Cooling heritage scenarios: transforming historic squares for thermal comfort

Academic Edi o : Elena Lucchi Recei ed: 8 Janua y 2025 Re ised: 7 Feb ua y 2025 Accep ed: 8 Feb ua y 2025 Published: 12 Feb ua y 2025 Ci a ion: Rezaie, P.; Lopez-Cabeza, V.P.; Sola-Ca aballo, J.; Galan-Ma in, C. Cooling He i age Scena ios: T ans o ming His o ic Squa es o The mal Com o . Buildings 2025,15, 564. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ buildings15040564 Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/ licenses/by/4.0/). A icle Cooling He i age Scena ios: T ans o ming His o ic Squa es o The mal Com o Pegah Rezaie 1, Vic o ia Pa icia Lopez-Cabeza 2, Ja ie Sola-Ca aballo 1,3 and Ca men Galan-Ma in 1,3,* 1Depa amen o de Cons ucciones A qui ec ónicas I, Escuela Técnica Supe io de A qui ec u a, Uni e sidad de Se illa, 41012 Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (P.R.); [email p o ec ed] (J.S.-C.) 2Cen o de In es igación en Tecnología, Ene gía y Sos enibilidad, Uni e sidad de Huel a, 21810 Huel a, Spain; [email p o ec ed] 3Ins i u o Uni e si a io de A qui ec u a y Ciencias de la Cons ucción, Uni e sidad de Se illa, 41012 Se ille, Spain *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : U ban squa es in his o ic neighbo hoods a e i al public spaces, o en he only nea by op ion a ailable o an aging popula ion. Howe e , hese spaces ace inc easing he mal discom o exace ba ed by u ban hea island (UHI) e ec s. This esea ch ocuses on imp o ing he mal com o o wo case s udies loca ed in Se ille’s high-densi y and his o ically ich Casco An iguo neighbo hood. Al hough hei signi icance and social alue make hem cen al mee ing poin s o locals and isi o s, hese squa es ace majo challenges ega ding he mal com o , mainly due o a lack o g eene y o adequa e shading. This s udy examines he condi ions by conduc ing in-pe son moni o ing and simula ions, iden i ying ac o s con ibu ing o discom o . On he basis o his, he esea ch p oposes mi iga ion s a egies o add ess hese issues. These solu ions include he ins alla ion o g een walls, he addi ion o canopies, and he applica ion o speci ic su ace ma e ials o imp o e he condi ions o hese squa es. Canopies p o ided he mos signi ican cooling, educing uni e sal he mal clima e index (UTCI) alues by up o 6.5 ◦ C. G een walls deli e ed localized cooling, lowe ing he mean adian empe a u e (MRT) by up o 5 ◦ C. The esul s e eal how hese app oaches can b ing abou changes in he mal com o in a way ha bene i s his o ic ci y en i onmen s. Keywo ds: he mal com o ; he i age conse a ion; his o ic neighbo hoods; mi iga ion s a egies; u ban hea island (UHI); u ban in e en ion; ENVI-me simula ion 1. In oduc ion The expansion o u ban a eas, ueled by he ising mig a ion o indi iduals o ci ies, cu en ly home o hal he global popula ion, is o ecas o con inue in he coming yea s. A he beginning o he 21s cen u y, u baniza ion has sped up no ably as o e hal o he popula ion cu en ly li es in ci ies; his igu e is expec ed o inc ease o a ound 60% by 2030 [ 1 ]. The clus e ing o popula ions in u ban a eas ampli ies he u ban hea island (UHI) e ec [ 2 ], which becomes mo e p onounced wi h inc easing popula ion densi y and en i onmen al changes [3–5]. The de elopmen and ope a ion o u ban a eas play a c ucial ole in shaping he o e all well-being o ci izens [ 6 ]. Acco ding o esea ch, a e age empe a u es in u ban cen e s wo ldwide could ise by 1.4–4.8 ◦ C by he end o he 21s cen u y [ 7 ]. Consequen ly, ci ies a e becoming inc easingly ulne able o he e ec s o u baniza ion and clima e change, which include ele a ed empe a u es and concen a ed pollu ion. As he popula ion Buildings 2025,15, 564 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/buildings15040564 Buildings 2025,15, 564 2 o 27 g ows and he p opo ion o open a eas in he ci ies dec eases, especially in ci y cen e s, he e is a g owing demand o high-quali y ou doo a eas o e ing heal hy ec ea ional ameni ies [ 8 ]. These spaces play a c ucial ole in enhancing he li abili y and ib ancy o u ban en i onmen s. Encou aging inc eased use o ou doo spaces can yield subs an ial bene i s o he physical, en i onmen al, economic, and social aspec s o ci ies [9]. Ou doo he mal com o measu es he pe cep ion ha exp esses sa is ac ion wi h he su ounding ou doo he mal en i onmen . This is in luenced by a numbe o ac o s, including ai empe a u e (AT), ela i e humidi y (RH), wind speed (WS), sola adia ion, and he p esence o shading o g eene y [ 10 ]. In addi ion o he clima ic a iables, u ban design elemen s such as building shape [ 11 ], ma e ials [ 12 ], and ege a ion [ 13 ] in luence ou doo he mal com o [ 14 ]. Howe e , he eeling o com o di e s among indi iduals, as i is in luenced by pe sonal a iables such as how people a e eeling on a gi en day o hei cul u al and social backg ound [ 15 ]. Ne e heless, in his case, clima e akes he lead in shaping he le el o heal h and sa is ac ion humans eel in ela ion o hei su ounding en i onmen [ 16 , 17 ]. Human biome eo ology esea ch is hea ily dependen on an unde s anding o how clima e impac s human he mal com o , well-being, and men al pe o mance [18]. The uni e sal he mal clima e index (UTCI) eam’s mul idisciplina y app oach [ 19 ] was a signi ican depa u e om pas e o s o unde s and he mal indices—o en isola ed endea o s. Collabo a i e esea ch was os e ed by in eg a ing insigh s om a ious ields, leading o a uni e sal solu ion o assessing human he mal en i onmen s. This p ojec , housed wi hin an In e na ional Socie y o Biome eo ology Commission and a Eu opean COST Ac ion, es ablished an in e na ional amewo k o s anda dizing he UTCI as a clima ic index [ 19 ]. UTCI applies ad anced modeling echniques o e alua e ou doo he mal condi ions, simula ing physiological esponses o he human body, aking in o conside a ion ac o s such as clo hing and en i onmen al elemen s such as humidi y, adia ion, and wind [ 20 ]. The ope a ional p ocedu e, a ailable as so wa e on he UTCI websi e [ 21 ], demons a es c edible assessmen s o he mal condi ions in ho and cold en i onmen s, aligning closely wi h exis ing s anda ds [22–24]. U ban a eas expe ience no able luc ua ions in he mal com o due o changes in he adia ion balance, wind low, he layou o buildings [ 25 ], and u ban ea u es [ 26 ] such as ege a ion [ 27 ]. These a ia ions c ea e mic oclima e scena ios o e pe iods ha impac how people pe cei e local he mal com o [ 28 ]. G een and open spaces play a ole in enhancing en i onmen s and c ea ing a ac i e ci y landscapes [ 29 – 31 ]. Since he 1980s, g owing conce ns abou esiden s’ well-being ha e p omp ed an inc ease in esea ch in o he com o o people in u ban spaces such as pa ks and squa es [ 32 ]. This end has led o s udies ocusing on c ea ing mic oclima es o imp o e he com o o pedes ians [33]. As isi o s a e mo e likely o use u ban spaces when hey a e com o able, ou doo he mal com o plays a c ucial ole in how hese loca ions a e u ilized [34]. Se e al me hods ha e been used in p e ious s udies o mi iga e he impac o hea in u ban a eas, imp o ing he mal com o [ 35 – 37 ]. These me hods could be classi ied by s a egy [ 38 ], wi h he mos common and success ul being: 1. he modi ica ion o su ace p ope ies o inc ease e lec ion and educe hea s o age [ 39 , 40 ]; 2. he p o ision o shade o dec ease sola adia ion abso p ion [ 39 ]; 3. he use o g een s uc u es o inc ease RH while educing AT; 4. he enhancemen o u ban ai low [ 41 ]; and 5. he u iliza ion o ac i e cooling echniques such as wa e and g ound cooling [ 39 , 42 ]. Nume ous examples can be ound in he li e a u e on he e ec i eness o hese s a egies, ei he indi idually o in combina ion. The concep o albedo, ep esen ing he p opo ion o sola adia ion e lec ed by a su ace compa ed o he o al amoun ecei ed, signi ican ly in luences he he mal Buildings 2025,15, 564 3 o 27 p ope ies o g ound su aces and he UHI e ec [ 43 ]. The e ec i eness o supe cool ma e ials depends on ac o s such as hea capaci y, he po en ial amoun o hea s o ed; sola e lec ance, he amoun o sunligh e lec ed; hea ans e a es, he speed a which hea mo es h ough hese; su ace oughness; and pe meabili y, showing how easily wa e can pass h ough hese ma e ials. Al hough high-albedo ma e ial is an ex emely p omising s a egy, some s udies sugges i can ha m he mal com o as a esul o an inc eased mean adian empe a u e (MRT) [ 44 ]. In o de o achie e he highes he mal com o possible, albedo mus be op imized