1
This is an Accep ed Manusc ip e sion o he ollowing a icle, accep ed o publica ion in
Jou nal o he S udy o Educa ion and De elopmen : Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Mo eno, C.,
Ga cía-Moya, I., & Ramos, P. (2013). How can pa en s ob ain knowledge abou hei
adolescen child en? Jou nal o he S udy o Educa ion and De elopmen , 36(2), 181–
197. h ps://doi.o g/10.1174/021037013806196256
I is deposi ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-
NoDe i a i es License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-
comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is
p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way.
How can pa en s ob ain knowledge abou hei adolescen child en?
¿Cómo las mad es y los pad es consiguen conoce de alles ace ca de las idas de sus
hijos e hijas adolescen es?
An onia Jiménez-Iglesias1,*, Ca men Mo eno2, I ene Ga cía-Moya3 and Pila Ramos4
1, 2, 3, 4 Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de la Educación, Uni e sidad de Se illa
C/ Camilo José Cela, s/n. 41018 Se illa.
1, * Co espondig au ho . E-mail add ess: amjimig[email p o ec ed]s
2E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed]
3E-mail add ess: i ene[email p o ec ed]
4E-mail add ess: pila [email protected]
2
Acknowledgemen s
This esea ch has been unded by an ag eemen signed be ween he Spanish Minis y o
Heal h, Social Policy and Equali y, and he Uni e si y o Se ille (Spain).
How can pa en s ob ain knowledge abou hei adolescen child en?
Abs ac
The aim o his s udy is o analyse he in luence o amily dimensions on pa en al
knowledge o hei adolescen child en based on he coun y, gende and age o he
adolescen s. This s udy adop s wo di e en pe spec i es, na ional and in e na ional,
wi h da a aken om he esul s o he 2006 edi ion o he Heal h Beha iou in School-
aged Child en (HBSC) s udy in Spain and o he membe coun ies o he in e na ional
ne wo k, namely, Aus ia, Belgium, Bulga ia, Canada, C oa ia, he Czech Republic,
Denma k, Es onia, Finland, F ance, Ge many and he Uni ed Kingdom. The esul s
indica e ha bo h a he s and mo he s ob ain knowledge abou hei adolescen child en
h ough he child en’s disclosu es, pa en al ca e, pa en al solici a ion and amily
ac i i ies. The discussion ocuses on how hese amily dimensions p omo e pa en al
knowledge.
Keywo ds: adolescence, pa en al knowledge, ca e, p omo ion o au onomy, disclosu e,
solici a ion, amily ac i i ies
3
¿Cómo las mad es y los pad es consiguen conoce de alles ace ca de las idas de sus
hijos e hijas adolescen es?
Resumen
El obje i o de es e es udio es analiza la in luencia de di e en es dimensiones amilia es
sob e el conocimien o que pad es y mad es ienen ace ca de sus hijos e hijas
adolescen es, eniendo en cuen a el país, el sexo y la edad de los adolescen es. Es a
in es igación se ealiza desde dos pe spec i as, nacional e in e nacional, con da os
omados de la edición 2006 del es udio Heal h Beha iou in School-aged Child en
(HBSC) en España y o os países de la ed in e nacional, conc e amen e, Alemania,
Aus ia, Bélgica, Bulga ia, Canadá, C oacia, Dinama ca, Es onia, Finlandia, F ancia,
Reino Unido y República Checa. Los esul ados indican que an o los pad es como las
mad es consiguen in o mación sob e sus hijos e hijas a a és de la e elación
adolescen e, el a ec o pa en al, el in e és pa en al y las ac i idades amilia es. En la
discusión se abo da cómo es as dimensiones amilia es a o ecen la consecución del
conocimien o pa en al.
Palab as cla e: adolescencia, conocimien o pa en al, a ec o, p omoción de la
au onomía, e elación, in e és, ac i idades amilia es
4
In oduc ion
The ield o pa en al knowledge is an ex emely impo an a ea o esea ch gi en he
la ge numbe o published s udies on his opic (S a in, Ke , & Til on-Wea e , 2010).
The majo i y o hese s udies has iden i ied he pa en al knowledge as an impo an
componen o e ec i e pa en ing, being ela ed o be e adjus men in adolescen s
(Jacobson & C ocke , 2000; Til on-Wea e e al., 2010), o example lowe p oblem
beha iou s, like subs ance use (Jiménez-Iglesias, Mo eno, G anado-Alcón, & López,
2012; Rai e al., 2003; Soenens, Vans eenkis e, Luyckx, & Goossens, 2006; Tebes e
al., 2011), and be e psychological well-being (F öjd, Kal iala-Heino, & Rimpelä,
2007; Jiménez-Iglesias, Mo eno, G anado-Alcón e al., 2012; Rei z, Deko ić, & Meije ,
2006).
