ion [64]. The ENVI-me simula ions we e de-
signed o assess he he mal beha io o he selec ed squa es, u he en iched by inco -
po a ing obse a ions om ield s udies. Once he on-si e measu emen s had been ob-
ained, simula ions we e conduc ed on he he modynamic pe o mance o he squa es
using he ENVI-me so wa e ( e sion 5.1.1). De ails ela ing o he models and bounda y
condi ions o he simula ed squa es a e ou lined and p esen ed in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. Simula ion model dimensions and geome y speci ica ions.
Pa ame e s SJS CBS
Numbe o g id cells 80 × 70 × 15 100 × 105 × 30
Size o he cells (m) (x,y,z) 2 × 2 × 2 2 × 2 × 2
Nes ing g ids 4 4
Model o a ion ou o no h 0 0
Telescoping ac o (%) 15 15
Telescoping s a s a e heigh (m) 20 20
Image o he model
Table 3. Inpu a iables o ENVI-me simula ions.
Me eo ological inpu s Ai empe a u e and ela i e humidi y Hou ly da a in Table 4
Wind speed and di ec ion 1 m/s = 191.73°
Speci ic humidi y a 2500 m 8.0 g/kg
Roughness leng h 0.01 m
Vege a ion 3D ee
Simple plan
02SSSS, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (SJS)
0200XX, 020027, 010027, 01PLDM,
02ALDM, 02ALDS (CBS)
Building Walls and oo ma e ials Table 5
Soil Ini ial condi ions o soil ma e ials (Table 5)
Uppe laye (0–20 cm): 65%/20 °C
Middle laye (20–50 cm): 70%/20 °C
Deep laye (50–200 cm): 75%/19 °C
Simula ion S a simula ion day (DD.MM.YYYY)
S a simula ion ime (HH:MM: SS)
22.07.2023
21.00.00
To al simula ion ime (hou s) 28 h
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 28
2.5. Simula ion Se up
ENVI-me is designed o examine mic oclima es by applying he ounda ional p in-
ciples o luid dynamics and he modynamics [63]. I can eplica e he in ica e in e plays
among buildings, soil, g eene y, and he a mosphe e. I , he e o e, has widesp ead use in
esea ch on u ban mic oclima es. The so wa e is ailo ed o 3D modeling, ea u ing a
ypical ho izon al esolu ion in a 0.5–5 m ange and a empo al scope o 24 o 48 h, using
ime s eps o 1 o 5 s. This le el o esolu ion acili a es he sc u iny o in e ac ions among
indi idual buildings, su aces, and ege a ion [64]. The ENVI-me simula ions we e de-
signed o assess he he mal beha io o he selec ed squa es, u he en iched by inco -
po a ing obse a ions om ield s udies. Once he on-si e measu emen s had been ob-
ained, simula ions we e conduc ed on he he modynamic pe o mance o he squa es
using he ENVI-me so wa e ( e sion 5.1.1). De ails ela ing o he models and bounda y
condi ions o he simula ed squa es a e ou lined and p esen ed in Table 2 and Table 3.
Table 2. Simula ion model dimensions and geome y speci ica ions.
Pa ame e s SJS CBS
Numbe o g id cells 80 × 70 × 15 100 × 105 × 30
Size o he cells (m) (x,y,z) 2 × 2 × 2 2 × 2 × 2
Nes ing g ids 4 4
Model o a ion ou o no h 0 0
Telescoping ac o (%) 15 15
Telescoping s a s a e heigh (m) 20 20
Image o he model
Table 3. Inpu a iables o ENVI-me simula ions.
Me eo ological inpu s Ai empe a u e and ela i e humidi y Hou ly da a in Table 4
Wind speed and di ec ion 1 m/s = 191.73°
Speci ic humidi y a 2500 m 8.0 g/kg
Roughness leng h 0.01 m
Vege a ion 3D ee
Simple plan
02SSSS, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (SJS)
0200XX, 020027, 010027, 01PLDM,
02ALDM, 02ALDS (CBS)
Building Walls and oo ma e ials Table 5
Soil Ini ial condi ions o soil ma e ials (Table 5)
Uppe laye (0–20 cm): 65%/20 °C
Middle laye (20–50 cm): 70%/20 °C
Deep laye (50–200 cm): 75%/19 °C
Simula ion S a simula ion day (DD.MM.YYYY)
S a simula ion ime (HH:MM: SS)
22.07.2023
21.00.00
To al simula ion ime (hou s) 28 h
Table 3. Inpu a iables o ENVI-me simula ions.
Me eo ological inpu s Ai empe a u e and ela i e humidi y Hou ly da a in Table 4
Wind speed and di ec ion 1 m/s = 191.73◦
Speci ic humidi y a 2500 m 8.0 g/kg
Roughness leng h 0.01 m
Vege a ion 3D ee
Simple plan
02SSSS, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (SJS)
0200XX, 020027, 010027, 01PLDM,
02ALDM, 02ALDS (CBS)
Building Walls and oo ma e ials Table 5
Soil Ini ial condi ions o soil ma e ials (Table 5)
Uppe laye (0–20 cm): 65%/20 ◦C
Middle laye (20–50 cm): 70%/20 ◦C
Deep laye (50–200 cm): 75%/19 ◦C
Simula ion S a simula ion day (DD.MM.YYYY)
S a simula ion ime (HH:MM: SS)
22.07.2023
21.00.00
To al simula ion ime (hou s) 28 h
The simula ions we e conduc ed on he same day o he moni o ing campaigns,
23 July 2023.
The simula ion inpu pa ame e s included an hou ly AT and RH using simple
o cing, along wi h he a e age WS and di ec ion aken om a nea by wea he s a ion
wi hin he ci y, 3.5 km om he squa es (Table 4).