o each case. Fu he mo e, he e ec o adding ege a ion is wo- old: i o e s shade-blocking di ec sola adia ion, while g een e apo anspi a ion educes AT. G een s uc u es play a c ucial ole in mi iga ing he mal condi ions. S udies indica e ha su aces co e ed wi h g eene y expe ience coole empe a u es han su aces made o a i icial ma e ials such as conc e e and asphal [ 39 ], e en i he albedo alues a e simila . Con e sely, ees can se e as ba ie s agains wind cu en s, po en ially hinde ing hea dissipa ion [ 45 ]. Complemen a y o ege a ion, a i icial canopies such as sun sails o o he ex ile memb anes help educe sola adia ion wi hou inc easing RH o excessi ely hinde ing wind low [4,46]. While u ban geome y can in luence how hea mo es h ough a eas because o adia- ion and con ec ion p ocedu es, design esul s a e c ucial o de e mining he wind low eloci y and di ec ion [ 47 ]. Wa e bodies and i iga ions can use ully help o cool spaces h ough e apo a ion and hei high hea capaci y. Al hough he cooling e ec s o bodies o wa e depend on aspec s such as size, shape, posi ion, wind pa e ns, and nea by buildings and s uc u es, in gene al, he li e a u e no es a conside able po en ial AT educ ion [ 38 ]. Howe e , hese lead o a was e o a high olume o wa e , which could be de imen al in d y egions. The e alua ion o he mi iga ing capaci y o some o he s a egies abo e has been add essed p e iously [ 38 ]. Some o hese expe imen al s udies measu e he e ec s o he applica ion o speci ic echniques. Va ious s udies ha e ocused on [ 48 ] ma e ials and hei p ope ies, demons a ing he g ea po en ial o he use o cooling ma e ials [ 49 ] and esul ing in educ ions in su ace empe a u e (ST) o up o 10 ◦ C. Fu he mo e, o he expe imen s [ 50 ] ha e been conduc ed by combining s a egies in de ined spaces, also p o iding p omising esul s wi h educ ions o up o 11 ◦C in ansi ional spaces. Despi e he pa icula di icul ies p esen ed by he e alua ion o ma e ials in la ge u ban spaces, success ul examples can be ound in o he s udies [ 51 ], whe e a conside able educ ion in empe a u e (4 ◦C) is obse ed in expe imen al u ban spaces. The di icul ies men ioned abo e ha e con ibu ed o he inc eased ele ance o com- pu a ional simula ions. Compu a ional Fluid Dynamics (CFD) p og ams such as ENVI- me [ 51 ] acili a e simula ed expe imen a ion based on scien i ic da a, in u n educing cos s. Nume ous s udies ha e e alua ed a ious mi iga ion s a egies (MS) using ENVI- me simula ions [ 38 ]. In some cases, heo e ical possible scena ios explici ly designed o expe imen a ion ha e been e alua ed [ 52 , 53 ]. Howe e , o he e alua ions examined eal case s udies [ 54 ], inc easing he di ec con ex ual applicabili y o esul s. This has esul ed in a UTCI educ ion o 6 ◦ C in u ban pa ks hanks o he use o g eene y. In o he s udies ocused on his o ical-he i age a eas [ 55 , 56 ], mi iga ion scena ios ha e been es ed and e alua ed in complex a eas, albei on a la ge scale, wi hou a pa icula ly de ailed examina ion o ep esen a i e small spaces wi hin he his o ic cen e s udied. In con as , ecen s udies ha e ocused on he use o inno a i e ma e ials wi h g ea cooling po en ial, including acade ma e ials, making hem doubly bene icial. San amou is and Yun [ 57 ] emphasize he po en ial o inno a i e ma e ials, such as pho onic, he - moch omic, and PCM-doped su aces, in mi iga ing UHI e ec s. Thei esea ch con i ms Buildings 2025,15, 564 4 o 27 ha hese ma e ials can subs an ially educe he ST, occasionally achie ing sub-ambien le els and lowe empe a u es han con en ional ma e ials. Howe e , he p o ec ion o he u ban ab ic and con igu a ion in his o ic ci ies is a c ucial aspec o u ban planning and he i age conse a ion, as seen in p e ious esea ch [ 58 ]. I in ol es p ese ing he unique spa ial s uc u es, a chi ec u al s yles, and cul u al signi icance o his o ic a eas while aking in o accoun mode n de elopmen needs, as highligh ed in s udies on adi ional u banism and housing [ 59 , 60 ]. These wo ks illus a e how adi ional a chi ec u al solu ions align wi h local en i onmen al condi ions while p ese ing cul u al iden i y. This p inciple is essen ial when de eloping clima e- esponsi e s a egies o his o ic u ban squa es. The e alua ion o he mal com o in hese sca ce communal spaces goes beyond me e luxu y and can be conside ed indispensable when os e ing an en i onmen conduci e o social ga he ings and communi y in e ac ions, gi en he impo ance o hese squa es o he well-being o ci izens. Se ille, a ci y in he sou h o Spain, is amous o i s his o ic cen e . The Casco An iguo, o Old Town, o Se ille is one o he la ges in Eu ope, co e ing app oxima ely 4 squa e kilome e s. Known o i s well-p ese ed a chi ec u e and ib an cul u al he i age, Old Town is a la ge, sp awling his o ic a ea. The ci y o Se ille, known o ha ing some o he highes empe a u es no only in Spain bu also in Eu ope [ 61 ], has been selec ed o de elop a me hodology o assessing he mal com o in his o ic squa es based on de ailed analysis. A p e ious s udy [ 61 ] has ound ha Se ille’s Old Town is coole han he pe iphe y du ing he day. Howe e , due o i s high densi y, i is mo e p one o su e om he UHI e ec a nigh . This is why, due o i s high densi y, u ban hea mi iga ion in e en ions a e di icul o unde ake. Expansion and elaxa ion spaces, such as squa es, o e he mos oppo uni ies o public space imp o emen . This analysis p o ides a ho ough assessmen o a ious ac o s in luencing com o le els. Nume ical simula ions, conduc ed using ENVI-me so wa e, play a signi ican ole in his app aisal, ocusing on unde s anding he e ec on he mal com o o ac o s such as he AT, RH, WS, and MRT in he squa es. This a icle u he explo es he mul i ace ed aspec s o he mal com o assessmen in inc easing hea condi ions a ec ing his o ic ci y squa es. I ollows a comp ehensi e app oach ha in eg a es empi ical analyses, simula ion echniques, and inno a i e solu ions. These a e applied in a his o ic he i age ci y cen e , whe e he cha ac e is ic u ban ab ic, he dila a ions in he o m o small squa es, and he adi ional cons uc ion sys em play a c ucial ole in he he mal pe o mance and pe cep ion o social space. The in e en ions mus , he e o e, ake hese p oblema ic conside a ions in o accoun . Thus, he esea ch is s uc u ed as ollows: an ini ial me hodology is p esen ed, which includes he case s udy desc ip ion, he ield measu emen s, and he se up o he ENVI-me simula ion o he a ious scena ios. The esul s a e hen o ganized by scena ios wi hin each speci ic case s udy be o e being discussed om a ious pe spec i es and p esen ing he inal conclusions. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods This s udy p oposes MSs o he ypical u ban squa es loca ed in a his o ic ci y such as Se ille in o de o imp o e use s’ he mal com o unde ex emely ho condi ions. The wo case s udies selec ed in Se ille ha e been moni o ed o calib a e he simula ion so wa e, modeling di e en s a egies in o de o p opose he op imal s a egy. The ollowing me hodological low has been summa ized in Figu e 1. Buildings 2025,15, 564 5 o 27 Buildings 2025, 15, 564 5 o 30 Figu e 1. Me hodology lowcha . 2.1. Resea ch Philosophy and S a egy This s udy adop s a p agma ic esea ch philosophy, ocusing on eal-wo ld applica- ions and he in eg a ion o quan i a i e da a (e.g., eco ded clima ic da a and ENVI-me simula ions) in o de o p opose speci ic MSs o he mal com o wi h quan i a i e e- sul s. The case s udy app oach selec ed aimed o emphasize wo ep esen a i e his o ic squa es in Se ille. I includes a de ailed examina ion o he mic oclima ic condi ions and he impac o p oposed in e en ions wi hin he s udy a ea’s unique his o ical and cul- u al con ex s. The esea ch employs a mixed-me hod app oach, combining obse a ional da a, nume ical simula ion, and a compa a i e analysis o baseline and mi iga ed scena - ios. Based on his combina ion, a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he mal beha io and he effec i eness o he s a egies p oposed can be gua an eed. 2.2. Time Ho izon, Da a Collec ion Techniques, and Analysis Tools This s udy, which ocuses on wa m clima es, examines he ini ial da a, simula ions, and esul s o a ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023) in o de o cap u e peak he - mal condi ions, p o iding a snapsho o he ex eme hea impac in he case s udy a eas. Clima e da a we e collec ed om official me eo ological eco ds, while on-si e measu e- men s wi h calib