How can parents obtain knowledge about their adolescent children?

1 This is an Accep ed Manusc ip e sion o he ollowing a icle, accep ed o publica ion in Jou nal o he S udy o Educa ion and De elopmen : Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Mo eno, C., Ga cía-Moya, I., & Ramos, P. (2013). How can pa en s ob ain knowledge abou hei adolescen child en? Jou nal o he S udy o Educa ion and De elopmen , 36(2), 181– 197. h ps://doi.o g/10.1174/021037013806196256 I is deposi ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial- NoDe i a i es License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non- comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way. How can pa en s ob ain knowledge abou hei adolescen child en? ¿Cómo las mad es y los pad es consiguen conoce de alles ace ca de las idas de sus hijos e hijas adolescen es? An onia Jiménez-Iglesias1,*, Ca men Mo eno2, I ene Ga cía-Moya3 and Pila Ramos4 1, 2, 3, 4 Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de la Educación, Uni e sidad de Se illa C/ Camilo José Cela, s/n. 41018 Se illa. 1, * Co espondig au ho . E-mail add ess: amjimig[email p o ec ed]s 2E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] 3E-mail add ess: i ene[email p o ec ed] 4E-mail add ess: pila [email protected] 2 Acknowledgemen s This esea ch has been unded by an ag eemen signed be ween he Spanish Minis y o Heal h, Social Policy and Equali y, and he Uni e si y o Se ille (Spain). How can pa en s ob ain knowledge abou hei adolescen child en? Abs ac The aim o his s udy is o analyse he in luence o amily dimensions on pa en al knowledge o hei adolescen child en based on he coun y, gende and age o he adolescen s. This s udy adop s wo di e en pe spec i es, na ional and in e na ional, wi h da a aken om he esul s o he 2006 edi ion o he Heal h Beha iou in School- aged Child en (HBSC) s udy in Spain and o he membe coun ies o he in e na ional ne wo k, namely, Aus ia, Belgium, Bulga ia, Canada, C oa ia, he Czech Republic, Denma k, Es onia, Finland, F ance, Ge many and he Uni ed Kingdom. The esul s indica e ha bo h a he s and mo he s ob ain knowledge abou hei adolescen child en h ough he child en’s disclosu es, pa en al ca e, pa en al solici a ion and amily ac i i ies. The discussion ocuses on how hese amily dimensions p omo e pa en al knowledge. Keywo ds: adolescence, pa en al knowledge, ca e, p omo ion o au onomy, disclosu e, solici a ion, amily ac i i ies 3 ¿Cómo las mad es y los pad es consiguen conoce de alles ace ca de las idas de sus hijos e hijas adolescen es? Resumen El obje i o de es e es udio es analiza la in luencia de di e en es dimensiones amilia es sob e el conocimien o que pad es y mad es ienen ace ca de sus hijos e hijas adolescen es, eniendo en cuen a el país, el sexo y la edad de los adolescen es. Es a in es igación se ealiza desde dos pe spec i as, nacional e in e nacional, con da os omados de la edición 2006 del es udio Heal h Beha iou in School-aged Child en (HBSC) en España y o os países de la ed in e nacional, conc e amen e, Alemania, Aus ia, Bélgica, Bulga ia, Canadá, C oacia, Dinama ca, Es onia, Finlandia, F ancia, Reino Unido y República Checa. Los esul ados indican que an o los pad es como las mad es consiguen in o mación sob e sus hijos e hijas a a és de la e elación adolescen e, el a ec o pa en al, el in e és pa en al y las ac i idades amilia es. En la discusión se abo da cómo es as dimensiones amilia es a o ecen la consecución del conocimien o pa en al. Palab as cla e: adolescencia, conocimien o pa en al, a ec o, p omoción de la au onomía, e elación, in e és, ac i idades amilia es 4 In oduc ion The ield o pa en al knowledge is an ex emely impo an a ea o esea ch gi en he la ge numbe o published s udies on his opic (S a in, Ke , & Til on-Wea e , 2010). The majo i y o hese s udies has iden i ied he pa en al knowledge as an impo an componen o e ec i e pa en ing, being ela ed o be e adjus men in adolescen s (Jacobson & C ocke , 2000; Til on-Wea e e al., 2010), o example lowe p oblem beha iou s, like subs ance use (Jiménez-Iglesias, Mo eno, G anado-Alcón, & López, 2012; Rai e al., 2003; Soenens, Vans eenkis e, Luyckx, & Goossens, 2006; Tebes e al., 2011), and be e psychological well-being (F öjd, Kal iala-Heino, & Rimpelä, 2007; Jiménez-Iglesias, Mo eno, G anado-Alcón e al., 2012; Rei z, Deko ić, & Meije , 2006). The s udies done by Ke and S a in (2000; S a in & Ke , 2000) in ol ed