The s udies done by Ke and S a in (2000; S a in & Ke , 2000) in ol ed a
majo ad ance in unde s anding he meaning o pa en al knowledge and i s ela ionship
wi h adolescen adjus men . Pa en al knowledge includes gene al knowledge ha
pa en s ha e abou hei child en: whe e hey go, when hey a e ou , wha hey do and
who hei iends a e (Ke & S a in, 2000; S a in & Ke , 2000). Pa en al knowledge
allows pa en s o be in o med abou he li es o hei adolescen s, in a pe iod in which
oppo uni ies o aking pa in p oblema ic ac i i ies inc ease, while di ec pa en al
supe ision dec eases (Jacobson & C ocke , 2000). Bu p obably pa en al knowledge is
also impo an o a posi i e adolescen s' de elopmen because o he ways ha pa en s
ha e o ob ain knowledge and he ac ions ha pa en s do a e acqui ing i (S a in e al.,
2010).
Pa en al knowledge is a men al s a e a he han a pa en ing beha iou (Kakiha a
& Til on-Wea e , 2009); i does no necessa ily e lec pa en al beha iou s because
5
adolescen s’ managemen o hei own in o ma ion is also impo an (Lai d, Ma e o, &
She wood, 2010).
Th ee ac o s a e commonly associa ed wi h pa en s’ knowledge abou hei
adolescen child en: he pa en al skills needed o ask child en o ano he sou ce o
in o ma ion (Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002), such as in o ma ion
ha pa en s can ob ain om he pa en s o hei child en’s iends (Bou deau, Mille ,
Duke, & Ames, 2011); he endency o adolescen s o p o ide in o ma ion abou hei
ac i i ies o hei own ee will (Bou deau e al., 2011; Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009;
C ou e & Head, 2002), and he quali y o he pa en -child ela ionship (Bumpus &
Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002).
The e o e, pa en al knowledge, is gene a ed by lo ing pa en s who a emp o be
in o med (Da ling, Cumsille, Peña-Alampay, & Coa swo h, 2009) while encou aging a
posi i e amily con ex in which adolescen s a e likely o communica e openly and
pa en s a e likely o be knowledgeable abou hei child en’s ac i i ies, loca ions and
iends (Fle che , S einbe g, & Williams-Wheele , 2004; Sala ia, Gondoli, & G undy,
2009; Soenens e al., 2006). Tha is, communica ion be ween pa en s and adolescen s is
an e ec i e way o ob ain pa en al knowledge o adolescen child en (Ke & S a in,
2000; S a in & Ke , 2000), and i implies adolescen disclosu e and pa en al
solici a ion (Keijse s, B anje, Vande Valk, & Meeus, 2010). Fu he mo e, pa en s’
in ol emen in he ac i i ies o hei sons and daugh e s (Bumpus, C ou e , & McHale,
2006), ime spen wi h he amily and adolescen s’ accep ance o he app op ia eness o
pa en al moni o ing in ol e highe le els o pa en al knowledge (Lai d, Pe i , Dodge,
& Ba es, 2003; Sme ana, Me zge , Ge man, & Campione-Ba , 2006).
In gene al, pa en s who a e in eg a ed in o hei adolescen s’ wo lds a e awa e o
hei child en’s daily expe iences (Waizenho e , Buchanan, & Jackson-Newsom, 2004).

6
Howe e , adolescen s also play a ole in pa en al knowledge acquisi ion. Adolescen s’
us in sha ing in o ma ion wi h hei pa en s is an impo an way o pa en s o ob ain
knowledge abou hei child en’s li es (Ea on, K uege , Johnson, McGue, & Iacono,
2009; Keijse s e al., 2010; Ke & S a in, 2000; Ke , S a in, & Bu k, 2010; S a in &
Ke , 2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). Adolescen disclosu e is mo e likely o occu
among adolescen s whose pa en s a ely eac nega i ely o hei commen s and who do
no eel con olled by hei pa en s (Hayes, Hudson, & Ma hews, 2003, 2004; Til on-
Wea e e al., 2010).
These p e ious s udies show ha pa en al knowledge is an impo an a ea o
esea ch and a well-s udied opic. In he ield o pa en al knowledge, his cu en s udy
p oposes o include di e en aspec s, which could be in e es ing. Di e en amily
dimensions, ha a o emen ioned s udies ha e indica ed impo an o pa en al
knowledge, a e he e analysed oge he in he same esea ch. Each amily dimension
(excep amily ac i i ies) has ma e nal and pa e nal a iable, and hese a iables a e
analysed sepa a ely, because i is impo an o know how mo he and a he ge hei
own knowledge (C ou e & Head, 2002). Mo eo e , his s udy examines i a iables
like coun y, gende and age o adolescen s ( a iables ela ed o he sampling) ha e a
mode a ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween amily dimensions and pa en al
knowledge (and no only e ec on sepa a e dimensions). Un il now, he e a e no
s udies abou his opic in Spain.