a ed ins umen s we e used o calib a e he simula ion p ocess. S a is i- cal alida ion me ics, including calcula ed s a is ical e o s, we e employed o e alua e he accu acy and eliabili y o he simula ion esul s. The da a analysis inco po a es ENVI- me so wa e o simula e mic oclima ic condi ions unde baseline and o p opose mi iga- ion scena ios. 2.3. Case S udies Loca ed in Spain a 37.3891° N, 5.9845° W, wi h an a e age ele a ion o 6 m abo e sea le el, Se ille co e s 141.28 km2. I is cha ac e ized by a Medi e anean clima e wi h ho , d y summe s and mild win e s. The a e age annual empe a u e is app oxima ely 19 °C, al hough summe highs equen ly exceed 35 °C (104 days in 2023), and on mul iple occasions each yea , empe a u es emain abo e 40 °C o se e al consecu i e days [62]. Acco ding o a p e ious s udy and classi ica ion [61], Se ille has nume ous high- densi y esiden ial neighbo hoods. The mos p ominen o hese, Casco An iguo, se es as he his o ic cen e o Se ille. Casco An iguo is s ill densely popula ed and cha ac e ized by na ow s ee s and adi ional a chi ec u e, consis ing o a mix o esiden ial buildings, shops, and ou is a ac ions. E en hough la ge g een spaces a e conspicuously absen , se e al small ha d-pa ed squa es ound in he a ea se e as ga he ing spo s o esiden s and isi o s. The s udy o hese spaces is pa icula ly impo an o imp o ing he mal Figu e 1. Me hodology lowcha . 2.1. Resea ch Philosophy and S a egy This s udy adop s a p agma ic esea ch philosophy, ocusing on eal-wo ld applica- ions and he in eg a ion o quan i a i e da a (e.g., eco ded clima ic da a and ENVI-me simula ions) in o de o p opose speci ic MSs o he mal com o wi h quan i a i e esul s. The case s udy app oach selec ed aimed o emphasize wo ep esen a i e his o ic squa es in Se ille. I includes a de ailed examina ion o he mic oclima ic condi ions and he impac o p oposed in e en ions wi hin he s udy a ea’s unique his o ical and cul u al con ex s. The esea ch employs a mixed-me hod app oach, combining obse a ional da a, nume ical simula ion, and a compa a i e analysis o baseline and mi iga ed scena ios. Based on his combina ion, a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he mal beha io and he e ec i eness o he s a egies p oposed can be gua an eed. 2.2. Time Ho izon, Da a Collec ion Techniques, and Analysis Tools This s udy, which ocuses on wa m clima es, examines he ini ial da a, simula ions, and esul s o a ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023) in o de o cap u e peak he mal condi ions, p o iding a snapsho o he ex eme hea impac in he case s udy a eas. Clima e da a we e collec ed om o icial me eo ological eco ds, while on-si e measu emen s wi h calib a ed ins umen s we e used o calib a e he simula ion p ocess. S a is ical alida ion me ics, including calcula ed s a is ical e o s, we e employed o e alua e he accu acy and eliabili y o he simula ion esul s. The da a analysis inco po a es ENVI-me so wa e o simula e mic oclima ic condi ions unde baseline and o p opose mi iga ion scena ios. 2.3. Case S udies Loca ed in Spain a 37.3891 ◦ N, 5.9845 ◦ W, wi h an a e age ele a ion o 6 m abo e sea le el, Se ille co e s 141.28 km 2 . I is cha ac e ized by a Medi e anean clima e wi h ho , d y summe s and mild win e s. The a e age annual empe a u e is app oxima ely 19 ◦C, al hough summe highs equen ly exceed 35 ◦ C (104 days in 2023), and on mul iple occasions each yea , empe a u es emain abo e 40 ◦C o se e al consecu i e days [62]. Acco ding o a p e ious s udy and classi ica ion [ 61 ], Se ille has nume ous high- densi y esiden ial neighbo hoods. The mos p ominen o hese, Casco An iguo, se es as he his o ic cen e o Se ille. Casco An iguo is s ill densely popula ed and cha ac e ized by na ow s ee s and adi ional a chi ec u e, consis ing o a mix o esiden ial buildings, shops, and ou is a ac ions. E en hough la ge g een spaces a e conspicuously absen , se e al small ha d-pa ed squa es ound in he a ea se e as ga he ing spo s o esiden s and isi o s. The s udy o hese spaces is pa icula ly impo an o imp o ing he mal Buildings 2025,15, 564 6 o 27 com o in ho wea he , gi en he po en ial isks posed by ele a ed empe a u es o public heal h and he usabili y o hese a eas. Two squa es, conside ed ypical u ban a che ypes o his o ic ci ies in Medi e anean clima es, in his case Se ille, ha e been selec ed. Bo h squa es sha e s anda d ea u es, such as compac u ban mo phology, high-densi y su oundings wi h adi ional cons uc i e sys ems [ 58 ], and limi ed g een in as uc u e, all ai s equen ly ound in his o ic ci y cen e s ac oss sou he n Eu ope (Figu e 2): Buildings 2025, 15, 564 6 o 30 com o in ho wea he , gi en he po en ial isks posed by ele a ed empe a u es o public heal h and he usabili y o hese a eas. Two squa es, conside ed ypical u ban a che ypes o his o ic ci ies in Medi e anean clima es, in his case Se ille, ha e been selec ed. Bo h squa es sha e s anda d ea u es, such as compac u ban mo phology, high-densi y su oundings wi h adi ional cons uc- i e sys ems [58], and limi ed g een in as uc u e, all ai s equen ly ound in his o ic ci y cen e s ac oss sou he n Eu ope (Figu e 2): Figu e 2. Casco An iguo neighbo hood and San Julian Squa e (SJS) and C is o de Bu gos Squa e (CBS) loca ions. • San Julian Squa e (SJS) has been chosen o he assessmen o he mal com o , as i s shape, design ea u es, and lack o wa e elemen s and g eene y a e also a ea u e o many small squa es nea by. SJS is app oxima ely 28.5 m wide and 44 m long, while he su ounding buildings a e age a heigh o 9.5 m. T adi ional cons uc ion ech- niques ha e played a c ucial ole in shaping he he mal p ope ies o hese squa es: he su ounding acades a e p ima ily made o local adi ional mass b icks, wi h mo a ende pain ed in ligh colo s, while he oo s a e ce amic iles. G ani e cob- bles one co e s he oad su ounding wo sides o he squa e, while he pa hways a e pa ed in cemen mo a ile o s one iles, as shown in Figu e 3. The cobbles ones, laid using compac ed sand beds and in e locked wi h mo a , p o ide s abili y bu lack pe meabili y and con ibu e o su ace hea ing. Figu e 2. Casco An iguo neighbo hood and San Julian Squa e (SJS) and C is o de Bu gos Squa e (CBS) loca ions. • San Julian Squa e (SJS) has been chosen o he assessmen o he mal com o , as i s shape, design ea u es, and lack o wa e elemen s and g eene y a e also a ea u e o many small squa es nea by. SJS is app oxima ely 28.5 m wide and 44 m long, while he su ounding buildings a e age a heigh o 9.5 m. T adi ional cons uc ion echniques ha e played a c ucial ole in shaping he he mal p ope ies o hese squa es: he su ounding acades a e p ima ily made o local adi ional mass b icks, wi h mo a ende pain ed in ligh colo s, while he oo s a e ce amic iles. G ani e cobbles one co e s he oad su ounding wo sides o he squa e, while he pa hways a e pa ed in cemen mo a ile o s one iles, as shown in Figu e 3. The cobbles ones, laid using compac ed sand beds and in e locked wi h mo a , p o ide s abili y bu lack pe meabili y and con ibu e o su ace hea ing. Buildings 2025,15, 564 7 o 27 Buildings 2025, 15, 564 7 o 30 Figu e 3. Gene al iew o SJS. • In con as , C is o de Bu gos Squa e (CBS) has an abundance o ege a ion. The squa e, which is 40.2 m wide and 132.9 m long, is su ounded by buildings wi h a heigh o 10.5 m. The ma e ials o su ounding buildings a e also adi ional mass b ick walls wi h mo a ende and ligh pain colo s, while he oo s s ill use ce amic iles. On he g ound, an asphal oad su ounds he squa e, while he pedes ian a ea is pa ed wi h ed b ick ile (Figu e 4). The dimensions and ma e ials signi ican ly in luence he a ea’s en i onmen al si ua ion. The design elemen s o he squa e— mos ly exis ing g eene y ha p o ides shade—play an essen ial pa in shaping is- i o s’ he mal expe iences and will guide us in analyzing i s mic oclima e and com- pa ing i wi h he p e ious one o bo h squa es. Valuable inpu on he mal s anda ds can be ob ained hanks o he po en ial pe cep ion o a iables such as sola exposu e and wind low posi ioning. CBS ea u es ed b ick iles laid o e conc e e laye s, which enhance du abili y bu es ic na u al cooling mechanisms. Howe e , in hei cu en o m, hese his o ically au hen ic me hods limi he mal mi iga ion op ions. Figu e 3. Gene al iew o SJS. • In con as , C is o de Bu gos Squa e (CBS) has an abundance o ege a ion. The squa e, which is 40.2 m wide and 132.9 m long, is su ounded by buildings