a majo ad ance in unde s anding he meaning o pa en al knowledge and i s ela ionship wi h adolescen adjus men . Pa en al knowledge includes gene al knowledge ha pa en s ha e abou hei child en: whe e hey go, when hey a e ou , wha hey do and who hei iends a e (Ke & S a in, 2000; S a in & Ke , 2000). Pa en al knowledge allows pa en s o be in o med abou he li es o hei adolescen s, in a pe iod in which oppo uni ies o aking pa in p oblema ic ac i i ies inc ease, while di ec pa en al supe ision dec eases (Jacobson & C ocke , 2000). Bu p obably pa en al knowledge is also impo an o a posi i e adolescen s' de elopmen because o he ways ha pa en s ha e o ob ain knowledge and he ac ions ha pa en s do a e acqui ing i (S a in e al., 2010). Pa en al knowledge is a men al s a e a he han a pa en ing beha iou (Kakiha a & Til on-Wea e , 2009); i does no necessa ily e lec pa en al beha iou s because 5 adolescen s’ managemen o hei own in o ma ion is also impo an (Lai d, Ma e o, & She wood, 2010). Th ee ac o s a e commonly associa ed wi h pa en s’ knowledge abou hei adolescen child en: he pa en al skills needed o ask child en o ano he sou ce o in o ma ion (Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002), such as in o ma ion ha pa en s can ob ain om he pa en s o hei child en’s iends (Bou deau, Mille , Duke, & Ames, 2011); he endency o adolescen s o p o ide in o ma ion abou hei ac i i ies o hei own ee will (Bou deau e al., 2011; Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002), and he quali y o he pa en -child ela ionship (Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002). The e o e, pa en al knowledge, is gene a ed by lo ing pa en s who a emp o be in o med (Da ling, Cumsille, Peña-Alampay, & Coa swo h, 2009) while encou aging a posi i e amily con ex in which adolescen s a e likely o communica e openly and pa en s a e likely o be knowledgeable abou hei child en’s ac i i ies, loca ions and iends (Fle che , S einbe g, & Williams-Wheele , 2004; Sala ia, Gondoli, & G undy, 2009; Soenens e al., 2006). Tha is, communica ion be ween pa en s and adolescen s is an e ec i e way o ob ain pa en al knowledge o adolescen child en (Ke & S a in, 2000; S a in & Ke , 2000), and i implies adolescen disclosu e and pa en al solici a ion (Keijse s, B anje, Vande Valk, & Meeus, 2010). Fu he mo e, pa en s’ in ol emen in he ac i i ies o hei sons and daugh e s (Bumpus, C ou e , & McHale, 2006), ime spen wi h he amily and adolescen s’ accep ance o he app op ia eness o pa en al moni o ing in ol e highe le els o pa en al knowledge (Lai d, Pe i , Dodge, & Ba es, 2003; Sme ana, Me zge , Ge man, & Campione-Ba , 2006). In gene al, pa en s who a e in eg a ed in o hei adolescen s’ wo lds a e awa e o hei child en’s daily expe iences (Waizenho e , Buchanan, & Jackson-Newsom, 2004). 6 Howe e , adolescen s also play a ole in pa en al knowledge acquisi ion. Adolescen s’ us in sha ing in o ma ion wi h hei pa en s is an impo an way o pa en s o ob ain knowledge abou hei child en’s li es (Ea on, K uege , Johnson, McGue, & Iacono, 2009; Keijse s e al., 2010; Ke & S a in, 2000; Ke , S a in, & Bu k, 2010; S a in & Ke , 2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). Adolescen disclosu e is mo e likely o occu among adolescen s whose pa en s a ely eac nega i ely o hei commen s and who do no eel con olled by hei pa en s (Hayes, Hudson, & Ma hews, 2003, 2004; Til on- Wea e e al., 2010). These p e ious s udies show ha pa en al knowledge is an impo an a ea o esea ch and a well-s udied opic. In he ield o pa en al knowledge, his cu en s udy p oposes o include di e en aspec s, which could be in e es ing. Di e en amily dimensions, ha a o emen ioned s udies ha e indica ed impo an o pa en al knowledge, a e he e analysed oge he in he same esea ch. Each amily dimension (excep amily ac i i ies) has ma e nal and pa e nal a iable, and hese a iables a e analysed sepa a ely, because i is impo an o know how mo he and a he ge hei own knowledge (C ou e & Head, 2002). Mo eo e , his s udy examines i a iables like coun y, gende and age o adolescen s ( a iables ela ed o he sampling) ha e a mode a ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween amily dimensions and pa en al knowledge (and no only e ec on sepa a e dimensions). Un il now, he e a e no s udies abou his opic in Spain. Rega ding di e ences be ween mo he s and a he s, esea ch show ha adolescen s pe cei e hei mo he s mo e a ec iona e and