Buildings 2025,15, 564 16 o 27
Ano he ac o a ec ing he mal com o is RH. Acco ding o Figu e 11a, he RH
in SJS-CS g adually inc eases a nigh ( om midnigh o 7:00 h), peaking a a ound 6:00
(be ween 58.0% and 60.9%) ac oss all poin s. This inc ease is ollowed by a sha p decline
h oughou he day, eaching he lowes le els in he a e noon, be ween 14:00 and 17:00
( om 22.2% o 28.9%). A e 18:00, he RH le els ise again, s abilizing a highe alues in
he la e e ening hou s. This pa e n is di ec ly linked o he AT, which inc eases he RH i
he empe a u e dec eases.
WS is ano he in luen ial ac o impac ing he mal com o . Howe e , ege a ion and
buil s uc u es in SJS hinde he wind low ac oss a ious loca ions, leading o speeds o
less han 1 m/s. As a esul , his is no conside ed a signi ican a iable in his case s udy.
Figu e 11b displays he hou ly MRT and UTCI esul s. Du ing he ea ly hou s (mid-
nigh o 06:00), all i e poin s ha e closely g ouped he MRT in he ange o 17–20
◦
C. As he
day p og esses, he MRT inc eases signi ican ly, especially be ween 09:00 and 17:00, wi h
he MRT peaking a a ound 14:00 a poin 4 (70.4
◦
C) and poin 5 (75.5
◦
C a 17:00). Poin s 1
and 2 exhibi e y high alues ea lie (a ound 09:00–11:00), possibly due o di ec sunligh
o e lec i e su aces. The e ening shows a cooling pa e n, wi h he MRT d opping o
below 30
◦
C a all poin s a e 19:00. The di e ences in MRT alues a midday sugges ha
poin 4 and poin 5 may well be mo e exposed o sola adia ion o hea - e en i e su aces
han he o he poin s.
The esul s o he UTCI a e di ec ly ela ed o he MRT, wi h he nigh ime alues
(00:00–06:00) being also ela i ely uni o m ac oss he poin s, anging om 20.8
◦
C o
24.2 ◦C,
indica ing com o able he mal condi ions. Be ween 09:00 and 17:00, he UTCI ises
d ama ically, i s a poin s 1 and 2, exceeding 40
◦
C a ound midday, indica ing he mal
s ess. Poin s 4 and 5 also show ele a ed alues, peaking a abo e 44
◦
C in he a e noon,
wi h poin 5 eaching he highes alue o 44.8
◦
C a 17:00. Poin s 3, 4, and 5 exhibi a mo e
mode a e inc ease han poin s 1 and 2, pa icula ly in he ea ly mo ning and la e a e noon.
These di e ences a e di ec ly ela ed o sola adia ion and o ien a ion. A e 18:00, he
empe a u es dec eased s eadily, e u ning o com o able le els o 30–35
◦
C by he e ening.
Howe e , he UTCI, which is also a ec ed by he o he pa ame e s, dec eases slowe han
he MRT, while he AT emains e y high in he a e noon hou s.
3.2.2. SJS-MS
This sec ion shows he esul s o he p oposed MS in SJS. Gi en he lack o shading and
ege a ion, canopies and a g een wall a e sugges ed, also imp o ing he a ea aes he ically.
In some a eas, he su ace ma e ial o he squa es has also been changed in o pa ed g ass,
educing he he mal capaci y o he exis ing ha d pa emen . These esul s a e shown in
he maps displaying he absolu e di e ences in he AT, RH, MRT, and UTCI alues a ou
di e en imes (6:00 in he mo ning, 12:00 noon, 16:00, and 22:00) (Figu e 12). Reduc ions in
he SJS-MS alues compa ed o SJS-CS appea in g een, while ed is used o indica e highe
alues. Based on Figu e 12a, he AT absolu e di e ence sugges s ha he MS in SJS has a
small impac on he AT. A 6:00, he di e ence on he no heas e n side o he squa e is
0.1–0.4
◦
C. By noon, he canopies s a showing imp o emen s, educing he AT by 0.1
◦
C
o 0.7
◦
C. In he sou hwes o he squa e, his alue is om
−
0.2
◦
C o
−
0.5
◦
C, displaying
a sligh ly inc easing AT in his a ea. A 16:00, bo h canopies and he g een wall p o ide
mode a e bene i s, educing empe a u es by 0.1–0.4
◦
C. A nigh , he alues a e simila o
hose obse ed in he mo ning (Figu e 12a).
Fo RH (Figu e 12b), he di e ences a e minimal and nega i e, which means he RH
inc eased a e implemen ing MSs. In he mo ning and a noon, hese s a egies inc ease he
RH by
−
0.5% o
−
1.7%. Howe e , by nigh all and a e noon, hei in luence is negligible

Buildings 2025,15, 564 17 o 27
again (
−
0.5% o
−
0.8%). This means ha al hough he g een wall inc eases he RH, he
e ec can be conside ed minimal.