wi h a heigh o 10.5 m. The ma e ials o su ounding buildings a e also adi ional mass b ick walls wi h mo a ende and ligh pain colo s, while he oo s s ill use ce amic iles. On he g ound, an asphal oad su ounds he squa e, while he pedes ian a ea is pa ed wi h ed b ick ile (Figu e 4). The dimensions and ma e ials signi ican ly in luence he a ea’s en i onmen al si ua ion. The design elemen s o he squa e—mos ly exis ing g eene y ha p o ides shade—play an essen ial pa in shaping isi o s’ he mal expe iences and will guide us in analyzing i s mic oclima e and compa ing i wi h he p e ious one o bo h squa es. Valuable inpu on he mal s anda ds can be ob ained hanks o he po en ial pe cep ion o a iables such as sola exposu e and wind low posi ioning. CBS ea u es ed b ick iles laid o e conc e e laye s, which enhance du abili y bu es ic na u al cooling mechanisms. Howe e , in hei cu en o m, hese his o ically au hen ic me hods limi he mal mi iga ion op ions. Buildings 2025, 15, 564 8 o 30 • Figu e 4. Cen al pe spec i e o CBS. Figu e 4. Cen al pe spec i e o CBS. Buildings 2025,15, 564 8 o 27 2.4. Field Measu emen s Field measu emen s a e c ucial o alida ing he accu acy o simula ions wi hin he esea ch si e. Da a collec ion was conduc ed a di e en imes in he wo squa es on a ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023). The AT, RH, and globe empe a u e (using a TROTEC TC100 he mo-hyg ome e ), WS (using a TROTEC TA300 anemome e ), and ST (using a TESTO 905 T2 he mome e ) we e measu ed. Ten poin s we e selec ed in each o hese squa es o he pu poses o measu emen (Figu e 5). These da a a e used o calib a e he ENVI-me simula ion models, enabling he simula ion o mic oclima e and he mal com o unde di e en con igu a ions o he MS. A summa y o he echnical speci ica ions o he ins umen s used can be ound in Table 1. Buildings 2025, 15, 564 9 o 30 2.4. Field Measu emen s Field measu emen s a e c ucial o alida ing he accu acy o simula ions wi hin he esea ch si e. Da a collec ion was conduc ed a diffe en imes in he wo squa es on a ep esen a i e summe day (23 July 2023). The AT, RH, and globe empe a u e (using a TROTEC TC100 he mo-hyg ome e ), WS (using a TROTEC TA300 anemome e ), and ST (using a TESTO 905 T2 he mome e ) we e measu ed. Ten poin s we e selec ed in each o hese squa es o he pu poses o measu emen (Figu e 5). These da a a e used o calib a e he ENVI-me simula ion models, enabling he simula ion o mic oclima e and he mal com o unde diffe en con igu a ions o he MS. A summa y o he echnical speci ica- ions o he ins umen s used can be ound in Table 1. (a) SJS (b) CBS Figu e 5. Selec ed measu emen poin s in SJS and CBS. Table 1. Measu ing ins umen s speci ica ions. Ins umen and Model TROTEC TC100 The mo-Hyg ome e TROTEC TA300 Anemome e Tes o 905 T2 The mome e Range Tempe a u e: −20 °C o 60 °C Humidi y: 1% o 99% RH Wind Speed: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s Ai Veloci y: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s Tempe a u e: −20 °C o 60 °C −50 °C o 300 °C Accu acy Tempe a u e: ±0.5 °C a 25 °C Humidi y: ±3% RH (a 25 °C, 30% o 80% RH); ±5% RH (a 25 °C, <30% RH o >80% RH) Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y: ±3% o eading ±0.1 m/s Tempe a u e: ±0.8 °C ±1 °C (−50 °C o −20.1 °C); ±0.5 °C (−20 °C o 99.9 °C); ±1% o eading ( emaining ange) Resolu ion Tempe a u e: 0.1 °C Humidi y: 0.1% RH Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y: 0.1 m/s Tempe a u e: 0.1 °C 0.1 °C Ope a ing En- i onmen Tempe a u e: 0 °C o 50 °C Humidi y: 0% o 95% RH (non-condensing) Tempe a u e: 0 °C o 50 °C Humidi y: 0% o 80% RH (non-con- densing) empe a u e: −20 °C o 50 °C Figu e 5. Selec ed measu emen poin s in SJS and CBS. Table 1. Measu ing ins umen s speci ica ions. Ins umen and Model TROTEC TC100 The mo-Hyg ome e TROTEC TA300 Anemome e Tes o 905 T2 The mome e Range Tempe a u e: −20 ◦C o 60 ◦C Humidi y: 1% o 99% RH Wind Speed: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s Ai Veloci y: 0.4 m/s o 30 m/s Tempe a u e: −20 ◦C o 60 ◦C −50 ◦C o 300 ◦C Accu acy Tempe a u e: ±0.5 ◦C a 25 ◦C Humidi y: ±3% RH (a 25 ◦C, 30% o 80% RH); ± 5% RH (a 25 ◦ C, <30% RH o >80% RH) Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y: ± 3% o eading ±0.1 m/s Tempe a u e: ±0.8 ◦C ±1◦C (−50 ◦C o −20.1 ◦C); ±0.5 ◦C (−20 ◦C o 99.9 ◦C); ± 1% o eading ( emaining ange) Resolu ion Tempe a u e: 0.1 ◦C Humidi y: 0.1% RH Wind Speed/Ai Veloci y: 0.1 m/s Tempe a u e: 0.1 ◦C0.1 ◦C Ope a ing En i onmen Tempe a u e: 0 ◦C o 50 ◦C Humidi y: 0% o 95% RH (non-condensing) Tempe a u e: 0 ◦C o 50 ◦C Humidi y: 0% o 80% RH (non-condensing) empe a u e: −20 ◦C o 50 ◦C 2.5. Simula ion Se up ENVI-me is designed o examine mic oclima es by applying he ounda ional p inci- ples o luid dynamics and he modynamics [ 63 ]. I can eplica e he in ica e in e plays Buildings 2025,15, 564 9 o 27 among buildings, soil, g eene y, and he a mosphe e. I , he e o e, has widesp ead use in esea ch on u ban mic oclima es. The so wa e is ailo ed o 3D modeling, ea u ing a ypical ho izon al esolu ion in a 0.5–5 m ange and a empo al scope o 24 o 48 h, using ime s eps o 1 o 5 s. This le el o esolu ion acili a es he sc u iny o in e ac ions among indi idual buildings, su aces, and ege a ion [ 64 ]. The ENVI-me simula ions we e designed o assess he he mal beha io o he selec ed squa es, u he en iched by inco po a ing obse a ions om ield s udies. Once he on-si e measu emen s had been ob ained, simula ions we e conduc ed on he he modynamic pe o mance o he squa es using he ENVI-me so wa e ( e sion 5.1.1). De ails ela ing o he models and bounda y condi ions o he simula ed squa es a e ou lined and p esen ed in Tables 2and 3. Table 2. Simula ion model dimensions and geome y speci ica ions. Pa ame e s SJS CBS Numbe o g id cells 80 ×70 ×15 100 ×105 ×30 Size o he cells (m) (x,y,z) 2 ×2×2 2 ×2×2 Nes ing g ids 4 4 Model o a ion ou o no h 0 0 Telescoping ac o (%) 15 15 Telescoping s a s a e heigh (m) 20 20 Image o he model Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 28 2.5. Simula ion Se up ENVI-me is designed o examine mic oclima es by applying he ounda ional p in- ciples o luid dynamics and he modynamics [63]. I can eplica e he in ica e in e plays among buildings, soil, g eene y, and he a mosphe e. I , he e o e, has widesp ead use in esea ch on u ban mic oclima es. The so wa e is ailo ed o 3D modeling, ea u ing a ypical ho izon al esolu ion in a 0.5–5 m ange and a empo al scope o 24 o 48 h, using ime s eps o 1 o 5 s. This le el o esolu ion acili a es he sc u iny o in e ac ions among indi idual buildings, su aces, and ege a ion [64]. The ENVI-me simula ions we e de- signed o assess he he mal beha io o he selec ed squa es, u he en iched by inco - po a ing obse a ions om ield s udies. Once he on-si e measu emen s had been ob- ained, simula ions we e conduc ed on he he modynamic pe o mance o he squa es using he ENVI-me so wa e ( e sion 5.1.1). De ails ela ing o he models and bounda y condi ions o he simula ed squa es a e ou lined and p esen ed in Table 2 and Table 3. Table 2. Simula ion model dimensions and geome y speci ica ions. Pa ame e s SJS CBS Numbe o g id cells 80 × 70 × 15 100 × 105 × 30 Size o he cells (m) (x,y,z) 2 × 2 × 2 2 × 2 × 2 Nes ing g ids 4 4 Model o a ion ou o no h 0 0 Telescoping ac o (%) 15 15 Telescoping s a s a e heigh (m) 20 20 Image o he model Table 3. Inpu a iables o ENVI-me simula ions. Me eo ological inpu s Ai empe a u e and ela i e humidi y Hou ly da a in Table 4 Wind speed and di ec ion 1 m/s = 191.73° Speci ic humidi y a 2500 m 8.0 g/kg Roughness leng h 0.01 m Vege a ion 3D ee Simple plan 02SSSS, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (SJS) 0200XX, 020027, 010027, 01PLDM, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (CBS) Building Walls and oo ma e ials Table 5 Soil Ini ial condi ions o soil ma e ials (Table 5) Uppe laye (0–20 cm): 65%/20 °C Middle laye (20–50 cm): 70%/20 °C Deep laye (50–200 cm): 75%/19 °C Simula ion S a simula ion day (DD.MM.YYYY) S a simula ion ime (HH:MM: SS) 22.07.2023 21.00.00 To al simula ion ime (hou s) 28 h Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 28 2.5. Simula ion Se up ENVI-me is designed o examine mic oclima es by applying he ounda ional p in- ciples o luid dynamics and he modynamics [63]. I can eplica e he in ica e in e plays among buildings, soil, g eene y, and he a mosphe e. I , he e o e, has widesp ead use in esea ch on u ban mic