p omo e hei au onomy han a he s (Klimidis, Minas, & A a, 1992; Oli a, Pa a, Sánchez-Queija, & López, 2007), and also mo e in e es ed in hei adolescen s’ li es and mo e knowledgeable abou hem (C ou e , Bumpus, Da is, & McHale, 2005; Waizenho e e al., 2004). Besides, mo he s 7 sha e mo e ime wi h hei adolescen s (Dubas & Ge is, 2002), and adolescen s disclose hem mo e in o ma ion abou hei li es (Oli a, Pa a e al., 2007). Conce ning adolescen s’ gende , boys and gi ls pe cei e high le els o pa en al ca e and pa en al p omo ion o au onomy (Klimidis e al., 1992). Di e ences be ween boys and gi ls in amily ac i i ies depend on he ype o ac i i y (Zabo skis, Zemai iene, Bo up, Kun sche, & Mo eno, 2007). Gi ls usually disclose mo e in o ma ion han boys, and pa en s equi e mo e in o ma ion om hei daugh e s (Ke & S a in, 2000; Pa a & Oli a, 2006; S a in & Ke , 2000; Waizenho e e al., 2004) and hey know mo e abou hei daugh e s han hei sons (C ou e e al., 2005; Rai e al., 2003; Waizenho e e al., 2004). Howe e , esea ch ha e also ound ha a he s usually know conside ably mo e abou hei sons, whils mo he s know mo e abou hei daugh e s (Maccoby, 2003; Mo eno, Ramos, Ri e a, Jiménez-Iglesias, & Ga cía-Moya, 2012), and a he s spend mo e ime wi h hei sons, and mo he s spend mo e ime wi h hei daugh e s (Dubas & Ge is, 2002). In ela ion o he adolescen s’ age, he ollowing changes ake place in he main amily dimensions du ing adolescence: he ways o show a ec ion change (Collins & Lau sen, 2004), p omo ion o au onomy inc eases (S einbe g & Silk, 2002) and ime sha ed wi h amily (Zabo skis e al., 2007), as well as pa en al solici a ion, adolescen disclosu e and pa en al knowledge usually dec ease (Lai d e al., 2003; Pe i , Keiley, Lai d, Ba es, & Dodge, 2007). Finally, di e en esea ch show ha , in Spain, amily cohesion is a deeply oo ed alue (Mo gan, Ri e a, Mo eno, & Haglund, 2012; Oli a & Pa a, 2001), amily ac i i ies a e equen (Zabo skis e al., 2007), and communica ion wi h pa en s is easie han in o he coun ies (Cu ie e al., 2012) 8 This pape uses da a om he esul s o he 2006 edi ion o he WHO’s in e na ional su ey on Heal h Beha iou in School-aged Child en (HBSC) in Spain and o he membe coun ies o he in e na ional ne wo k. The HBSC s udy akes place in mo e han 40 wes e n coun ies, bu in his pape we e s udied 13 coun ies, which included he a iables analysed. Da a collec ion wi h school-aged adolescen s is ca ied ou e e y ou yea s, wi h he objec i e o ob aining a global ision o he adolescen s’ li es yles, hei main de elopmen al con ex s, and he implica ions o all o hem o he adolescen s’ heal h and psychological adjus men (Cu ie, Nic Gabhainn, Godeau, & he In e na ional HBSC Ne wo k Coo dina ing Commi ee, 2009; Cu ie e al., 2012). Fo mo e in o ma ion, isi h p://www.hbsc.o g/ The aim o his pape , acco ding o he adolescen s’ pe cep ions, is o analyse he impo ance o di e en amily dimensions o ob aining pa en al knowledge, aking in o accoun he ma e nal and pa e nal dimensions in sepa a e analysis. Besides, i is analysed i he ela ionship be ween amily dimensions and pa en al knowledge is mode a ed by coun y, gende and age o adolescen s. This s udy is done om wo pe spec i es: in e na ional and na ional. F om an in e na ional pe spec i e, he objec i e o his s udy is o de e mine, sepa a ely o a he s and mo he s and based on he coun y, gende and age o he adolescen s, he in luence o pa en al ca e and he pa en al p omo ion o au onomy on pa en al knowledge abou adolescen child en. F om a Spanish na ional pe spec i e, he in e na ional objec i e is examined in mo e de ail wi h he addi ion o a iables p esen only in he Spanish HBSC ques ionnai e. The gene al objec i e is o analyse (again, sepa a ely o a he s and mo he s and based on he adolescen s’ gende and age) how di e en a iables in he amily con ex (ca e, p omo ion o au onomy, disclosu e, solici a ion and amily ac i i ies) a e associa ed wi h pa en al knowledge. 