Rega ding di e ences be ween mo he s and a he s, esea ch show ha
adolescen s pe cei e hei mo he s mo e a ec iona e and p omo e hei au onomy han
a he s (Klimidis, Minas, & A a, 1992; Oli a, Pa a, Sánchez-Queija, & López, 2007),
and also mo e in e es ed in hei adolescen s’ li es and mo e knowledgeable abou hem
(C ou e , Bumpus, Da is, & McHale, 2005; Waizenho e e al., 2004). Besides, mo he s
7
sha e mo e ime wi h hei adolescen s (Dubas & Ge is, 2002), and adolescen s
disclose hem mo e in o ma ion abou hei li es (Oli a, Pa a e al., 2007).
Conce ning adolescen s’ gende , boys and gi ls pe cei e high le els o pa en al
ca e and pa en al p omo ion o au onomy (Klimidis e al., 1992). Di e ences be ween
boys and gi ls in amily ac i i ies depend on he ype o ac i i y (Zabo skis, Zemai iene,
Bo up, Kun sche, & Mo eno, 2007). Gi ls usually disclose mo e in o ma ion han boys,
and pa en s equi e mo e in o ma ion om hei daugh e s (Ke & S a in, 2000; Pa a
& Oli a, 2006; S a in & Ke , 2000; Waizenho e e al., 2004) and hey know mo e
abou hei daugh e s han hei sons (C ou e e al., 2005; Rai e al., 2003; Waizenho e
e al., 2004). Howe e , esea ch ha e also ound ha a he s usually know conside ably
mo e abou hei sons, whils mo he s know mo e abou hei daugh e s (Maccoby,
2003; Mo eno, Ramos, Ri e a, Jiménez-Iglesias, & Ga cía-Moya, 2012), and a he s
spend mo e ime wi h hei sons, and mo he s spend mo e ime wi h hei daugh e s
(Dubas & Ge is, 2002).
In ela ion o he adolescen s’ age, he ollowing changes ake place in he main
amily dimensions du ing adolescence: he ways o show a ec ion change (Collins &
Lau sen, 2004), p omo ion o au onomy inc eases (S einbe g & Silk, 2002) and ime
sha ed wi h amily (Zabo skis e al., 2007), as well as pa en al solici a ion, adolescen
disclosu e and pa en al knowledge usually dec ease (Lai d e al., 2003; Pe i , Keiley,
Lai d, Ba es, & Dodge, 2007).
Finally, di e en esea ch show ha , in Spain, amily cohesion is a deeply oo ed
alue (Mo gan, Ri e a, Mo eno, & Haglund, 2012; Oli a & Pa a, 2001), amily
ac i i ies a e equen (Zabo skis e al., 2007), and communica ion wi h pa en s is easie
han in o he coun ies (Cu ie e al., 2012)
8
This pape uses da a om he esul s o he 2006 edi ion o he WHO’s
in e na ional su ey on Heal h Beha iou in School-aged Child en (HBSC) in Spain and
o he membe coun ies o he in e na ional ne wo k. The HBSC s udy akes place in
mo e han 40 wes e n coun ies, bu in his pape we e s udied 13 coun ies, which
included he a iables analysed. Da a collec ion wi h school-aged adolescen s is ca ied
ou e e y ou yea s, wi h he objec i e o ob aining a global ision o he adolescen s’
li es yles, hei main de elopmen al con ex s, and he implica ions o all o hem o he
adolescen s’ heal h and psychological adjus men (Cu ie, Nic Gabhainn, Godeau, & he
In e na ional HBSC Ne wo k Coo dina ing Commi ee, 2009; Cu ie e al., 2012). Fo
mo e in o ma ion, isi h p://www.hbsc.o g/
The aim o his pape , acco ding o he adolescen s’ pe cep ions, is o analyse he
impo ance o di e en amily dimensions o ob aining pa en al knowledge, aking in o
accoun he ma e nal and pa e nal dimensions in sepa a e analysis. Besides, i is
analysed i he ela ionship be ween amily dimensions and pa en al knowledge is
mode a ed by coun y, gende and age o adolescen s.
This s udy is done om wo pe spec i es: in e na ional and na ional. F om an
in e na ional pe spec i e, he objec i e o his s udy is o de e mine, sepa a ely o
a he s and mo he s and based on he coun y, gende and age o he adolescen s, he
in luence o pa en al ca e and he pa en al p omo ion o au onomy on pa en al
knowledge abou adolescen child en. F om a Spanish na ional pe spec i e, he
in e na ional objec i e is examined in mo e de ail wi h he addi ion o a iables p esen
only in he Spanish HBSC ques ionnai e. The gene al objec i e is o analyse (again,
sepa a ely o a he s and mo he s and based on he adolescen s’ gende and age) how
di e en a iables in he amily con ex (ca e, p omo ion o au onomy, disclosu e,
solici a ion and amily ac i i ies) a e associa ed wi h pa en al knowledge.