oclima es. The so wa e is ailo ed o 3D modeling, ea u ing a ypical ho izon al esolu ion in a 0.5–5 m ange and a empo al scope o 24 o 48 h, using ime s eps o 1 o 5 s. This le el o esolu ion acili a es he sc u iny o in e ac ions among indi idual buildings, su aces, and ege a ion [64]. The ENVI-me simula ions we e de- signed o assess he he mal beha io o he selec ed squa es, u he en iched by inco - po a ing obse a ions om ield s udies. Once he on-si e measu emen s had been ob- ained, simula ions we e conduc ed on he he modynamic pe o mance o he squa es using he ENVI-me so wa e ( e sion 5.1.1). De ails ela ing o he models and bounda y condi ions o he simula ed squa es a e ou lined and p esen ed in Table 2 and Table 3. Table 2. Simula ion model dimensions and geome y speci ica ions. Pa ame e s SJS CBS Numbe o g id cells 80 × 70 × 15 100 × 105 × 30 Size o he cells (m) (x,y,z) 2 × 2 × 2 2 × 2 × 2 Nes ing g ids 4 4 Model o a ion ou o no h 0 0 Telescoping ac o (%) 15 15 Telescoping s a s a e heigh (m) 20 20 Image o he model Table 3. Inpu a iables o ENVI-me simula ions. Me eo ological inpu s Ai empe a u e and ela i e humidi y Hou ly da a in Table 4 Wind speed and di ec ion 1 m/s = 191.73° Speci ic humidi y a 2500 m 8.0 g/kg Roughness leng h 0.01 m Vege a ion 3D ee Simple plan 02SSSS, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (SJS) 0200XX, 020027, 010027, 01PLDM, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (CBS) Building Walls and oo ma e ials Table 5 Soil Ini ial condi ions o soil ma e ials (Table 5) Uppe laye (0–20 cm): 65%/20 °C Middle laye (20–50 cm): 70%/20 °C Deep laye (50–200 cm): 75%/19 °C Simula ion S a simula ion day (DD.MM.YYYY) S a simula ion ime (HH:MM: SS) 22.07.2023 21.00.00 To al simula ion ime (hou s) 28 h Table 3. Inpu a iables o ENVI-me simula ions. Me eo ological inpu s Ai empe a u e and ela i e humidi y Hou ly da a in Table 4 Wind speed and di ec ion 1 m/s = 191.73◦ Speci ic humidi y a 2500 m 8.0 g/kg Roughness leng h 0.01 m Vege a ion 3D ee Simple plan 02SSSS, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (SJS) 0200XX, 020027, 010027, 01PLDM, 02ALDM, 02ALDS (CBS) Building Walls and oo ma e ials Table 5 Soil Ini ial condi ions o soil ma e ials (Table 5) Uppe laye (0–20 cm): 65%/20 ◦C Middle laye (20–50 cm): 70%/20 ◦C Deep laye (50–200 cm): 75%/19 ◦C Simula ion S a simula ion day (DD.MM.YYYY) S a simula ion ime (HH:MM: SS) 22.07.2023 21.00.00 To al simula ion ime (hou s) 28 h The simula ions we e conduc ed on he same day o he moni o ing campaigns, 23 July 2023. The simula ion inpu pa ame e s included an hou ly AT and RH using simple o cing, along wi h he a e age WS and di ec ion aken om a nea by wea he s a ion wi hin he ci y, 3.5 km om he squa es (Table 4). Buildings 2025,15, 564 16 o 27 Ano he ac o a ec ing he mal com o is RH. Acco ding o Figu e 11a, he RH in SJS-CS g adually inc eases a nigh ( om midnigh o 7:00 h), peaking a a ound 6:00 (be ween 58.0% and 60.9%) ac oss all poin s. This inc ease is ollowed by a sha p decline h oughou he day, eaching he lowes le els in he a e noon, be ween 14:00 and 17:00 ( om 22.2% o 28.9%). A e 18:00, he RH le els ise again, s abilizing a highe alues in he la e e ening hou s. This pa e n is di ec ly linked o he AT, which inc eases he RH i he empe a u e dec eases. WS is ano he in luen ial ac o impac ing he mal com o . Howe e , ege a ion and buil s uc u es in SJS hinde he wind low ac oss a ious loca ions, leading o speeds o less han 1 m/s. As a esul , his is no conside ed a signi ican a iable in his case s udy. Figu e 11b displays he hou ly MRT and UTCI esul s. Du ing he ea ly hou s (mid- nigh o 06:00), all i e poin s ha e closely g ouped he MRT in he ange o 17–20 ◦ C. As he day p og esses, he MRT inc eases signi ican ly, especially be ween 09:00 and 17:00, wi h he MRT peaking a a ound 14:00 a poin 4 (70.4 ◦ C) and poin 5 (75.5 ◦ C a 17:00). Poin s 1 and 2 exhibi e y high alues ea lie (a ound 09:00–11:00), possibly due o di ec sunligh o e lec i e su aces. The e ening shows a cooling pa e n, wi h he MRT d opping o below 30 ◦ C a all poin s a e 19:00. The di e ences in MRT alues a midday sugges ha poin 4 and poin 5 may well be mo e exposed o sola adia ion o hea - e en i e su aces han he o he poin s. The esul s o he UTCI a e di ec ly ela ed o he MRT, wi h he nigh ime alues (00:00–06:00) being also ela i ely uni o m ac oss he poin s, anging om 20.8 ◦ C o 24.2 ◦C, indica ing com o able he mal condi ions. Be ween 09:00 and 17:00, he UTCI ises d ama ically, i s a poin s 1 and 2, exceeding 40 ◦ C a ound midday, indica ing he mal s ess. Poin s 4 and 5 also show ele a ed alues, peaking a abo e 44 ◦ C in he a e noon, wi h poin 5 eaching he highes alue o 44.8 ◦ C a 17:00. Poin s 3, 4, and 5 exhibi a mo e mode a e inc ease han poin s 1 and 2, pa icula ly in he ea ly mo ning and la e a e noon. These di e ences a e di ec ly ela ed o sola adia ion and o ien a ion. A e 18:00, he empe a u es dec eased s eadily, e u ning o com o able le els o 30–35 ◦ C by he e ening. Howe e , he UTCI, which is also a ec ed by he o he pa ame e s, dec eases slowe han he MRT, while he AT emains e y high in he a e noon hou s. 3.2.2. SJS-MS This sec ion shows he esul s o he p oposed MS in SJS. Gi en he lack o shading and ege a ion, canopies and a g een wall a e sugges ed, also imp o ing he a ea aes he ically. In some a eas, he su ace ma e ial o he squa es has also been changed in o pa ed g ass, educing he he mal capaci y o he exis ing ha d pa emen . These esul s a e shown in he maps displaying he absolu e di e ences in he AT, RH, MRT, and UTCI alues a ou di e en imes (6:00 in he mo ning, 12:00 noon, 16:00, and 22:00) (Figu e 12). Reduc ions in he SJS-MS alues compa ed o SJS-CS appea in g een, while ed is used o indica e highe alues. Based on Figu e 12a, he AT absolu e di e ence sugges s ha he MS in SJS has a small impac on he AT. A 6:00, he di e ence on he no heas e n side o he squa e is 0.1–0.4 ◦ C. By noon, he canopies s a showing imp o emen s, educing he AT by 0.1 ◦ C o 0.7 ◦ C. In he sou hwes o he squa e, his alue is om − 0.2 ◦ C o − 0.5 ◦ C, displaying a sligh ly inc easing AT in his a ea. A 16:00, bo h canopies and he g een wall p o ide mode a e bene i s, educing empe a u es by 0.1–0.4 ◦ C. A nigh , he alues a e simila o hose obse ed in he mo ning (Figu e 12a). Fo RH (Figu e 12b), he di e ences a e minimal and nega i e, which means he RH inc eased a e implemen ing MSs. In he mo ning and a noon, hese s a egies inc ease he RH by − 0.5% o − 1.7%. Howe e , by nigh all and a e noon, hei in luence is negligible Buildings 2025,15, 564 17 o 27 again ( − 0.5% o − 0.8%). This means ha al hough he g een wall inc eases he RH, he e ec can be conside ed minimal. Buildings 2025, 15, 564 19 o 30 used o indica e highe alues. Based on Figu e 12a, he AT absolu e diffe ence sugges s ha he MS in SJS has a small impac on he AT. A 6:00, he diffe ence on he no heas e n side o he squa e is 0.1–0.4 °C. By noon, he canopies s a showing imp o emen s, e- ducing he AT by 0.1 °C o 0.7 °C. In he sou hwes o he squa e, his alue is om −0.2 °C o −0.5 °C, displaying a sligh ly inc easing AT in his a ea. A 16:00, bo h canopies and he g een wall p o ide mode a e bene i s, educing empe a u es by 0.1–0.4 °C. A nigh , he alues a e simila o hose obse ed in he mo ning (Figu e 12a). (a) Absolu e diffe ence in AT a ou selec ed hou s (b) Absolu e diffe ence in RH in ou selec ed hou s (c) Absolu e diffe ence in MRT in ou selec ed hou s (d) Absolu e diffe ence in UTCI in ou selec ed hou s Figu e 12. The absolu e di e ence in clima ic a iables o he mi iga ion scena io a ou selec ed hou s. Fo RH (Figu e 12b), he diffe ences a e minimal and nega i e, which means he RH inc eased a e implemen ing MSs. In he mo ning and a noon, hese s a egies inc ease he RH by −0.5% o −1.7%. Howe e , by nigh all and a e noon, hei in luence is Figu e 12. The absolu e di e ence in clima ic a iables o he mi iga ion scena io a ou selec ed hou s. In e ms o he MRT (Figu e 12c), in he mo ning, he MRT di e ences a e nega i e, be ween − 0.8 ◦ C and − 3.7 ◦ C, in he sou h o SJS. A noon, canopies signi ican ly educe he MRT by up o 22.4–29.2 ◦ C, while he g een wall p o ides mode a e cooling in he ange o 2.1–5 ◦ C. Du ing he a e noon, he a ea expe iences a ela i ely highe MRT, wi h a di e ence o − 0.8 ◦ C o − 3.7 ◦ C, while a ound he g een wall, he MRT di e ence is in a ange o 2.1–5 ◦ C, and he e ec is he e o e