9 Me hod Pa icipan s Sampling was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he s uc u e o na ional educa ion sys ems wi hin coun ies and was some imes s a i ied by egion o school ype o ge a ep esen a i e sample o school-aged child en o each coun y (Cu ie e al., 2012; Robe s e al., 2009). In Spain was used a andom mul is age sampling p ocedu e s a i ied by conglome a es ( aking in o accoun : age, egion o Spain, esidence - u al and u ban-, and ype o educa ional cen e -public o p i a e-) (Mo eno e al., 2008). In his s udy, he in e na ional sample consis ed o 59320 adolescen s (49.37% boys and 50.63% gi ls) aged 13 and 15 om Aus ia, Belgium, Bulga ia, Canada, C oa ia, he Czech Republic, Denma k, Es onia, Finland, F ance, Ge many, Spain and he Uni ed Kingdom (England, Sco land and Wales). The na ional sample was composed o 14825 Spanish adolescen s (46.41% boys and 53.59% gi ls) aged 13-14, 15-16 and 17-18 (in Spain, he analysis o he e en ages and ages 17-18 we e added as na ional op ion, so hese ages a e no included in he in e na ional sample). The in e na ional sample was used o he esul s om an in e na ional pe spec i e, and he na ional sample was used o he esul s om a na ional pe spec i e. Measu es The HBSC-2006 ques ionnai e was used o he na ional and in e na ional s udy. The HBSC ques ionnai e is a b oad su ey ha e eals he adolescen heal h habi s om a mul idisciplina y pe spec i e. The a iables and i ems a e chosen based on he o e all objec i es o he s udy and on he scien i ic a ionale unde lying hei use. The in e na ional ques ionnai e consis s o manda o y i ems employed in all pa icipa ing coun ies and op ional i ems, which a e included by coun ies based on na ional in e es , 16 All o he amily dimensions s udied, wi h he excep ion o pa en al p omo ion o au onomy, we e ele an o he acquisi ion o bo h pa e nal and ma e nal knowledge, so a he and mo he ge knowledge in simila ways. In he in e na ional da a, pa en al ca e was he only ele an dimension o he wo amily dimensions s udied. In he na ional da a, pa e nal ca e was he mos impo an dimension o pa e nal knowledge. Pa en al knowledge is inc eased by a ec iona e pa en s who a emp o main ain cu en knowledge (Da ling e al., 2009), and who gene a e quali y pa en -child ela ionships (Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002; Rai e al., 2003). In he na ional da a (mainly o ma e nal knowledge), adolescen s’ disclosu e o hei pa en s was e y impo an o ob aining pa en al knowledge. As o he s udies ha e ound, adolescen disclosu e is one o he dimensions associa ed wi h pa en al acquisi ion o knowledge abou hei adolescen child en (Bou deau e al., 2011; Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002). Fu he mo e, adolescen disclosu e is he bes p edic o o pa en al knowledge (Ea on e al., 2009; Keijse s e al., 2010; Ke & S a in, 2000; Ke e al., 2010; S a in & Ke , 2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). In ac , when adolescen s keep sec e s, lie o hide in o ma ion o hei pa en s, pa en al knowledge dec eases (Da ling, Cumsille, Caldwell, & Dowdy, 2006; Engels, Finkenaue , & Van Koo en, 2006; F ijns, Finkenaue , Ve muls , & Engels, 2005). The e o e, boys and gi ls mus us hei pa en s enough o disclose in o ma ion o hem so ha pa en s can main ain cu en knowledge abou hei child en’s li es (Ea on e al., 2009; Keijse s e al., 2010; Ke & S a in, 2000; Ke e al., 2010; S a in & Ke , 2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). Pa en s could no know much o his in o ma ion unless hei adolescen child en ell hem because, in adolescence, he di ec pa en al supe ision dec eases and he ime spen in o he con ex s inc eases. 17 The nex mos impo an a iable was pa en al solici a ion. Pa en al skill in eques ing in o ma ion om child en is ano he amily dimension ha has been equen ly ela ed o ob aining and main aining pa en al knowledge (Bumpus & Rodge s, 2009; C ou e & Head, 2002; Waizenho e e al., 2004). Mo he s and a he s can use di e en ools o ind ou abou hei child en (C ou e & Head, 2002), bu i is impo an o adolescen s o accep he app op ia eness o his pa en al moni o ing (Lai d e al., 2003; Sme ana e al., 2006). Adolescen disclosu e and pa en al solici a ion e lec communica ion be ween pa en s and adolescen s (Keijse s e al., 2010), which is an e ec i e way o pa en s o be in o med abou hei adolescen child en (Ke & S a in, 2000; S a in & Ke , 2000). Acco ding o na ional da a, amily ac i i ies sha ed among mo he s, a he s and child en a e impo an o he pa en al acquisi ion o knowledge. Pa en al in ol emen wi h child en in ac i i ies (Bumpus e al., 2006) and he ime spen oge he as a amily (C ou e , Head, McHale, & Tucke , 2004; Lai d e al., 2003; Sme ana e al., 2006) allow pa en s o ind ou how hei child en beha e, wha hei opinions, eelings, likes and in e es s a e, who hei iends a e and hei p og ess a school. Fo ano he hand, he socio-demog