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 19 o 30
used o indica e highe alues. Based on Figu e 12a, he AT absolu e diffe ence sugges s
ha he MS in SJS has a small impac on he AT. A 6:00, he diffe ence on he no heas e n
side o he squa e is 0.1–0.4 °C. By noon, he canopies s a showing imp o emen s, e-
ducing he AT by 0.1 °C o 0.7 °C. In he sou hwes o he squa e, his alue is om −0.2
°C o −0.5 °C, displaying a sligh ly inc easing AT in his a ea. A 16:00, bo h canopies and
he g een wall p o ide mode a e bene i s, educing empe a u es by 0.1–0.4 °C. A nigh ,
he alues a e simila o hose obse ed in he mo ning (Figu e 12a).
(a) Absolu e diffe ence in AT a ou selec ed hou s
(b) Absolu e diffe ence in RH in ou selec ed hou s
(c) Absolu e diffe ence in MRT in ou selec ed hou s
(d) Absolu e diffe ence in UTCI in ou selec ed hou s
Figu e 12. The absolu e di e ence in clima ic a iables o he mi iga ion scena io a ou selec ed hou s.
Fo RH (Figu e 12b), he diffe ences a e minimal and nega i e, which means he RH
inc eased a e implemen ing MSs. In he mo ning and a noon, hese s a egies inc ease
he RH by −0.5% o −1.7%. Howe e , by nigh all and a e noon, hei in luence is
Figu e 12. The absolu e di e ence in clima ic a iables o he mi iga ion scena io a ou selec ed
hou s.
In e ms o he MRT (Figu e 12c), in he mo ning, he MRT di e ences a e nega i e,
be ween
−
0.8
◦
C and
−
3.7
◦
C, in he sou h o SJS. A noon, canopies signi ican ly educe
he MRT by up o 22.4–29.2
◦
C, while he g een wall p o ides mode a e cooling in he
ange o 2.1–5
◦
C. Du ing he a e noon, he a ea expe iences a ela i ely highe MRT, wi h
a di e ence o
−
0.8
◦
C o
−
3.7
◦
C, while a ound he g een wall, he MRT di e ence is in a
ange o 2.1–5
◦
C, and he e ec is he e o e posi i e. A 22:00, he di e ence close o he
Buildings 2025,15, 564 18 o 27
g een wall is 2.1–7.9
◦
C. These esul s sugges ha blocking di ec sunligh using canopies
is he mos e ec i e s a egy, especially in he mo ning.
Based on he absolu e di e ence in he UTCI in SJS shown in Figu e 12d, i can be s a ed
ha he UTCI di e ences a e minimal in he mo ning due o na u ally coole empe a u es.
By noon, canopies signi ican ly educe he UTCI by up o 5–6.5
◦
C, educing hea s ess,
while he g een wall p o ides sligh ly highe alues, om 0.4
◦
C o 1.2
◦
C. In he a e noon
and a nigh , he impac anges om −1.2 ◦C o 2 ◦C.
3.2.3. CBS-CS
The esul s o he simula ion o CBS-CS a e p esen ed in his sec ion. As shown
in Figu e 13, a 8:00, he UTCI is below 22.5
◦
C h oughou he squa e. By noon, i ises
signi ican ly and is be ween 37.5
◦
C and 40
◦
C, and he alues unde ees ange om
32 ◦C
o 35
◦
C. A 16:00, he wes side displays UTCI anges om 35
◦
C o 37.5
◦
C, while he
eas e n side and he cen e o he squa e show alues abo e 42.5
◦
C, and he alues unde
ees a e in he ange o 37.5–40 ◦C. By 22:00, he UTCI d ops o a ange o 27.5–32.5 ◦C.
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 20 o 30
negligible again (−0.5% o −0.8%). This means ha al hough he g een wall inc eases he
RH, he effec can be conside ed minimal.
In e ms o he MRT (Figu e 12c), in he mo ning, he MRT diffe ences a e nega i e,
be ween −0.8 °C and −3.7 °C, in he sou h o SJS. A noon, canopies signi ican ly educe
he MRT by up o 22.4–29.2 °C, while he g een wall p o ides mode a e cooling in he
ange o 2.1–5 °C. Du ing he a e noon, he a ea expe iences a ela i ely highe MRT,
wi h a diffe ence o −0.8 °C o −3.7 °C, while a ound he g een wall, he MRT diffe ence is
in a ange o 2.1–5 °C, and he effec is he e o e posi i e. A 22:00, he diffe ence close o
he g een wall is 2.1–7.9 °C. These esul s sugges ha blocking di ec sunligh using can-
opies is he mos effec i e s a egy, especially in he mo ning.
Based on he absolu e diffe ence in he UTCI in SJS shown in Figu e 12d, i can be
s a ed ha he UTCI diffe ences a e minimal in he mo ning due o na u ally coole em-
pe a u es. By noon, canopies signi ican ly educe he UTCI by up o 5–6.5 °C, educing
hea s ess, while he g een wall p o ides sligh ly highe alues, om 0.4 °C o 1.2 °C. In
he a e noon and a nigh , he impac anges om −1.2 °C o 2 °C.