posi i e. A 22:00, he di e ence close o he Buildings 2025,15, 564 18 o 27 g een wall is 2.1–7.9 ◦ C. These esul s sugges ha blocking di ec sunligh using canopies is he mos e ec i e s a egy, especially in he mo ning. Based on he absolu e di e ence in he UTCI in SJS shown in Figu e 12d, i can be s a ed ha he UTCI di e ences a e minimal in he mo ning due o na u ally coole empe a u es. By noon, canopies signi ican ly educe he UTCI by up o 5–6.5 ◦ C, educing hea s ess, while he g een wall p o ides sligh ly highe alues, om 0.4 ◦ C o 1.2 ◦ C. In he a e noon and a nigh , he impac anges om −1.2 ◦C o 2 ◦C. 3.2.3. CBS-CS The esul s o he simula ion o CBS-CS a e p esen ed in his sec ion. As shown in Figu e 13, a 8:00, he UTCI is below 22.5 ◦ C h oughou he squa e. By noon, i ises signi ican ly and is be ween 37.5 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C, and he alues unde ees ange om 32 ◦C o 35 ◦ C. A 16:00, he wes side displays UTCI anges om 35 ◦ C o 37.5 ◦ C, while he eas e n side and he cen e o he squa e show alues abo e 42.5 ◦ C, and he alues unde ees a e in he ange o 37.5–40 ◦C. By 22:00, he UTCI d ops o a ange o 27.5–32.5 ◦C. Buildings 2025, 15, 564 20 o 30 negligible again (−0.5% o −0.8%). This means ha al hough he g een wall inc eases he RH, he effec can be conside ed minimal. In e ms o he MRT (Figu e 12c), in he mo ning, he MRT diffe ences a e nega i e, be ween −0.8 °C and −3.7 °C, in he sou h o SJS. A noon, canopies signi ican ly educe he MRT by up o 22.4–29.2 °C, while he g een wall p o ides mode a e cooling in he ange o 2.1–5 °C. Du ing he a e noon, he a ea expe iences a ela i ely highe MRT, wi h a diffe ence o −0.8 °C o −3.7 °C, while a ound he g een wall, he MRT diffe ence is in a ange o 2.1–5 °C, and he effec is he e o e posi i e. A 22:00, he diffe ence close o he g een wall is 2.1–7.9 °C. These esul s sugges ha blocking di ec sunligh using can- opies is he mos effec i e s a egy, especially in he mo ning. Based on he absolu e diffe ence in he UTCI in SJS shown in Figu e 12d, i can be s a ed ha he UTCI diffe ences a e minimal in he mo ning due o na u ally coole em- pe a u es. By noon, canopies signi ican ly educe he UTCI by up o 5–6.5 °C, educing hea s ess, while he g een wall p o ides sligh ly highe alues, om 0.4 °C o 1.2 °C. In he a e noon and a nigh , he impac anges om −1.2 °C o 2 °C. 3.2.3. CBS-CS The esul s o he simula ion o CBS-CS a e p esen ed in his sec ion. As shown in Figu e 13, a 8:00, he UTCI is below 22.5 °C h oughou he squa e. By noon, i ises sig- ni ican ly and is be ween 37.5 °C and 40 °C, and he alues unde ees ange om 32 °C o 35 °C. A 16:00, he wes side displays UTCI anges om 35 °C o 37.5 °C, while he eas e n side and he cen e o he squa e show alues abo e 42.5 °C, and he alues unde ees a e in he ange o 37.5–40 °C. By 22:00, he UTCI d ops o a ange o 27.5–32.5 °C. Figu e 13. The UTCI esul s o CBS in he selec ed hou s. Figu e 14a p o ides a comp ehensi e o e iew o he AT a ia ions a he i e poin s in he CBS-CS o e 24 h. The AT analysis o his squa e shows ha poin 5 expe ienced he highes empe a u es, peaking a 36.8 °C, p obably due o g ea e sun exposu e. Poin s 1 and 2 ollow simila , sligh ly lowe pa e ns, while poin s 3 and 4 consis en ly eco d he cooles empe a u es, sugges ing possible shading o cooling effec s. These a ia ions iden i y poin 5 as a p io i y a ea o he mal com o in e en ions. Fu he mo e, in Figu e 13. The UTCI esul s o CBS in he selec ed hou s. Figu e 14a p o ides a comp ehensi e o e iew o he AT a ia ions a he i e poin s in he CBS-CS o e 24 h. The AT analysis o his squa e shows ha poin 5 expe ienced he highes empe a u es, peaking a 36.8 ◦ C, p obably due o g ea e sun exposu e. Poin s 1 and 2 ollow simila , sligh ly lowe pa e ns, while poin s 3 and 4 consis en ly eco d he cooles empe a u es, sugges ing possible shading o cooling e ec s. These a ia ions iden i y poin 5 as a p io i y a ea o he mal com o in e en ions. Fu he mo e, in con as o he SJS-CS squa e, di e ences be ween poin s a e highe h oughou he day, eaching 1.5 ◦C a some hou s. The RH alues (Figu e 14a) a e also in keeping wi h hose seen in SJS-CS. These end o be high in he ea ly mo ning and dec ease in he ho e midday due o he inc ease in empe a u e. In con as o SJS-CS, his squa e shows mo e no iceable RH di e ences be ween he poin s selec ed, p obably due o he highe p esence o ege a ion. Buildings 2025,15, 564 19 o 27 Buildings 2025, 15, 564 21 o 30 con as o he SJS-CS squa e, diffe ences be ween poin s a e highe h oughou he day, eaching 1.5 °C a some hou s. (a) Ai empe a u e and Rela i e Humidi y (b) MRT and UTCI Figu e 14. Simula ion o hou ly MRT and UTCI esul s a he selec ed poin s in CBS-CS. The RH alues (Figu e 14a) a e also in keeping wi h hose seen in SJS-CS. These end o be high in he ea ly mo ning and dec ease in he ho e midday due o he inc ease in empe a u e. In con as o SJS-CS, his squa e shows mo e no iceable RH diffe ences be- ween he poin s selec ed, p obably due o he highe p esence o ege a ion. The MRT da a o CBS-CS (Figu e 14b) e eal conside able a ia ions ac oss diffe en poin s and imes o he day. The MRT alues du ing he mo ning hou s o he day be ween 00:00 and 06:00 we e low, emaining p ac ically he same be ween poin s, showing a ied alues wi hin he ange o 16.7–20.9 °C as a e lec ion o he nigh ime empe a u e. The alues keep ising p og essi ely h oughou he day, s a ing a 09:00 and peaking om 15:00 o 17:00. A 16:00, poin 3 eco ded he highes MRT o he s udy, 72.9 °C, showing highly exposed su aces o he sun. By e ening, he squa e heads owa ds a cooling end whose le el is assumed o g adually pull down he MRT below 30 °C by nigh a ound 21:00. The con inuous a ia ions in he MRT du ing he sunny hou s sugges ha ege a- ion helps o educe he MRT when i blocks he sun. Howe e , he lack o a homogeneous canopy p e en s he MRT om emaining low. Finally, he UTCI esul s o CBS-CS a e ela i ely uni o m, be ween 00:00 and 06:00, wi h a ange o 20.9–23.5 °C, which is conside ed com o able a all poin s. Howe e , he e a e e y high disc epancies du ing he day. In de ail, he UTCI alues ise no iceably a e 09:00 and each high le els—o e 40 °C, indica ing high he mal s ess—a ound midday a poin 3 and he nea by poin 2. Poin 5 also eco ded high UTCI alues, peaking abo e 43 °C in he a e noon. Such high alues indica e ha hese poin s a e mo e exposed o di ec sunligh o less shel e ed om hea sou ces. Poin s 1 and 4 illus a e mode a e ises in he UTCI as opposed o poin 2 and poin 3. A e 18:00, he UTCI alues dec ease and e u n o mo e com o able le els, anging om 28 °C o 35 °C in he e ening. Figu e 14. Simula ion o hou ly MRT and UTCI esul s a he selec ed poin s in CBS-CS. The MRT da a o CBS-CS (Figu e 14b) e eal conside able a ia ions ac oss di e en poin s and imes o he day. The MRT alues du ing he mo ning hou s o he day be ween 00:00 and 06:00 we e low, emaining p ac ically he same be ween poin s, showing a ied alues wi hin he ange o 16.7–20.9 ◦ C as a e lec ion o he nigh ime empe a u e. The alues keep ising p og essi ely h oughou he day, s a ing a 09:00 and peaking om 15:00 o 17:00. A 16:00, poin 3 eco ded he highes MRT o he s udy, 72.9 ◦ C, showing highly exposed su aces o he sun. By e ening, he squa e heads owa ds a cooling end whose le el is assumed o g adually pull down he MRT below 30 ◦ C by nigh a ound 21:00. The con inuous a ia ions in he MRT du ing he sunny hou s sugges ha ege a ion helps o educe he MRT when i blocks he sun. Howe e , he lack o a homogeneous canopy p e en s he MRT om emaining low. Finally, he UTCI esul s o CBS-CS a e ela i ely uni o m, be ween 00:00 and 06:00, wi h a ange o 20.9–23.5 ◦ C, which is conside ed com o able a all poin s. Howe e , he e a e e y high disc epancies du ing he day. In de ail, he UTCI alues ise no iceably a e 09:00 and each high le els—o e 40 ◦ C, indica ing high he mal s ess—a ound midday a poin 3 and he nea by poin 2. Poin 5 also eco ded high UTCI alues, peaking abo e 43 ◦C in he a e noon. Such high alues indica e ha hese poin s a e mo e exposed o di ec sunligh o less shel e ed om hea sou ces. Poin s 1 and 4 illus a e mode a e ises in he UTCI as opposed o poin 2 and poin 3. A e 18:00, he UTCI alues dec ease and e u n o mo e com o able le els, anging om 28 ◦C o 35 ◦C in he e ening. 