aphic a iables in his s udy (coun y, gende and age) had no a mode a ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween he amily dimensions and pa en al knowledge, and indi idually we e no in ol ed in he acquisi ion o pa en al knowledge. This may be because he amily dimensions a e mo e impo an o pa en s ob ain knowledge, ega dless o whe he hese dimensions a e exp essed in he p esence o boys o gi ls, o adolescen s o a g oup o age o ano he , o adolescen s om a coun y o ano he . Pu ano he way, his s udy analyses basic dimensions o he 18 amily ela ionships, which a e p obably less in luenced by cul u al and socio-economic di e ences. Consequen ly, bo h adolescen s and hei pa en s a e in ol ed in he acquisi ion o pa en al knowledge, as o he s udies ha e e ealed (Ke & S a in, 2000; Lai d e al., 2010; S a in & Ke , 2000). Howe e , pa en s can con ibu e o hei child en’s ole in his p ocess by encou aging adolescen disclosu e and lis ening o child en wi h an open mind when hey speak. Adolescen disclosu e is mo e likely o occu in adolescen s whose pa en s a ely eac nega i ely o hei commen s ( hey a e unde s anding and a ec iona e, and hey do no eac wi h ange , disapp o al o coldness) and who eel mo e connec ed and less con olled by hei pa en s (Hayes e al., 2003, 2004; Til on- Wea e e al., 2010). Fu he mo e, a posi i e amily con ex p omo es adolescen s’ open communica ion and inc eases pa en s’ knowledge o hei child en’s ac i i ies, loca ions and iends (Fle che e al., 2004; Sala ia e al., 2009; Soenens e al., 2006). The impo ance o hese amily p ocesses is also suppo ed om a quali a i e pe spec i e used in o he s udy wi h adolescen s (Jiménez-Iglesias, Mo eno, Ga cía- Moya, & López, 2012). Some limi a ions mus be conside ed. The ac ha all o he in o ma ion in his s udy comes om one sou ce, namely, he male and emale adolescen s, may exagge a e he exis ing ela ionships be ween he di e en a iables and include only he adolescen s’ pe cep ions o pa en al beha iou . Howe e , adolescen s a e he mos used sou ce o pa en al knowledge (Ke , S a in, & Özdemi , 2012), as well as hey a e he mos eliable, objec i e sou ce o in o ma ion and a e leas in luenced by social desi abili y (Pa a & Oli a, 2006). Fu he mo e, hei ideas abou adolescence a e mo e posi i e and consis en wi h he esul s o he cu en esea ch (Ridao & Mo eno, 2008) and hei pe cep ion o pa en al message de e mines he e icacy o pa en al 19 socializa ion (G usec & Goodnow, 1994). O he limi a ions o his s udy a e he c oss- sec ional design, which has mo e limi ed alidi y han a longi udinal design, and ha he HBSC ques ionnai e is a b oad su ey which allows explo ing many a iables, bu no s udying hem in dep h. Besides, his s udy analyse di e en coun ies, bu no cul u al a ia ions o socio-economic inequali ies inside each o hem. Howe e , he g ea es s eng h o his s udy is ha he HBSC s udy p o ides a well- ounded iew o amily and adolescen s, and he sampling a ou s he gene alisa ion o he in e na ional and na ional esul s. Fu he mo e, al hough he aim o his s udy is a well-s udied opic, in ou coun y is he i s s udy ha analyse how can pa en s ob ain knowledge abou he li e o hei adolescen child en. Ne e heless, he non-exis ence o in luence o he coun y show ha his s udy analyses basic dimensions o he amily ela ionships, and i s esul s can be gene alized o any wes e n coun y. Fu u e s udies could imp o e his esea ch. I would be in e es ing o include no only he adolescen s’ pe cep ions bu also pa en s’ pe cep ions. A longi udinal design abou his opic would allow a be e unde s anding o he amily p ocesses. In addi ion, i would be necessa y o conside he imp o emen o measu es (like solici a ion and disclosu e) and he addi ion o new ela ed measu es (like pa en -child us , o pa en s eac ions o adolescen disclosu e). Finally, all amily dimensions ha a e in ol ed in he acquisi ion o pa en al knowledge mus be p omo ed in pa en in e en ions beginning in childhood (Moilanen, Shaw, & C iss, 2009; Rod igo, Máiquez, & Ma ín, 2010), aking in o accoun ha pa en s mus adap hei me hods o acqui ing his knowledge o hei child en’s s ages o de elopmen (Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Palacios, 2012). These in e en ions a e impo an o achie e a ec iona e pa en s, wi h in e es in he li es o hei adolescen s, 20 pa en s who lis en openly when adolescen s alk and sha e ime wi h hei amilies (Oli a, Hidalgo e al., 2007). Besides, his