3.2.3. CBS-CS
The esul s o he simula ion o CBS-CS a e p esen ed in his sec ion. As shown in
Figu e 13, a 8:00, he UTCI is below 22.5 °C h oughou he squa e. By noon, i ises sig-
ni ican ly and is be ween 37.5 °C and 40 °C, and he alues unde ees ange om 32 °C
o 35 °C. A 16:00, he wes side displays UTCI anges om 35 °C o 37.5 °C, while he
eas e n side and he cen e o he squa e show alues abo e 42.5 °C, and he alues unde
ees a e in he ange o 37.5–40 °C. By 22:00, he UTCI d ops o a ange o 27.5–32.5 °C.
Figu e 13. The UTCI esul s o CBS in he selec ed hou s.
Figu e 14a p o ides a comp ehensi e o e iew o he AT a ia ions a he i e poin s
in he CBS-CS o e 24 h. The AT analysis o his squa e shows ha poin 5 expe ienced
he highes empe a u es, peaking a 36.8 °C, p obably due o g ea e sun exposu e. Poin s
1 and 2 ollow simila , sligh ly lowe pa e ns, while poin s 3 and 4 consis en ly eco d he
cooles empe a u es, sugges ing possible shading o cooling effec s. These a ia ions
iden i y poin 5 as a p io i y a ea o he mal com o in e en ions. Fu he mo e, in
Figu e 13. The UTCI esul s o CBS in he selec ed hou s.
Figu e 14a p o ides a comp ehensi e o e iew o he AT a ia ions a he i e poin s
in he CBS-CS o e 24 h. The AT analysis o his squa e shows ha poin 5 expe ienced
he highes empe a u es, peaking a 36.8
◦
C, p obably due o g ea e sun exposu e. Poin s
1 and 2 ollow simila , sligh ly lowe pa e ns, while poin s 3 and 4 consis en ly eco d
he cooles empe a u es, sugges ing possible shading o cooling e ec s. These a ia ions
iden i y poin 5 as a p io i y a ea o he mal com o in e en ions. Fu he mo e, in
con as o he SJS-CS squa e, di e ences be ween poin s a e highe h oughou he day,
eaching 1.5 ◦C a some hou s.
The RH alues (Figu e 14a) a e also in keeping wi h hose seen in SJS-CS. These end
o be high in he ea ly mo ning and dec ease in he ho e midday due o he inc ease
in empe a u e. In con as o SJS-CS, his squa e shows mo e no iceable RH di e ences
be ween he poin s selec ed, p obably due o he highe p esence o ege a ion.
Buildings 2025,15, 564 19 o 27
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 21 o 30
con as o he SJS-CS squa e, diffe ences be ween poin s a e highe h oughou he day,
eaching 1.5 °C a some hou s.
(a) Ai empe a u e and Rela i e Humidi y (b) MRT and UTCI
Figu e 14. Simula ion o hou ly MRT and UTCI esul s a he selec ed poin s in CBS-CS.
The RH alues (Figu e 14a) a e also in keeping wi h hose seen in SJS-CS. These end
o be high in he ea ly mo ning and dec ease in he ho e midday due o he inc ease in
empe a u e. In con as o SJS-CS, his squa e shows mo e no iceable RH diffe ences be-
ween he poin s selec ed, p obably due o he highe p esence o ege a ion.
The MRT da a o CBS-CS (Figu e 14b) e eal conside able a ia ions ac oss diffe en
poin s and imes o he day. The MRT alues du ing he mo ning hou s o he day be ween
00:00 and 06:00 we e low, emaining p ac ically he same be ween poin s, showing a ied
alues wi hin he ange o 16.7–20.9 °C as a e lec ion o he nigh ime empe a u e. The
alues keep ising p og essi ely h oughou he day, s a ing a 09:00 and peaking om
15:00 o 17:00. A 16:00, poin 3 eco ded he highes MRT o he s udy, 72.9 °C, showing
highly exposed su aces o he sun. By e ening, he squa e heads owa ds a cooling end
whose le el is assumed o g adually pull down he MRT below 30 °C by nigh a ound
21:00. The con inuous a ia ions in he MRT du ing he sunny hou s sugges ha ege a-
ion helps o educe he MRT when i blocks he sun. Howe e , he lack o a homogeneous
canopy p e en s he MRT om emaining low.
Finally, he UTCI esul s o CBS-CS a e ela i ely uni o m, be ween 00:00 and 06:00,
wi h a ange o 20.9–23.5 °C, which is conside ed com o able a all poin s. Howe e , he e
a e e y high disc epancies du ing he day. In de ail, he UTCI alues ise no iceably a e
09:00 and each high le els—o e 40 °C, indica ing high he mal s ess—a ound midday
a poin 3 and he nea by poin 2. Poin 5 also eco ded high UTCI alues, peaking abo e
43 °C in he a e noon. Such high alues indica e ha hese poin s a e mo e exposed o
di ec sunligh o less shel e ed om hea sou ces. Poin s 1 and 4 illus a e mode a e ises
in he UTCI as opposed o poin 2 and poin 3. A e 18:00, he UTCI alues dec ease and
e u n o mo e com o able le els, anging om 28 °C o 35 °C in he e ening.
Figu e 14. Simula ion o hou ly MRT and UTCI esul s a he selec ed poin s in CBS-CS.