3.2.4. CBS-MS Acco ding o he assessmen conduc ed p e iously o CBS-CS, i is clea ha imp o e- men s a e equi ed o he poin s exposed o he sun. In addi ion, he o e all high UTCI alues in he mo ning and a e noon hou s p omp us o implemen s a egies ha could inc ease he mal com o . Thus, he use o di e en pa emen ma e ials is sugges ed in o de o complemen he canopies ins alled in sunny a eas and he ex ensi e p esence o ege a ion al eady ound in he squa e. Following an i e a i e p ocess o he selec ion o ma e ials, he bes pe o mance was obse ed wi h he use o pa ed g ass, a ha d pa emen inco po a ing g ass and soil. The esul s o he s a egy a e shown in his sec ion. Buildings 2025,15, 564 20 o 27 A 6:00, di e ences in he AT a e qui e small, anging om 0.3 ◦ C o 1.1 ◦ C, showing ha he e ec in he ea ly mo ning is minimal. A noon, cooling is mo e no iceable in he no h and cen e sec ions, wi h alues o be ween 1.5 ◦ C and 2.7 ◦ C and alues o be ween 0.3 ◦ C and 0.7 ◦ C on he sou he n side, showing e ec i e cooling om pa ed g ass and canopies. A 16:00, he cooling e ec s a e educed, wi h di e ences in a ange o 0.3–1.5 ◦ C. By 22:00, he AT di e ences d op in he ange o 0.3 ◦C o 0.7 ◦C (Figu e 15a). Buildings 2025, 15, 564 24 o 32 ( a ) Absolu e di e ence in AT a ou selec ed hou s Buildings 2025, 15, 564 25 o 32 (b) Absolu e di e ence in RH in ou selec ed hou s (c) Absolu e di e ence in MRT in ou selec ed hou s (d) Absolu e di e ence in UTCI in ou selec ed hou s Figu e 15. The absolu e diffe ence in clima ic a iables o he CBS mi iga ion scena io a ou se- lec ed hou s. 4. Discussion The selec ion o hese wo case s udies in he his o ic cen e o Se ille esponds o he aim o analyzing wo diffe en concep ions o an u ban squa e: om e y small ones, gen- e ally ha d pa ed and lacking o he elemen s, o medium-sized ones wi h ege a ion. Bo h case s udies exempli y one o he mos cha ac e is ic elemen s o he his o ic cen e o Se ille and o he egional ci ies. Small plazas, unde s ood as expansions and widenings wi hin a dense and na ow u ban ab ic, unc ion as public spaces o social ga he ing and in e ac ion among esiden s while also aiming o p o ide com o able a eas. As he esul s ha e shown, hei clima ic pe o mance is s ongly influenced no only by hei u ban s uc u e bu also by he use o adi ional cons uc ion ma e ials on pa emen s and adja- cen buildings. The findings discussed he e can be easily ex apola ed o o he examples wi h simila cha ac e is ics wi hin he ci y o egion. 4.1. Rega ding he Moni o ing and Valida ion o he S udy Figu e 15. The absolu e di e ence in clima ic a iables o he CBS mi iga ion scena io a ou selec ed hou s. Buildings 2025,15, 564 21 o 27 The absolu e di e ence in RH is nega i e a all hou s in he a ea. This shows ha he mi iga ion s a egy has inc eased he RH by noon, om − 4% o − 10%, especially in he cen al and pa ed a eas, sugges ing a possible inc ease in e apo a ion o educ ion in mois u e e en ion due o he e ec s o he MSs. In he a e noon, a 16:00, he RH di e ences a e lowe han in he mo ning, ound in he ange o − 1.00% o − 2.5%, while du ing he nigh , a 22:00, he le el is ela i ely s able, and only a ew changes om 0.5% o − 2.5% we e eco ded, indica ing ha , du ing he nigh , he e ec o he MSs on RH a e lessened (Figu e 15b). In e ms o he MRT, in he ea ly mo ning, he absolu e di e ence is e y low and nega i e, be ween − 1 ◦ C and − 4 ◦ C unde he canopies in he no h and cen e sec ions o CBS. A noon and a e noon (12:00, 16:00), hese alues inc ease by 2 ◦ C o 5 ◦ C in he pa ed g ass a ea and 14 ◦ C o 23 ◦ C unde he canopies. Howe e , by 22:00, he di e ences in he MRT a e simila o hose in he ea ly mo ning (Figu e 15c). The absolu e di e ence in he UTCI in CBS, as shown in Figu e 15d, indica es ha , in he mo ning, hese alues a e be ween − 0.5 ◦ C and − 0.1 ◦ C unde he canopies and 0.3–0.7 ◦ C o pa ed g ass. A 12:00 and 16:00, hey ange om 1.1 ◦ C o 2.3 ◦ C unde he ege a ion and abo e 3.1 ◦ C unde he canopies. A nigh , his alue is simila o he mo ning alues. 4. Discussion The selec ion o hese wo case s udies in he his o ic cen e o Se ille esponds o he aim o analyzing wo di e en concep ions o an u ban squa e: om e y small ones, gene ally ha d pa ed and lacking o he elemen s, o medium-sized ones wi h ege a ion. Bo h case s udies exempli y one o he mos cha ac e is ic elemen s o he his o ic cen e o Se ille and o he egional ci ies. Small plazas, unde s ood as expansions and widenings wi hin a dense and na ow u ban ab ic, unc ion as public spaces o social ga he ing and in e ac ion among esiden s while also aiming o p o ide com o able a eas. As he esul s ha e shown, hei clima ic pe o mance is s ongly in luenced no only by hei u ban s uc u e bu also by he use o adi ional cons uc ion ma e ials on pa emen s and adjacen buildings. The indings discussed he e can be easily ex apola ed o o he examples wi h simila cha ac e is ics wi hin he ci y o egion. 4.1. Rega ding he Moni o ing and Valida ion o he S udy Moni o ing esul s we e used o calib a e he simula ions. The e o esul s ob ained in his sec ion all wi hin he accep able ange, as epo ed in he li e a u e. Howe e , i should be no ed ha he e is no es ablished s anda d o his ype o ou doo simula ion. Thus, a s anda d commonly used in ene gy simula ions was adop ed as a e e ence. Ano he possible way o alida e he alues ob ained is h ough compa isons wi h p e ious s udies. While alida ion wi h moni o ed da a is no always a ailable in he li e a u e, se e al p e ious s udies ha e analyzed he MSs and alida ed simula ions o he MRT (showing he poo es esul s) eaching 7 ◦ C [ 68 ] and 11.2 ◦ C [ 69 ], hus con i ming ha his s udy can also be alida ed wi h he da a ob ained. Howe e , i is essen ial o ake po en ial inaccu acies in o accoun , as he esul s o his s udy a e signi ican o ends, ega dless o he absolu e alues. 4.2. Rega ding he E ec i eness o he S a egies P oposed The simula ion o he CS o bo h squa es showed ha , o all he pa ame e s analyzed, he a ia ions we e highe in CBS han in SJS. The e a e wo easons o his. Fi s ly, SJS is much smalle in size, limi ing di e en en i onmen s inside he squa e. In addi ion, he la ge numbe o ees in CBS p oduces changes in sola adia ion and humidi y pa e ns Buildings 2025,15, 564 22 o 27 ha di ec ly a ec he AT, a ec ing he UTCI. Al hough he com o alues a e high in he la e mo ning and he a e noon in bo h squa es, he a iabili y o he MRT in CBS inc eases he com o condi ions since people can choose wha pa o he b oade a ea hey p e e o occupy. The cu en use o he squa es alida es his s a emen , as CBS is much mo e li able han SJS, e en in ex emely ho condi ions. This is in keeping wi h p e ious s udies [ 54 ], which demons a ed he high local cooling po en ial o small ege a ion spaces o u ban pa ks, p o iding clima e-cooling a eas o shel e . A e applying he MSs o imp o e he mal com o in hou s o ex eme hea , he esul s p o e ha he mos e ec i e s a egy in bo h squa es is he ins alla ion o canopies, wi h educ ions in he UTCI o up o 6.5 ◦ C in SJS and 5 ◦ C in CBS. Shading elemen s, such as pe golas o canopies, educe di ec sola adia ion on su aces and people, imp o ing he mal com o . P e ious esea ch also indica es ha shading can dec ease he MRT by up o 20–30 ◦ C [ 70 ]. Howe e , hese imp o emen s a e limi ed almos exclusi ely o di ec ly shaded a eas, hus limi ing he s a egy’s e ec i eness o ce ain hou s. In addi ion, he esul s sugges ha he canopies could educe nigh hea elease and cause a sligh educ ion in he he mal com o obse ed du ing he nigh . This conclusion u he suppo s p e ious s udies in he same ield [ 4 ], which iden i ied emo able canopies as he bes op ion, e en hough i is no ye possible o simula e dynamic shading in ENVI-me . Acco ding o he exis ing li e a u e [ 4 , 46 ], hese esul s and he educ ion eached in he UTCI a e gene ally o be expec ed, as simila educ ions ha e been ob ained in hese and o he s udies [38], which eached e en highe empe a u e educ ions. T ees and g eene y can signi ican ly educe su ace and ATs h ough shading and e apo anspi a ion, bo h on a small scale and on a la ge u ban scale, as seen in p e ious s udies [ 55 ]. Meanwhile, o he s udies ha e shown ha inc easing ege a ion co e by 10–20% can lowe ambien empe a u es by 2–3 ◦ C [ 71 , 72 ]. Howe e , s a egies o ege a- ion and wa e use a e e y limi ed in he exis ing a eas. In ac , hei use is uled ou in hese a eas due o he clima e change p ojec ions o lowe p ecipi a ions. In CBS, whe e ege a ion was al eady subs an ial, his s a egy was no e en p oposed, as i could wo sen com o due o an inc eased RH, as demons a ed by [ 4 ]. Gi en he a ea’s p o ec ed he i age s a us and limi ed space, i is no possible o add new ees in SJS. The g een wall was he e o e p oposed as an al e na i e. Howe e , i s mic oclima ic e ec was signi ican ly educed, and while his s a egy can be conside ed o imp o e com o pe cep ion o he mos pa , i p oduces no essen ial measu able bene i s in e ms o empe a u e. I was challenging o op imize he s a egy o imp o ing he ma e ial o he g ound su ace. Acco ding o he exis ing li e a u e [ 43 ], high-albedo pa emen s and coa ings e lec mo e sola adia ion, educing he ST. In ac , s udies epo a ST educ ion o 5–10 ◦C when cooling ma e ials a e applied in exis ing u ban spaces, as p o ed p e iously [ 73 ]. Howe e , in his ype o squa e, p e ious simula ion esul s wi h highe albedo in his s udy consis en ly educed he mal com o . This was caused by an inc eased MRT due o he e lec ed adia ion. The p oximi y o e lec ing su aces due o he geome y o hese spaces makes high-albedo ma e ial p e e ably a oidable. P e ious s udies on he consequences o albedo in con ined spaces u he suppo his conclusion [ 44 ]. Fo his eason, a he han changing he albedo, he s a egy in his s udy was o educe he hea cap u ed by ha d ma e ials, an app oach ha has p o ed e y bene icial o com o educ ion in p e ious s udies [ 53 ]. The pa ed g ass p oposed abso bs much less hea han exis ing ma e ials. Al hough he educ ion in he UTCI was only a ew deg ees, he e ec is mo e homogeneous in he a ea o he squa e and imp o es com o , e en in shaded a eas. Buildings 2025,15, 564 23 o 27 4.3. Limi a ions This s udy is limi ed o he wo case s udies analyzed, al hough he conclusions can be ex apola ed o simila spaces in many ci ies wo ldwide wi h simila s uc u es and clima es. O he limi a ions inhe en o he me hodology we e also ca e ully conside ed du ing his analysis. ENVI-me simula ions a e cons ained by hei s a ic ep esen a- ion o dynamic shading e ec s and canno accoun o long- e m empo al a iabili y. Addi ionally, ins umen accu acy unde ex eme hea condi ions may in oduce mino disc epancies. Despi e hese limi a ions, he combined use o ield da a, model calib a ion, and simula ions p o ide a obus amewo k o unde s anding and mi iga ing u ban he mal discom o in he i age con ex s. The esul s a e also limi ed by he so wa e used, which can only simula e adi ion- ally used ma e ials wi h s a ic cha ac e is ics. Fu u e wo k should ocus on analyzing he po en ial o newe echnologically ad anced ma e ials, such as supe cool ma e ials, which may be he u u e ega ding inc easing he e ec i eness o MSs unde ex eme clima e p ojec ions, as sugges ed in p e ious s udies [ 57 ]. Howe e , new ools mus s ill be de eloped o include hese cha ac e is ics in he analysis. 5. Conclusions This s udy highligh s he c i ical impo ance o add essing he mal com o in u ban squa es, pa icula ly in his o ic neighbo hoods such as he Casco An iguo o Se ille, whe e he e ec s o he UHI phenomenon a e exace ba ed by he lack o ege a ion, shading, and wa e ea u es, ypical u ban cha ac e is ics o he adi ional his o ical u ban ab ic in old ci ies. The compa a i e analysis o SJS and CBS h ough in-pe son moni o ing and simula ion me hods highligh s he complex in e play o adi ional u ban design elemen s, cons uc i e ma e ial p ope ies, and mic oclima ic condi ions gene a ed by his o ic u ban ex u es, which can be de imen al o com o e ec s unde wa m condi ions, as shown in his s udy. The indings e eal ha SJS expe iences signi ican ly highe he mal s ess due o i s limi ed g eene y and shading, wi h he UTCI alues peaking a o e 44 ◦ C a midday. In con as , CBS bene i s om be e ege a ion co e age, leading o lowe UTCI alues and enhanced he mal com o in shaded a eas. Ne e heless, CBS eco ded he highes MRT in he s udy, 72.9 ◦ C, showing su aces highly exposed o he sun. These di e ences emphasize he pi o al ole o u ban ege a ion and shading in mode a ing he mal condi ions. This s udy’s simula ion esul s p o ide ac ionable insigh s in o e ec i e MSs o imp o ing he mal com o in bo h squa es: • Canopies eme ged as he mos impac ul in e en ion, signi ican ly educing he UTCI alues (by up o 6.5 ◦ C in SJS and 5 ◦ C in CBS) du ing peak hou s by p o iding ex ensi e shading. • G een walls o e ed localized cooling e ec s, lowe ing he MRT by up o 5 ◦ C while enhancing he aes he ic and ecological alues. • Pa ed g ass and pe meable asphal demons a ed mode a e cooling e ec s, educing su ace and ATs in hea ily exposed and al eady shaded a eas. These indings alida e he s a egies p oposed, highligh ing hei adap abili y o his o ic u ban en i onmen s. By implemen ing hese solu ions, ci y planne s can achie e a balance be ween p e- se ing he cul u al he i age o his o ic squa es and enhancing hei clima e esilience. Mo eo e , his esea ch p o ides aluable guidance o in eg a ing he mal com o im- p o emen s in o u ban design, o e ing a eplicable amewo k o o he ci ies g appling wi h he challenges o UHI and he mal discom o . This s udy ein o ces he need o a ge ed, e idence-based in e en ions o mi iga e hea s ess in u ban squa es, ensu ing Buildings 2025,15, 564 24 o 27 ha hese i al public spaces emain unc ional, sus ainable, and enjoyable o esiden s and isi o s alike. By adop ing a holis ic app oach ha combines g een in as uc u e, shading elemen s, and inno a i e ma e ials, ci ies can enhance he mal com o while p ese ing hei his o ical and cul u al in eg i y. Thus, policymake s a e encou aged o in eg a e he mal com o conside a ions in o u ban planning egula ions, pa icula ly o his o ic dis ic s. This includes he p omo- ion o adap i e shading s uc u es and g een in as uc u e o mi iga e UHI e ec s while p ese ing cul u al he i age. Guidelines o u ban conse a ion p ojec s should inco po- a e clima e- esilien designs, such as pe meable pa emen s and ege a ion, as s anda d p ac ices. In con as , indus y s akeholde s, pa icula ly in he ield o a chi ec u e and cons uc ion, a e ad ised o inno a e wi h ma e ials and designs ha enhance he mal pe o mance while aligning wi h he i age p ese a ion p inciples. A clea example o his can be ound in ligh weigh , modula shading solu ions and high/medium-albedo ma e i- als sui able o his o ic se ings, which a e c i ical a eas o de elopmen . Collabo a ion be ween he i age conse a ionis s and g een echnology de elope s can lead o scalable solu ions o sus ainable u ban egene a ion. Finally, u u e s udies should explo e he long- e m pe o mance o MSs unde chang- ing clima e condi ions, inco po a ing dynamic simula ions ha ake seasonal a ia ions in o conside a ion. Expanding he s udy o include di e en u ban o ms and clima es could alida e hese indings and p o ide ans e able solu ions o o he he i age ci ies. In es iga ing com o and he socio-economic impac s o he mal mi iga ion measu es, such as communi y engagemen and cos -bene i analysis, could o e deepe insigh s o p ac ical implemen a ion. Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, V.P.L.-C. and C.G.-M.; Da a cu a ion, P.R. and J.S.-C.; Fo - mal analysis, P.R.; Funding acquisi ion, C.G.-M.; In es iga ion, P.R. and J.S.-C.; Me hodology, V.P.L.-C. and C.G.-M.; P ojec adminis a ion, C.G.-M.; Resou ces, C.G.-M.; So wa e, P.R., V.P.L.-C. and J.S.-C.; Supe ision, V.P.L.-C. and C.G.-M.; Valida ion, V.P.L.-C.; Visualiza ion, P.R.; W i ing—o iginal d a , P.R. and V.P.L.-C.; W i ing— e iew and edi ing, V.P.L.-C., J.S.-C. and C.G.-M. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This wo k has been suppo ed by he p ojec PID2021-124539OB-I00 unded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by “ERDF A way o making Eu ope”, p ojec TED2021- 129347B-C21 unded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by he “Eu opean Union Nex Gen- e a ionEU/PRTR”. The Minis e io de Ciencia, Inno ación y Uni e sidades suppo ed a p edoc o al con ac g an ed o J.S.-C. (FPU21/02458), and a Juan de la Cie a Pos doc o al Fellowship was g an ed o V.P.L.-C. (JDC2023-050880-I). Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The au ho s will make he aw da a suppo ing his a icle’s conclusions a ailable upon eques . Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es . Re e ences 1. Uni ed Na ions, Depa men o Economic and Social A ai s, Popula ion Di ision. Wo ld U baniza ion P ospec s The 2018 Re ision (ST/ESA/SER.A/420); Uni ed Na ions: New Yo k, NY, USA, 2019. 2. Salih, K.; Nagy, I.R.B. 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