9
Me hod
Pa icipan s
Sampling was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he s uc u e o na ional educa ion sys ems
wi hin coun ies and was some imes s a i ied by egion o school ype o ge a
ep esen a i e sample o school-aged child en o each coun y (Cu ie e al., 2012;
Robe s e al., 2009). In Spain was used a andom mul is age sampling p ocedu e
s a i ied by conglome a es ( aking in o accoun : age, egion o Spain, esidence - u al
and u ban-, and ype o educa ional cen e -public o p i a e-) (Mo eno e al., 2008).
In his s udy, he in e na ional sample consis ed o 59320 adolescen s (49.37%
boys and 50.63% gi ls) aged 13 and 15 om Aus ia, Belgium, Bulga ia, Canada,
C oa ia, he Czech Republic, Denma k, Es onia, Finland, F ance, Ge many, Spain and
he Uni ed Kingdom (England, Sco land and Wales). The na ional sample was
composed o 14825 Spanish adolescen s (46.41% boys and 53.59% gi ls) aged 13-14,
15-16 and 17-18 (in Spain, he analysis o he e en ages and ages 17-18 we e added as
na ional op ion, so hese ages a e no included in he in e na ional sample).
The in e na ional sample was used o he esul s om an in e na ional
pe spec i e, and he na ional sample was used o he esul s om a na ional
pe spec i e.
Measu es
The HBSC-2006 ques ionnai e was used o he na ional and in e na ional s udy. The
HBSC ques ionnai e is a b oad su ey ha e eals he adolescen heal h habi s om a
mul idisciplina y pe spec i e. The a iables and i ems a e chosen based on he o e all
objec i es o he s udy and on he scien i ic a ionale unde lying hei use. The
in e na ional ques ionnai e consis s o manda o y i ems employed in all pa icipa ing
coun ies and op ional i ems, which a e included by coun ies based on na ional in e es ,
16
All o he amily dimensions s udied, wi h he excep ion o pa en al p omo ion o
au onomy, we e ele an o he acquisi ion o bo h pa e nal and ma e nal knowledge,
so a he and mo he ge knowledge in simila ways.
In he in e na ional da a, pa en al ca e was he only ele an dimension o he wo
amily dimensions s udied. In he na ional da a, pa e nal ca e was he mos impo an
dimension o pa e nal knowledge. Pa en al knowledge is inc eased by a ec iona e
pa en s who a emp o main ain cu en knowledge (Da ling e al., 2009), and who
gene a e quali y pa en -child ela ionships (Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head,
2002; Rai e al., 2003).
In he na ional da a (mainly o ma e nal knowledge), adolescen s’ disclosu e o
hei pa en s was e y impo an o ob aining pa en al knowledge. As o he s udies
ha e ound, adolescen disclosu e is one o he dimensions associa ed wi h pa en al
acquisi ion o knowledge abou hei adolescen child en (Bou deau e al., 2011;
Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002). Fu he mo e, adolescen disclosu e
is he bes p edic o o pa en al knowledge (Ea on e al., 2009; Keijse s e al., 2010;
Ke & S a in, 2000; Ke e al., 2010; S a in & Ke , 2000; Willoughby & Hamza,
2011). In ac , when adolescen s keep sec e s, lie o hide in o ma ion o hei pa en s,
pa en al knowledge dec eases (Da ling, Cumsille, Caldwell, & Dowdy, 2006; Engels,
Finkenaue , & Van Koo en, 2006; F ijns, Finkenaue , Ve muls , & Engels, 2005).
The e o e, boys and gi ls mus us hei pa en s enough o disclose in o ma ion o
hem so ha pa en s can main ain cu en knowledge abou hei child en’s li es (Ea on
e al., 2009; Keijse s e al., 2010; Ke & S a in, 2000; Ke e al., 2010; S a in & Ke ,
2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). Pa en s could no know much o his in o ma ion
unless hei adolescen child en ell hem because, in adolescence, he di ec pa en al
supe ision dec eases and he ime spen in o he con ex s inc eases.

17
The nex mos impo an a iable was pa en al solici a ion. Pa en al skill in
eques ing in o ma ion om child en is ano he amily dimension ha has been
equen ly ela ed o ob aining and main aining pa en al knowledge (Bumpus &
Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002; Waizenho e e al., 2004). Mo he s and a he s
can use di e en ools o ind ou abou hei child en (C ou e & Head, 2002), bu i is
impo an o adolescen s o accep he app op ia eness o his pa en al moni o ing
(Lai d e al., 2003; Sme ana e al., 2006).
Adolescen disclosu e and pa en al solici a ion e lec communica ion be ween
pa en s and adolescen s (Keijse s e al., 2010), which is an e ec i e way o pa en s o
be in o med abou hei adolescen child en (Ke & S a in, 2000; S a in & Ke ,
2000).