The MRT da a o CBS-CS (Figu e 14b) e eal conside able a ia ions ac oss di e en
poin s and imes o he day. The MRT alues du ing he mo ning hou s o he day be ween
00:00 and 06:00 we e low, emaining p ac ically he same be ween poin s, showing a ied
alues wi hin he ange o 16.7–20.9
◦
C as a e lec ion o he nigh ime empe a u e. The
alues keep ising p og essi ely h oughou he day, s a ing a 09:00 and peaking om
15:00 o 17:00. A 16:00, poin 3 eco ded he highes MRT o he s udy, 72.9
◦
C, showing
highly exposed su aces o he sun. By e ening, he squa e heads owa ds a cooling end
whose le el is assumed o g adually pull down he MRT below 30
◦
C by nigh a ound 21:00.
The con inuous a ia ions in he MRT du ing he sunny hou s sugges ha ege a ion helps
o educe he MRT when i blocks he sun. Howe e , he lack o a homogeneous canopy
p e en s he MRT om emaining low.
Finally, he UTCI esul s o CBS-CS a e ela i ely uni o m, be ween 00:00 and 06:00,
wi h a ange o 20.9–23.5
◦
C, which is conside ed com o able a all poin s. Howe e , he e
a e e y high disc epancies du ing he day. In de ail, he UTCI alues ise no iceably a e
09:00 and each high le els—o e 40
◦
C, indica ing high he mal s ess—a ound midday
a poin 3 and he nea by poin 2. Poin 5 also eco ded high UTCI alues, peaking abo e
43 ◦C
in he a e noon. Such high alues indica e ha hese poin s a e mo e exposed o
di ec sunligh o less shel e ed om hea sou ces. Poin s 1 and 4 illus a e mode a e ises
in he UTCI as opposed o poin 2 and poin 3. A e 18:00, he UTCI alues dec ease and
e u n o mo e com o able le els, anging om 28 ◦C o 35 ◦C in he e ening.
3.2.4. CBS-MS
Acco ding o he assessmen conduc ed p e iously o CBS-CS, i is clea ha imp o e-
men s a e equi ed o he poin s exposed o he sun. In addi ion, he o e all high UTCI
alues in he mo ning and a e noon hou s p omp us o implemen s a egies ha could
inc ease he mal com o . Thus, he use o di e en pa emen ma e ials is sugges ed in
o de o complemen he canopies ins alled in sunny a eas and he ex ensi e p esence o
ege a ion al eady ound in he squa e. Following an i e a i e p ocess o he selec ion o
ma e ials, he bes pe o mance was obse ed wi h he use o pa ed g ass, a ha d pa emen
inco po a ing g ass and soil. The esul s o he s a egy a e shown in his sec ion.
Buildings 2025,15, 564 20 o 27
A 6:00, di e ences in he AT a e qui e small, anging om 0.3
◦
C o 1.1
◦
C, showing
ha he e ec in he ea ly mo ning is minimal. A noon, cooling is mo e no iceable in he
no h and cen e sec ions, wi h alues o be ween 1.5
◦
C and 2.7
◦
C and alues o be ween
0.3
◦
C and 0.7
◦
C on he sou he n side, showing e ec i e cooling om pa ed g ass and
canopies. A 16:00, he cooling e ec s a e educed, wi h di e ences in a ange o 0.3–1.5
◦
C.
By 22:00, he AT di e ences d op in he ange o 0.3 ◦C o 0.7 ◦C (Figu e 15a).
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 24 o 32
(
a
)
Absolu e di e ence in AT a ou selec ed hou s
Buildings 2025, 15, 564 25 o 32
(b) Absolu e di e ence in RH in ou selec ed hou s
(c) Absolu e di e ence in MRT in ou selec ed hou s
(d) Absolu e di e ence in UTCI in ou selec ed hou s
Figu e 15. The absolu e diffe ence in clima ic a iables o he CBS mi iga ion scena io a ou se-
lec ed hou s.
4. Discussion
The selec ion o hese wo case s udies in he his o ic cen e o Se ille esponds o he
aim o analyzing wo diffe en concep ions o an u ban squa e: om e y small ones, gen-
e ally ha d pa ed and lacking o he elemen s, o medium-sized ones wi h ege a ion.
Bo h case s udies exempli y one o he mos cha ac e is ic elemen s o he his o ic cen e
o Se ille and o he egional ci ies. Small plazas, unde s ood as expansions and widenings
wi hin a dense and na ow u ban ab ic, unc ion as public spaces o social ga he ing and
in e ac ion among esiden s while also aiming o p o ide com o able a eas. As he esul s
ha e shown, hei clima ic pe o mance is s ongly influenced no only by hei u ban
s uc u e bu also by he use o adi ional cons uc ion ma e ials on pa emen s and adja-
cen buildings. The findings discussed he e can be easily ex apola ed o o he examples
wi h simila cha ac e is ics wi hin he ci y o egion.
4.1. Rega ding he Moni o ing and Valida ion o he S udy
Figu e 15. The absolu e di e ence in clima ic a iables o he CBS mi iga ion scena io a ou selec ed
hou s.