Acco ding o na ional da a, amily ac i i ies sha ed among mo he s, a he s and
child en a e impo an o he pa en al acquisi ion o knowledge. Pa en al in ol emen
wi h child en in ac i i ies (Bumpus e al., 2006) and he ime spen oge he as a amily
(C ou e , Head, McHale, & Tucke , 2004; Lai d e al., 2003; Sme ana e al., 2006)
allow pa en s o ind ou how hei child en beha e, wha hei opinions, eelings, likes
and in e es s a e, who hei iends a e and hei p og ess a school.
Fo ano he hand, he socio-demog aphic a iables in his s udy (coun y, gende
and age) had no a mode a ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween he amily dimensions
and pa en al knowledge, and indi idually we e no in ol ed in he acquisi ion o
pa en al knowledge. This may be because he amily dimensions a e mo e impo an o
pa en s ob ain knowledge, ega dless o whe he hese dimensions a e exp essed in he
p esence o boys o gi ls, o adolescen s o a g oup o age o ano he , o adolescen s
om a coun y o ano he . Pu ano he way, his s udy analyses basic dimensions o he
18
amily ela ionships, which a e p obably less in luenced by cul u al and socio-economic
di e ences.
Consequen ly, bo h adolescen s and hei pa en s a e in ol ed in he acquisi ion o
pa en al knowledge, as o he s udies ha e e ealed (Ke & S a in, 2000; Lai d e al.,
2010; S a in & Ke , 2000). Howe e , pa en s can con ibu e o hei child en’s ole in
his p ocess by encou aging adolescen disclosu e and lis ening o child en wi h an open
mind when hey speak. Adolescen disclosu e is mo e likely o occu in adolescen s
whose pa en s a ely eac nega i ely o hei commen s ( hey a e unde s anding and
a ec iona e, and hey do no eac wi h ange , disapp o al o coldness) and who eel
mo e connec ed and less con olled by hei pa en s (Hayes e al., 2003, 2004; Til on-
Wea e e al., 2010). Fu he mo e, a posi i e amily con ex p omo es adolescen s’
open communica ion and inc eases pa en s’ knowledge o hei child en’s ac i i ies,
loca ions and iends (Fle che e al., 2004; Sala ia e al., 2009; Soenens e al., 2006).
The impo ance o hese amily p ocesses is also suppo ed om a quali a i e
pe spec i e used in o he s udy wi h adolescen s (Jiménez-Iglesias, Mo eno, Ga cía-
Moya, & López, 2012).
Some limi a ions mus be conside ed. The ac ha all o he in o ma ion in his
s udy comes om one sou ce, namely, he male and emale adolescen s, may exagge a e
he exis ing ela ionships be ween he di e en a iables and include only he
adolescen s’ pe cep ions o pa en al beha iou . Howe e , adolescen s a e he mos used
sou ce o pa en al knowledge (Ke , S a in, & Özdemi , 2012), as well as hey a e he
mos eliable, objec i e sou ce o in o ma ion and a e leas in luenced by social
desi abili y (Pa a & Oli a, 2006). Fu he mo e, hei ideas abou adolescence a e mo e
posi i e and consis en wi h he esul s o he cu en esea ch (Ridao & Mo eno, 2008)
and hei pe cep ion o pa en al message de e mines he e icacy o pa en al
19
socializa ion (G usec & Goodnow, 1994). O he limi a ions o his s udy a e he c oss-
sec ional design, which has mo e limi ed alidi y han a longi udinal design, and ha he
HBSC ques ionnai e is a b oad su ey which allows explo ing many a iables, bu no
s udying hem in dep h. Besides, his s udy analyse di e en coun ies, bu no cul u al
a ia ions o socio-economic inequali ies inside each o hem.
Howe e , he g ea es s eng h o his s udy is ha he HBSC s udy p o ides a
well- ounded iew o amily and adolescen s, and he sampling a ou s he
gene alisa ion o he in e na ional and na ional esul s. Fu he mo e, al hough he aim o
his s udy is a well-s udied opic, in ou coun y is he i s s udy ha analyse how can
pa en s ob ain knowledge abou he li e o hei adolescen child en. Ne e heless, he
non-exis ence o in luence o he coun y show ha his s udy analyses basic
dimensions o he amily ela ionships, and i s esul s can be gene alized o any wes e n
coun y.
Fu u e s udies could imp o e his esea ch. I would be in e es ing o include no
only he adolescen s’ pe cep ions bu also pa en s’ pe cep ions. A longi udinal design
abou his opic would allow a be e unde s anding o he amily p ocesses. In addi ion,
i would be necessa y o conside he imp o emen o measu es (like solici a ion and
disclosu e) and he addi ion o new ela ed measu es (like pa en -child us , o pa en s
eac ions o adolescen disclosu e).
Finally, all amily dimensions ha a e in ol ed in he acquisi ion o pa en al
knowledge mus be p omo ed in pa en in e en ions beginning in childhood (Moilanen,
Shaw, & C iss, 2009; Rod igo, Máiquez, & Ma ín, 2010), aking in o accoun ha
pa en s mus adap hei me hods o acqui ing his knowledge o hei child en’s s ages
o de elopmen (Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Palacios, 2012). These in e en ions a e
impo an o achie e a ec iona e pa en s, wi h in e es in he li es o hei adolescen s,
20
pa en s who lis en openly when adolescen s alk and sha e ime wi h hei amilies
(Oli a, Hidalgo e al., 2007). Besides, his will esul in heal hie physical,
psychological and social de elopmen o hei adolescen child en (Jacobson &
C ocke , 2000; Til on-Wea e e al., 2010) because he mos impo an hing abou he
knowledge is ha he pa en s a e capable o doing wha e e is necessa y a he
app op ia e momen , o make su e hei adolescen de elop in he mos posi i e way
possible.
Re e ences
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B own, B. B., Moun s, N., Lambo n, S. D., & S einbe g, L. (1993). Pa en ing p ac ices
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Bumpus, M. F., & Rodge s, K. B. (2009). Pa en al knowledge and i s sou ces
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Cohen, J. (1988). S a is ical powe analysis o he beha io al science. Hillsdale, NJ:
Law ence E lbaum Associa es.
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Collins, W. A., & Lau sen, B. (2004). Pa en -adolescen ela ionships and in luences. In
R. M. Le ne , & L. S einbe g (Eds.), Handbook o adolescen psychology (2nd
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C ou e , A. C., Bumpus, M. F., Da is, K. D., & McHale, S. M. (2005). How do pa en s
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C ou e , A. C., & Head, M. R. (2002). Pa en al moni o ing and knowledge o child en.
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131-139. doi: 10.1007/s00038-009-5404-x
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22
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Engels, R. C. M. E., Finkenaue , C., & Van Koo en, D. C. (2006). Lying beha io ,
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Fle che , A. C., S einbe g, L., & Williams-Wheele , M. (2004). Pa en al in luences on
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G usec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994). Impac o pa en al discipline me hods on he
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Jacobson, K. C., & C ocke , L. J. (2000). Pa en al moni o ing and adolescen
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65-97. doi: 10.1207/SJRA1001_4
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Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Mo eno, C., Ga cía-Moya, I., & López, F. (2012). Las elaciones
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publica ion.
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32
P edic o
B
E o
β
s2
p
13 yea s
P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k x 13
yea s
0.09 0.05 .02 .00 .072
P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia x 13 yea s
-0.05
0.05
-.01
.00
.309
P omo ion o au onomy x Finland x 13 yea s
-0.13
0.05
-.02
.00
.018
P omo ion o au onomy x F ance x 13 yea s
-0.04
0.06
-.01
.00
.464
P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many x 13
yea s
0.01 0.04 .001 .00 .917
P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom
x 13 yea s
0.03 0.05 .01 .00 .585

33
TABLE II
Mul iple linea eg ession analysis on pa e nal knowledge om an in e na ional
pe spec i e
P edic o
B
E o
β
s2
p
Model adjus ed
Ca e
0.62
0.01
.56
.31
.000
Con as Model
Ca e
0.63
0.02
.57
.02
.000