Buildings 2025,15, 564 21 o 27
The absolu e di e ence in RH is nega i e a all hou s in he a ea. This shows ha
he mi iga ion s a egy has inc eased he RH by noon, om
−
4% o
−
10%, especially in
he cen al and pa ed a eas, sugges ing a possible inc ease in e apo a ion o educ ion
in mois u e e en ion due o he e ec s o he MSs. In he a e noon, a 16:00, he RH
di e ences a e lowe han in he mo ning, ound in he ange o
−
1.00% o
−
2.5%, while
du ing he nigh , a 22:00, he le el is ela i ely s able, and only a ew changes om 0.5% o
−
2.5% we e eco ded, indica ing ha , du ing he nigh , he e ec o he MSs on RH a e
lessened (Figu e 15b).
In e ms o he MRT, in he ea ly mo ning, he absolu e di e ence is e y low and
nega i e, be ween
−
1
◦
C and
−
4
◦
C unde he canopies in he no h and cen e sec ions
o CBS. A noon and a e noon (12:00, 16:00), hese alues inc ease by 2
◦
C o 5
◦
C in he
pa ed g ass a ea and 14
◦
C o 23
◦
C unde he canopies. Howe e , by 22:00, he di e ences
in he MRT a e simila o hose in he ea ly mo ning (Figu e 15c).
The absolu e di e ence in he UTCI in CBS, as shown in Figu e 15d, indica es ha ,
in he mo ning, hese alues a e be ween
−
0.5
◦
C and
−
0.1
◦
C unde he canopies and
0.3–0.7
◦
C o pa ed g ass. A 12:00 and 16:00, hey ange om 1.1
◦
C o 2.3
◦
C unde
he ege a ion and abo e 3.1
◦
C unde he canopies. A nigh , his alue is simila o he
mo ning alues.
4. Discussion
The selec ion o hese wo case s udies in he his o ic cen e o Se ille esponds o
he aim o analyzing wo di e en concep ions o an u ban squa e: om e y small ones,
gene ally ha d pa ed and lacking o he elemen s, o medium-sized ones wi h ege a ion.
Bo h case s udies exempli y one o he mos cha ac e is ic elemen s o he his o ic cen e o
Se ille and o he egional ci ies. Small plazas, unde s ood as expansions and widenings
wi hin a dense and na ow u ban ab ic, unc ion as public spaces o social ga he ing
and in e ac ion among esiden s while also aiming o p o ide com o able a eas. As he
esul s ha e shown, hei clima ic pe o mance is s ongly in luenced no only by hei
u ban s uc u e bu also by he use o adi ional cons uc ion ma e ials on pa emen s
and adjacen buildings. The indings discussed he e can be easily ex apola ed o o he
examples wi h simila cha ac e is ics wi hin he ci y o egion.
4.1. Rega ding he Moni o ing and Valida ion o he S udy
Moni o ing esul s we e used o calib a e he simula ions. The e o esul s ob ained
in his sec ion all wi hin he accep able ange, as epo ed in he li e a u e. Howe e , i
should be no ed ha he e is no es ablished s anda d o his ype o ou doo simula ion.
Thus, a s anda d commonly used in ene gy simula ions was adop ed as a e e ence.
Ano he possible way o alida e he alues ob ained is h ough compa isons wi h
p e ious s udies. While alida ion wi h moni o ed da a is no always a ailable in he
li e a u e, se e al p e ious s udies ha e analyzed he MSs and alida ed simula ions o
he MRT (showing he poo es esul s) eaching 7
◦
C [
68
] and 11.2
◦
C [
69
], hus con i ming
ha his s udy can also be alida ed wi h he da a ob ained. Howe e , i is essen ial o ake
po en ial inaccu acies in o accoun , as he esul s o his s udy a e signi ican o ends,
ega dless o he absolu e alues.
4.2. Rega ding he E ec i eness o he S a egies P oposed
The simula ion o he CS o bo h squa es showed ha , o all he pa ame e s analyzed,
he a ia ions we e highe in CBS han in SJS. The e a e wo easons o his. Fi s ly, SJS is
much smalle in size, limi ing di e en en i onmen s inside he squa e. In addi ion, he
la ge numbe o ees in CBS p oduces changes in sola adia ion and humidi y pa e ns

Buildings 2025,15, 564 22 o 27
ha di ec ly a ec he AT, a ec ing he UTCI. Al hough he com o alues a e high in he
la e mo ning and he a e noon in bo h squa es, he a iabili y o he MRT in CBS inc eases
he com o condi ions since people can choose wha pa o he b oade a ea hey p e e o
occupy. The cu en use o he squa es alida es his s a emen , as CBS is much mo e li able
han SJS, e en in ex emely ho condi ions. This is in keeping wi h p e ious s udies [
54
],
which demons a ed he high local cooling po en ial o small ege a ion spaces o u ban
pa ks, p o iding clima e-cooling a eas o shel e .
A e applying he MSs o imp o e he mal com o in hou s o ex eme hea , he
esul s p o e ha he mos e ec i e s a egy in bo h squa es is he ins alla ion o canopies,
wi h educ ions in he UTCI o up o 6.5
◦
C in SJS and 5
◦
C in CBS. Shading elemen s, such
as pe golas o canopies, educe di ec sola adia ion on su aces and people, imp o ing
he mal com o . P e ious esea ch also indica es ha shading can dec ease he MRT
by up o 20–30
◦
C [
70
]. Howe e , hese imp o emen s a e limi ed almos exclusi ely
o di ec ly shaded a eas, hus limi ing he s a egy’s e ec i eness o ce ain hou s. In
addi ion, he esul s sugges ha he canopies could educe nigh hea elease and cause a
sligh educ ion in he he mal com o obse ed du ing he nigh . This conclusion u he
suppo s p e ious s udies in he same ield [
4
], which iden i ied emo able canopies as he
bes op ion, e en hough i is no ye possible o simula e dynamic shading in ENVI-me .