Aus ia
-0.18
0.02
-.10
.004
.000
Belgium
-0.17
0.02
-.07
.003
.000
Bulga ia
-0.07
0.02
-.04
.001
.000
Canada
-0.10
0.02
-.06
.001
.000
C oa ia
-0.03
0.02
-.02
.00
.046
Czech Republic
-0.11
0.02
-.05
.001
.000
Denma k
-0.12
0.02
-.06
.002
.000
Es onia
-0.12
0.02
-.05
.001
.000
Finland
-0.14
0.02
-.06
.002
.000
F ance
-0.17
0.02
-.07
.003
.000
Ge many
-0.07
0.02
-.03
.001
.000
Uni ed Kingdom
-0.11
0.02
-.05
.001
.000
Boy
0.01
0.01
.01
.00
.268
13 yea s
0.03
0.01
.02
.00
.000
P omo ion o au onomy
-0.02
0.03
-.02
.00
.403
Ca e x Aus ia
0.11
0.04
.04
.00
.003
Ca e x Belgium
-0.08
0.05
-.02
.00
.114
Ca e x Bulga ia
-0.09
0.04
-.02
.00
.038
Ca e x Canada
-0.02
0.04
-.01
.00
.626
Ca e x C oa ia
-0.01
0.04
-.001
.00
.893
Ca e x Czech Republic
0.04
0.04
.01
.00
.352
Ca e x Denma k
0.08
0.05
.02
.00
.091
Ca e x Es onia
-0.04
0.05
-.01
.00
.467
Ca e x Finland
0.06
0.05
.01
.00
.240
Ca e x F ance
-0.04
0.05
-.01
.00
.514
Ca e x Ge many
-0.03
0.05
-.01
.00
.452
Ca e x Uni ed Kingdom
-0.03
0.05
-.01
.00
.533
P omo ion o au onomy x Aus ia
0.02
0.05
.004
.00
.745
P omo ion o au onomy x Belgium
-0.02
0.06
-.004
.00
.724
P omo ion o au onomy x Bulga ia
0.03
0.05
.01
.00
.566
P omo ion o au onomy x Canada
-0.11
0.05
-.03
.00
.019
P omo ion o au onomy x C oa ia
-0.04
0.05
-.01
.00
.440
P omo ion o au onomy x Czech Republic
-0.07
0.06
-.01
.00
.254
P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k
-0.11
0.07
-.02
.00
.098
P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia
-0.09
0.06
-.02
.00
.144
P omo ion o au onomy x Finland
-0.05
0.07
-.01
.00
.430
P omo ion o au onomy x F ance
0.03
0.07
.004
.00
.674
P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many
0.02
0.05
.004
.00
.725
P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom
-0.07
0.06
-.01
.00
.214
34
P edic o
B
E o
β
s2
p
Ca e x Aus ia x boy
-0.13
0.04
-.03
.00
.000
Ca e x Belgium x boy
-0.01
0.05
-.001
.00
.897
Ca e x Bulga ia x boy
0.003
0.04
.001
.00
.934
Ca e x Canada x boy
0.06
0.04
.01
.00
.074
Ca e x C oa ia x boy
0.01
0.04
.002
.00
.763
Ca e x Czech Republic x boy
-
0.001
0.04 .00 .00 .981
Ca e x Denma k x boy
0.01
0.04
.001
.00
.885
Ca e x Es onia x boy
0.05
0.05
.01
.00
.344
Ca e x Finland x boy
-0.08
0.06
-.01
.00
.152
Ca e x F ance x boy
-0.04
0.06
-.01
.00
.517
Ca e x Ge many x boy
-0.05
0.04
-.01
.00
.302
Ca e x Uni ed Kingdom x boy
0.07
0.04
.01
.00
.097
P omo ion o au onomy x Aus ia x boy
0.04
0.05
.01
.00
.422
P omo ion o au onomy x Belgium x boy
0.03
0.07
.004
.00
.656
P omo ion o au onomy x Bulga ia x boy
0.04
0.05
.01
.00
.388
P omo ion o au onomy x Canada x boy
-0.06
0.04
-.01
.00
.147
P omo ion o au onomy x C oa ia x boy
-
0.001
0.05 .00 .00 .992
P omo ion o au onomy x Czech Republic x
boy
0.02 0.06 .002 .00 .755
P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k x boy
0.03
0.06
.004
.00
.598
P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia x boy
-0.01
0.07
-.001
.00
.880
P omo ion o au onomy x Finland x boy
0.03
0.07
.003
.00
.680
P omo ion o au onomy x F ance x boy
-0.02
0.07
-.003
.00
.732
P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many x boy
-0.05
0.05
-.01
.00
.349
P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom
x boy
0.05 0.06 .01 .00 .403
Ca e x Aus ia x 13 yea s
-0.01
0.04
-.002
.00
.763
Ca e x Belgium x 13 yea s
0.05
0.05
.01
.00
.369
Ca e x Bulga ia x 13 yea s
0.07
0.04
.01
.00
.103
Ca e x Canada x 13 yea s
-0.05
0.04
-.01
.00
.187
Ca e x C oa ia x 13 yea s
0.01
0.04
.002
.00
.832
Ca e x Czech Republic x 13 yea s
0.002
0.04
.00
.00
.967
Ca e x Denma k x 13 yea s
-0.03
0.05
-.01
.00
.569
Ca e x Es onia x 13 yea s
0.01
0.05
.002
.00
.795
Ca e x Finland x 13 yea s
0.002
0.06
.00
.00
.975
Ca e x F ance x 13 yea s
0.1
0.06
.01
.00
.090
Ca e x Ge many x 13 yea s
-0.02
0.04
-.003
.00
.736
Ca e x Uni ed Kingdom x 13 yea s
0.003
0.04
.001
.00
.946
P omo ion o au onomy x Aus ia x 13 yea s
0.06
0.05
.01
.00
.175
P omo ion o au onomy x Belgium x 13
yea s
0.07 0.07 .01 .00 .287
P omo ion o au onomy x Bulga ia x 13
yea s
-0.02 0.05 -.002 .00 .754
P omo ion o au onomy x Canada x 13 yea s
0.06
0.05
.01
.00
.157
P omo ion o au onomy x C oa ia x 13 yea s
0.01
0.05
.002
.00
.830
35
P edic o
B
E o
β
s2
p
P omo ion o au onomy x Czech Republic x
13 yea s
-0.08 0.06 -.01 .00 .204
P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k x 13
yea s
0.04 0.06 .01 .00 .483
P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia x 13 yea s
-0.01
0.07
-.001
.00
.912
P omo ion o au onomy x Finland x 13 yea s
0.05
0.07
.01
.00
.505
P omo ion o au onomy x F ance x 13 yea s
-0.15
0.07
-.02
.00
.037
P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many x 13
yea s
-0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .433
P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom
x 13 yea s
-0.02 0.06 -.002 .00 .789
36
TABLE III
Mul iple linea eg ession analysis on ma e nal knowledge om a na ional pe spec i e
P edic o
B
E o
β
s2
p
Model adjus ed
Ca e
0.19
0.01
.21
.04
.000
Solici a ion
0.08
0.004
.16
.03
.000
Disclosu e
0.12
0.003
.31
.08
.000
Family ac i i ies
0.01
0.001
.09
.01
.000
Con as Model
Ca e
0.21
0.02
.23
.01
.000
Solici a ion
0.07
0.01
.13
.003
.000
Disclosu e
0.11
0.01
.29
.02
.000
Family ac i i ies
0.01
0.002
.13
.003
.000
Boy
-0.03
0.01
-.04
.002
.000
13-14 yea s
-0.03
0.01
-.03
.001
.001
15-16 yea s
-0.01
0.01
-.01
.00
.147
P omo ion o au onomy
0.05
0.01
.06
.001
.000
Ca e x boy
-0.07
0.02
-.05
.001
.000
P omo ion o au onomy x boy
-0.03
0.01
-.02
.00
.056
Solici a ion x boy
0.04
0.01
.05
.001
.000
Disclosu e x boy
0.00
0.01
.00
.00
.972
Family ac i i ies x boy
0.00
0.001
.003
.00
.815
Ca e x 13-14 yea s
0.01
0.02
.01
.00
.577
P omo ion o au onomy x 13-14 yea s
-0.02
0.02
-.02
.00
.199
Solici a ion x 13-14 yea s
0.01
0.01
.01
.00
.268
Disclosu e x 13-14 yea s
-0.01
0.01
-.01
.00
.342
Family ac i i ies x 13-14 yea s
-0.01
0.002
-.04
.00
.011
Ca e x 15-16 yea s
-0.03
0.02
-.02
.00
.203
P omo ion o au onomy x 15-16 yea s
0.05
0.02
.03
.00
.007
Solici a ion x 15-16 yea s
-0.004
0.01
-.01
.00
.706
Disclosu e x 15-16 yea s
0.002
0.01
.003
.00
.831
Family ac i i ies x 15-16 yea s
-0.004
0.002
-.03
.00
.050
37
TABLE IV
Mul iple linea eg ession analysis on pa e nal knowledge om a na ional pe spec i e
P edic o
B
E o
β
s2
p
Model adjus ed
Ca e
0.33
0.01
.33
.07
.000
Solici a ion
0.11
0.004
.19
.03
.000
Disclosu e
0.14
0.004
.25
.05
.000
Family ac i i ies
0.01
0.001
.08
.01
.000
Con as Model
Ca e
0.38
0.02
.37
.02
.000
Solici a ion
0.07
0.01
.13
.003
.000
Disclosu e
0.15
0.01
.28
.01
.000
Family ac i i ies
0.02
0.002
.15
.003
.000
Boy
0.01
0.01
.01
.00
.352
13-14 yea s
-0.04
0.01
-.04
.001
.000
15-16 yea s
-0.02
0.01
-.02
.00
.063
P omo ion o au onomy
0.02
0.02
.02
.00
.299
Ca e x boy
-0.07
0.02
-.05
.001
.000
P omo ion o au onomy x boy
-0.06
0.02
-.03
.001
.001
Solici a ion x boy
0.03
0.01
.04
.001
.000
Disclosu e x boy
-0.03
0.01
-.03
.00
.004
Family ac i i ies x boy
-0.004
0.002
-.03
.00
.020
Ca e x 13-14 yea s
-0.02
0.02
-.01
.00
.320
P omo ion o au onomy x 13-14 yea s
-0.01
0.02
-.01
.00
.598
Solici a ion x 13-14 yea s
0.03
0.01
.03
.00
.013
Disclosu e x 13-14 yea s
-0.004
0.01
-.01
.00
.696
Family ac i i ies x 13-14 yea s
-0.01
0.003
-.04
.00
.002
Ca e x 15-16 yea s
-0.04
0.02
-.02
.00
.092
P omo ion o au onomy x 15-16 yea s
0.04
0.02
.02
.00
.058
Solici a ion x 15-16 yea s
0.04
0.01
.04
.001
.001
Disclosu e x 15-16 yea s
-0.01
0.01
-.02
.00
.255
Family ac i i ies x 15-16 yea s
-0.004
0.003
-.02
.00
.143