Acco ding o he exis ing li e a u e [
4
,
46
], hese esul s and he educ ion eached in he
UTCI a e gene ally o be expec ed, as simila educ ions ha e been ob ained in hese and
o he s udies [38], which eached e en highe empe a u e educ ions.
T ees and g eene y can signi ican ly educe su ace and ATs h ough shading and
e apo anspi a ion, bo h on a small scale and on a la ge u ban scale, as seen in p e ious
s udies [
55
]. Meanwhile, o he s udies ha e shown ha inc easing ege a ion co e by
10–20%
can lowe ambien empe a u es by 2–3
◦
C [
71
,
72
]. Howe e , s a egies o ege a-
ion and wa e use a e e y limi ed in he exis ing a eas. In ac , hei use is uled ou in
hese a eas due o he clima e change p ojec ions o lowe p ecipi a ions. In CBS, whe e
ege a ion was al eady subs an ial, his s a egy was no e en p oposed, as i could wo sen
com o due o an inc eased RH, as demons a ed by [
4
]. Gi en he a ea’s p o ec ed he i age
s a us and limi ed space, i is no possible o add new ees in SJS. The g een wall was
he e o e p oposed as an al e na i e. Howe e , i s mic oclima ic e ec was signi ican ly
educed, and while his s a egy can be conside ed o imp o e com o pe cep ion o he
mos pa , i p oduces no essen ial measu able bene i s in e ms o empe a u e.
I was challenging o op imize he s a egy o imp o ing he ma e ial o he g ound
su ace. Acco ding o he exis ing li e a u e [
43
], high-albedo pa emen s and coa ings
e lec mo e sola adia ion, educing he ST. In ac , s udies epo a ST educ ion o
5–10 ◦C
when cooling ma e ials a e applied in exis ing u ban spaces, as p o ed p e iously [
73
].
Howe e , in his ype o squa e, p e ious simula ion esul s wi h highe albedo in his s udy
consis en ly educed he mal com o . This was caused by an inc eased MRT due o he
e lec ed adia ion. The p oximi y o e lec ing su aces due o he geome y o hese spaces
makes high-albedo ma e ial p e e ably a oidable. P e ious s udies on he consequences o
albedo in con ined spaces u he suppo his conclusion [
44
]. Fo his eason, a he han
changing he albedo, he s a egy in his s udy was o educe he hea cap u ed by ha d
ma e ials, an app oach ha has p o ed e y bene icial o com o educ ion in p e ious
s udies [
53
]. The pa ed g ass p oposed abso bs much less hea han exis ing ma e ials.
Al hough he educ ion in he UTCI was only a ew deg ees, he e ec is mo e homogeneous
in he a ea o he squa e and imp o es com o , e en in shaded a eas.
Buildings 2025,15, 564 23 o 27
4.3. Limi a ions
This s udy is limi ed o he wo case s udies analyzed, al hough he conclusions can
be ex apola ed o simila spaces in many ci ies wo ldwide wi h simila s uc u es and
clima es. O he limi a ions inhe en o he me hodology we e also ca e ully conside ed
du ing his analysis. ENVI-me simula ions a e cons ained by hei s a ic ep esen a-
ion o dynamic shading e ec s and canno accoun o long- e m empo al a iabili y.
Addi ionally, ins umen accu acy unde ex eme hea condi ions may in oduce mino
disc epancies. Despi e hese limi a ions, he combined use o ield da a, model calib a ion,
and simula ions p o ide a obus amewo k o unde s anding and mi iga ing u ban
he mal discom o in he i age con ex s.
The esul s a e also limi ed by he so wa e used, which can only simula e adi ion-
ally used ma e ials wi h s a ic cha ac e is ics. Fu u e wo k should ocus on analyzing
he po en ial o newe echnologically ad anced ma e ials, such as supe cool ma e ials,
which may be he u u e ega ding inc easing he e ec i eness o MSs unde ex eme
clima e p ojec ions, as sugges ed in p e ious s udies [
57
]. Howe e , new ools mus s ill be
de eloped o include hese cha ac e is ics in he analysis.
5. Conclusions
This s udy highligh s he c i ical impo ance o add essing he mal com o in u ban
squa es, pa icula ly in his o ic neighbo hoods such as he Casco An iguo o Se ille, whe e
he e ec s o he UHI phenomenon a e exace ba ed by he lack o ege a ion, shading,
and wa e ea u es, ypical u ban cha ac e is ics o he adi ional his o ical u ban ab ic
in old ci ies. The compa a i e analysis o SJS and CBS h ough in-pe son moni o ing and
simula ion me hods highligh s he complex in e play o adi ional u ban design elemen s,
cons uc i e ma e ial p ope ies, and mic oclima ic condi ions gene a ed by his o ic u ban
ex u es, which can be de imen al o com o e ec s unde wa m condi ions, as shown in
his s udy.
The indings e eal ha SJS expe iences signi ican ly highe he mal s ess due o i s
limi ed g eene y and shading, wi h he UTCI alues peaking a o e 44
◦
C a midday. In
con as , CBS bene i s om be e ege a ion co e age, leading o lowe UTCI alues and
enhanced he mal com o in shaded a eas. Ne e heless, CBS eco ded he highes MRT in
he s udy, 72.9
◦
C, showing su aces highly exposed o he sun. These di e ences emphasize
he pi o al ole o u ban ege a ion and shading in mode a ing he mal condi ions.
This s udy’s simula ion esul s p o ide ac ionable insigh s in o e ec i e MSs o
imp o ing he mal com o in bo h squa es:
•
Canopies eme ged as he mos impac ul in e en ion, signi ican ly educing he UTCI
alues (by up o 6.5
◦
C in SJS and 5
◦
C in CBS) du ing peak hou s by p o iding
ex ensi e shading.
•
G een walls o e ed localized cooling e ec s, lowe ing he MRT by up o 5
◦
C while
enhancing he aes he ic and ecological alues.
•
Pa ed g ass and pe meable asphal demons a ed mode a e cooling e ec s, educing
su ace and ATs in hea ily exposed and al eady shaded a eas.
These indings alida e he s a egies p oposed, highligh ing hei adap abili y o
his o ic u ban en i onmen s.
By implemen ing hese solu ions, ci y planne s can achie e a balance be ween p e-
se ing he cul u al he i age o his o ic squa es and enhancing hei clima e esilience.
Mo eo e , his esea ch p o ides aluable guidance o in eg a ing he mal com o im-
p o emen s in o u ban design, o e ing a eplicable amewo k o o he ci ies g appling
wi h he challenges o UHI and he mal discom o . This s udy ein o ces he need o
a ge ed, e idence-based in e en ions o mi iga e hea s ess in u ban squa es, ensu ing
Buildings 2025,15, 564 24 o 27
ha hese i al public spaces emain unc ional, sus ainable, and enjoyable o esiden s and
isi o s alike. By adop ing a holis ic app oach ha combines g een in as uc u e, shading
elemen s, and inno a i e ma e ials, ci ies can enhance he mal com o while p ese ing
hei his o ical and cul u al in eg i y.
Thus, policymake s a e encou aged o in eg a e he mal com o conside a ions in o
u ban planning egula ions, pa icula ly o his o ic dis ic s. This includes he p omo-
ion o adap i e shading s uc u es and g een in as uc u e o mi iga e UHI e ec s while
p ese ing cul u al he i age. Guidelines o u ban conse a ion p ojec s should inco po-
a e clima e- esilien designs, such as pe meable pa emen s and ege a ion, as s anda d
p ac ices. In con as , indus y s akeholde s, pa icula ly in he ield o a chi ec u e and
cons uc ion, a e ad ised o inno a e wi h ma e ials and designs ha enhance he mal
pe o mance while aligning wi h he i age p ese a ion p inciples. A clea example o his
can be ound in ligh weigh , modula shading solu ions and high/medium-albedo ma e i-
als sui able o his o ic se ings, which a e c i ical a eas o de elopmen . Collabo a ion
be ween he i age conse a ionis s and g een echnology de elope s can lead o scalable
solu ions o sus ainable u ban egene a ion.
Finally, u u e s udies should explo e he long- e m pe o mance o MSs unde chang-
ing clima e condi ions, inco po a ing dynamic simula ions ha ake seasonal a ia ions
in o conside a ion. Expanding he s udy o include di e en u ban o ms and clima es
could alida e hese indings and p o ide ans e able solu ions o o he he i age ci ies.
In es iga ing com o and he socio-economic impac s o he mal mi iga ion measu es,
such as communi y engagemen and cos -bene i analysis, could o e deepe insigh s o
p ac ical implemen a ion.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, V.P.L.-C. and C.G.-M.; Da a cu a ion, P.R. and J.S.-C.; Fo -
mal analysis, P.R.; Funding acquisi ion, C.G.-M.; In es iga ion, P.R. and J.S.-C.; Me hodology, V.P.L.-C.
and C.G.-M.; P ojec adminis a ion, C.G.-M.; Resou ces, C.G.-M.; So wa e, P.R., V.P.L.-C. and J.S.-C.;
Supe ision, V.P.L.-C. and C.G.-M.; Valida ion, V.P.L.-C.; Visualiza ion, P.R.; W i ing—o iginal d a ,
P.R. and V.P.L.-C.; W i ing— e iew and edi ing, V.P.L.-C., J.S.-C. and C.G.-M. All au ho s ha e ead
and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This wo k has been suppo ed by he p ojec PID2021-124539OB-I00 unded by
MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by “ERDF A way o making Eu ope”, p ojec TED2021-
129347B-C21 unded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by he “Eu opean Union Nex Gen-
e a ionEU/PRTR”. The Minis e io de Ciencia, Inno ación y Uni e sidades suppo ed a p edoc o al
con ac g an ed o J.S.-C. (FPU21/02458), and a Juan de la Cie a Pos doc o al Fellowship was
g an ed o V.P.L.-C. (JDC2023-050880-I).
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The au ho s will make he aw da a suppo ing his a icle’s conclusions
a ailable upon eques .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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