will esul in heal hie physical, psychological and social de elopmen o hei adolescen child en (Jacobson & C ocke , 2000; Til on-Wea e e al., 2010) because he mos impo an hing abou he knowledge is ha he pa en s a e capable o doing wha e e is necessa y a he app op ia e momen , o make su e hei adolescen de elop in he mos posi i e way possible. Re e ences Bou deau, B., Mille , B. A., Duke, M. R., & Ames, G. M. (2011). Pa en al s a egies o knowledge o adolescen s’ iends: Dis inc om moni o ing? Jou nal o Child and Family S udies, 20, 814-820. doi: 10.1007/s10826-011-9449-0 B own, B. B., Moun s, N., Lambo n, S. D., & S einbe g, L. (1993). Pa en ing p ac ices and pee g oup a ilia ion in adolescence. Child De elopmen , 64, 467-482. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993. b02922.x Bumpus, M. F., C ou e , A. C., & McHale, S. M. (2006). Linkages be ween nega i e wo k- o- amily spillo e and mo he s’ and a he s’ knowledge o hei young adolescen s’ daily li es. The Jou nal o Ea ly Adolescence, 26, 36-59. doi: 10.1177/0272431605282652 Bumpus, M. F., & Rodge s, K. B. (2009). Pa en al knowledge and i s sou ces examining he mode a ing oles o amily s uc u e and ace. Jou nal o Family Issues, 30, 1356-1378. doi: 10.1177/0192513X09334154 Cohen, J. (1988). S a is ical powe analysis o he beha io al science. Hillsdale, NJ: Law ence E lbaum Associa es. 21 Collins, W. A., & Lau sen, B. (2004). Pa en -adolescen ela ionships and in luences. In R. M. Le ne , & L. S einbe g (Eds.), Handbook o adolescen psychology (2nd ed., pp. 331-361). New Je sey, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. C ou e , A. C., Bumpus, M. F., Da is, K. D., & McHale, S. M. (2005). How do pa en s lea n abou adolescen s’ expe iences? Implica ions o pa en al knowledge and adolescen isky beha io . Child De elopmen , 76, 869-882. doi: 10.1111/j.1467- 8624.2005.00883.x C ou e , A. C., & Head, M. R. (2002). Pa en al moni o ing and knowledge o child en. In M. H. Bo ns ein (Ed.), Handbook o pa en ing: Vol. 3. Being and becoming a pa en (2nd ed., pp. 461-483). New Je sey, NJ: Law ence E lbaum Associa es. C ou e , A. C., Head, M. R., McHale, S. M., & Tucke , C. J. (2004). Family ime and he psychosocial adjus men o adolescen siblings and hei pa en s. Jou nal o Ma iage and he Family, 66, 147-162. doi: 10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00010.x-i1 Cu ie, C., Nic Gabhainn, S., Godeau, E., & he In e na ional HBSC Ne wo k Coo dina ing Commi ee (2009). The Heal h Beha iou in School-aged Child en: WHO Collabo a i e C oss-Na ional (HBSC) S udy: O igins, concep , his o y and de elopmen 1982–2008. In e na ional Jou nal o Public Heal h, 54(Suppl. 2), 131-139. doi: 10.1007/s00038-009-5404-x Cu ie, C., Zano i, C., Mo gan, A., Cu ie, D., de Looze, M., Robe s, C., Samdal, O., Smi h, O. R. F., & Ba kenow, V. (2012). Social de e minan s o heal h and well- being among young people: Heal h Beha iou in School-aged Child en (HBSC) s udy: In e na ional epo om he 2009/2010 su ey. 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Longi udinal changes in he ime pa en s spend in ac i i ies wi h hei adolescen child en as a unc ion o child age, pube al s a us, and gende . Jou nal o Family Psychology, 16, 415-427. doi: 10.1037//0893-3200.16.4.415 Ea on, N. R., K uege , R. F., Johnson, W., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2009). Pa en al moni o ing, pe sonali y, and delinquency: Fu he suppo o a econcep ualiza ion o moni o ing. Jou nal o Resea ch in Pe sonali y, 43, 49-59. doi: 10.1016/j.j p.2008.10.006 Engels, R. C. M. E., Finkenaue , C., & Van Koo en, D. C. (2006). Lying beha io , amily unc ioning and adjus men in ea ly adolescence. Jou nal o You h and Adolescence, 35, 949-958. doi: 10.1007/s10964-006-9082-1 23 Fle che , A. C., S einbe g, L., & Williams-Wheele , M. (2004). Pa en al in luences on adolescen p oblem beha io : Re isi ing S a in and Ke . Child De elopmen , 75, 781-796. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00706.x F ijns, T., Finkenaue , C. Ve muls , A. A., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2005). 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Pa en al moni o ing beha io s: A model o ules, supe ision, and con lic . Beha io The apy, 35, 587-604. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80033-9 Jacobson, K. C., & C ocke , L. J. (2000). Pa en al moni o ing and adolescen adjus men : An ecological pe spec i e. Jou nal o Resea ch on Adolescence, 10, 65-97. doi: 10.1207/SJRA1001_4 24 Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Mo eno, C., Ga cía-Moya, I., & López, F. (2012). Las elaciones amilia es en la oz de chicos y chicas adolescen es. Manusc ip submi ed o publica ion. Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Mo eno, C., G anado-Alcón, M. C., & López, A. (2012). Pa en al knowledge and adolescen adjus men (subs ance use and Heal h-Rela ed Quali y o Li e). The Spanish Jou nal o Psychology, 15, 132-144. doi: 10.5209/ e _SJOP.2012. 15.n1.37297 Kakiha a, F., & Til on-Wea e , L. (2009). Adolescen s’ in e p e a ions o pa en al con ol: Di e en ia ed by domain and ypes o con ol. Child De elopmen , 80, 1722-1738. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01364.x Keijse s, L., B anje, S. J. T., Vande Valk, I. E., & Meeus, W. (2010). Recip ocal e ec s be ween pa en al solici a ion, pa en al con ol, adolescen disclosu e, and adolescen delinquency. Jou nal o Resea ch on Adolescence, 20, 88-113. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00631.x Ke , M., & S a in, H. (2000). Wha pa en s know, how hey know i , and se e al o ms o adolescen adjusmen : Fu he suppo o a ein e p e a ion o moni o ing. De elopmen al Psychology, 36, 366-380. doi: 10.1037//0012-1649.36.3.366 Ke , M., S a in, H., & Bu k, W. J. (2010). A ein e p e a ion o pa en al moni o ing in longi udinal pe spec i e. Jou nal o Resea ch on Adolescence, 20, 39-64. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00623.x Ke , M., S a in, H., & Özdemi , M. (2012). Pe cei ed pa en ing s yle and adolescen adjus men : Re isi ing di ec ions o e ec s and he ole o pa en al knowledge. De elopmen al Psychology. Ad ance online publica ion. doi: 10.1037/a0027720 25 Klimidis, S., Minas, I. H., & A a, A. W. (1992). The PBI-BC: A b ie cu en o m o he pa en al bonding ins umen o adolescen esea ch. Comp ehensi e Psychia y, 33, 374-377. doi: 10.1016/0010-440X(92)90058-X Lai d, R. D., Ma e o, M. M., & She wood, J. K. (2010). De elopmen al and in e ac ional an eceden s o moni o ing in ea ly adolescence. In V. Guilamo- Ramos, J. Jacca d, & P. Di us (Eds.), Pa en al moni o ing o adolescen s: P . I. Con empo a y issues in pa en al moni o ing (pp. 39-66). New Yo k, NY: Columbia Uni e si y P ess. Lai d, R. D., Pe i , G. S., Dodge, K. A., & Ba es, J. E. (2003). Change in pa en s’ moni o ing knowledge: Links wi h pa en ing, ela ionship quali y, adolescen belie s, and an isocial beha io . Social De elopmen , 12, 401-419. doi: 10.1111/1467-9507.00240 Maccoby, E. E. (2003). The gende o child and pa en as ac o s in amily dynamics. In A. C. C ou e , & A. Boo h (Eds.), Child en’s in luence on amily dynamics. The neglec ed side o amily ela ionships (pp. 191-206). London: Law ence E lbaum Associa es. Moilanen, K. L., Shaw, D. S., & C iss, M. M. (2009). G ow h and p edic o s o pa en al knowledge o you h beha io du ing ea ly adolescence. The Jou nal o Ea ly Adolescence, 29, 800-825. doi: 10.1177/0272431608325505 Mo eno, C., Muñoz-Tinoco, V., Pé ez Mo eno, P. J., Sánchez-Queija, I., G anado M. C., Ramos, P., & Ri e a, F. (2008). Desa ollo adolescen e y salud. Resul ados del Es udio HBSC-2006 con chicos y chicas españoles de 11 a 17 años. Mad id: Minis e io de Sanidad y Consumo. Mo eno, C., Ramos, P., Ri e a, F., Jiménez-Iglesias, A., & Ga cía-Moya, I. (2012). Las conduc as elacionadas con la salud y el desa ollo de los adolescen es 32 P edic o B E o β s2 p 13 yea s P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k x 13 yea s 0.09 0.05 .02 .00 .072 P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia x 13 yea s -0.05 0.05 -.01 .00 .309 P omo ion o au onomy x Finland x 13 yea s -0.13 0.05 -.02 .00 .018 P omo ion o au onomy x F ance x 13 yea s -0.04 0.06 -.01 .00 .464 P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many x 13 yea s 0.01 0.04 .001 .00 .917 P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom x 13 yea s 0.03 0.05 .01 .00 .585 33 TABLE II Mul iple linea eg ession analysis on pa e nal knowledge om an in e na ional pe spec i e P edic o B E o β s2 p Model adjus ed Ca e 0.62 0.01 .56 .31 .000 Con as Model Ca e 0.63 0.02 .57 .02 .000 Aus ia -0.18 0.02 -.10 .004 .000 Belgium -0.17 0.02 -.07 .003 .000 Bulga ia -0.07 0.02 -.04 .001 .000 Canada -0.10 0.02 -.06 .001 .000 C oa ia -0.03 0.02 -.02 .00 .046 Czech Republic -0.11 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Denma k -0.12 0.02 -.06 .002 .000 Es onia -0.12 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Finland -0.14 0.02 -.06 .002 .000 F ance -0.17 0.02 -.07 .003 .000 Ge many -0.07 0.02 -.03 .001 .000 Uni ed Kingdom -0.11 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Boy 0.01 0.01 .01 .00 .268 13 yea s 0.03 0.01 .02 .00 .000 P omo ion o au onomy -0.02 0.03 -.02 .00 .403 Ca e x Aus ia 0.11 0.04 .04 .00 .003 Ca e x Belgium -0.08 0.05 -.02 .00 .114 Ca e x Bulga ia -0.09 0.04 -.02 .00 .038 Ca e x Canada -0.02 0.04 -.01 .00 .626 Ca e x C oa ia -0.01 0.04 -.001 .00 .893 Ca e x Czech Republic 0.04 0.04 .01 .00 .352 Ca e x Denma k 0.08 0.05 .02 .00 .091 Ca e x Es onia -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .467 Ca e x Finland 0.06 0.05 .01 .00 .240 Ca e x F ance -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .514 Ca e x Ge many -0.03 0.05 -.01 .00 .452 Ca e x Uni ed Kingdom -0.03 0.05 -.01 .00 .533 P omo ion o au onomy x Aus ia 0.02 0.05 .004 .00 .745 P omo ion o au onomy x Belgium -0.02 0.06 -.004 .00 .724 P omo ion o au onomy x Bulga ia 0.03 0.05 .01 .00 .566 P omo ion o au onomy x Canada -0.11 0.05 -.03 .00 .019 P omo ion o au onomy x C oa ia -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .440 P omo ion o au onomy x Czech Republic -0.07 0.06 -.01 .00 .254 P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k -0.11 0.07 -.02 .00 .098 P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia -0.09 0.06 -.02 .00 .144 P omo ion o au onomy x Finland -0.05 0.07 -.01 .00 .430 P omo ion o au onomy x F ance 0.03 0.07 .004 .00 .674 P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many 0.02 0.05 .004 .00 .725 P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom -0.07 0.06 -.01 .00 .214 34 P edic o B E o β s2 p Ca e x Aus ia x boy -0.13 0.04 -.03 .00 .000 Ca e x Belgium x boy -0.01 0.05 -.001 .00 .897 Ca e x Bulga ia x boy 0.003 0.04 .001 .00 .934 Ca e x Canada x boy 0.06 0.04 .01 .00 .074 Ca e x C oa ia x boy 0.01 0.04 .002 .00 .763 Ca e x Czech Republic x boy - 0.001 0.04 .00 .00 .981 Ca e x Denma k x boy 0.01 0.04 .001 .00 .885 Ca e x Es onia x boy 0.05 0.05 .01 .00 .344 Ca e x Finland x boy -0.08 0.06 -.01 .00 .152 Ca e x F ance x boy -0.04 0.06 -.01 .00 .517 Ca e x Ge many x boy -0.05 0.04 -.01 .00 .302 Ca e x Uni ed Kingdom x boy 0.07 0.04 .01 .00 .097 P omo ion o au onomy x Aus ia x boy 0.04 0.05 .01 .00 .422 P omo ion o au onomy x Belgium x boy 0.03 0.07 .004 .00 .656 P omo ion o au onomy x Bulga ia x boy 0.04 0.05 .01 .00 .388 P omo ion o au onomy x Canada x boy -0.06 0.04 -.01 .00 .147 P omo ion o au onomy x C oa ia x boy - 0.001 0.05 .00 .00 .992 P omo ion o au onomy x Czech Republic x boy 0.02 0.06 .002 .00 .755 P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k x boy 0.03 0.06 .004 .00 .598 P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia x boy -0.01 0.07 -.001 .00 .880 P omo ion o au onomy x Finland x boy 0.03 0.07 .003 .00 .680 P omo ion o au onomy x F ance x boy -0.02 0.07 -.003 .00 .732 P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many x boy -0.05 0.05 -.01 .00 .349 P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom x boy 0.05 0.06 .01 .00 .403 Ca e x Aus ia x 13 yea s -0.01 0.04 -.002 .00 .763 Ca e x Belgium x 13 yea s 0.05 0.05 .01 .00 .369 Ca e x Bulga ia x 13 yea s 0.07 0.04 .01 .00 .103 Ca e x Canada x 13 yea s -0.05 0.04 -.01 .00 .187 Ca e x C oa ia x 13 yea s 0.01 0.04 .002 .00 .832 Ca e x Czech Republic x 13 yea s 0.002 0.04 .00 .00 .967 Ca e x Denma k x 13 yea s -0.03 0.05 -.01 .00 .569 Ca e x Es onia x 13 yea s 0.01 0.05 .002 .00 .795 Ca e x Finland x 13 yea s 0.002 0.06 .00 .00 .975 Ca e x F ance x 13 yea s 0.1 0.06 .01 .00 .090 Ca e x Ge many x 13 yea s -0.02 0.04 -.003 .00 .736 Ca e x Uni ed Kingdom x 13 yea s 0.003 0.04 .001 .00 .946 P omo ion o au onomy x Aus ia x 13 yea s 0.06 0.05 .01 .00 .175 P omo ion o au onomy x Belgium x 13 yea s 0.07 0.07 .01 .00 .287 P omo ion o au onomy x Bulga ia x 13 yea s -0.02 0.05 -.002 .00 .754 P omo ion o au onomy x Canada x 13 yea s 0.06 0.05 .01 .00 .157 P omo ion o au onomy x C oa ia x 13 yea s 0.01 0.05 .002 .00 .830 35 P edic o B E o β s2 p P omo ion o au onomy x Czech Republic x 13 yea s -0.08 0.06 -.01 .00 .204 P omo ion o au onomy x Denma k x 13 yea s 0.04 0.06 .01 .00 .483 P omo ion o au onomy x Es onia x 13 yea s -0.01 0.07 -.001 .00 .912 P omo ion o au onomy x Finland x 13 yea s 0.05 0.07 .01 .00 .505 P omo ion o au onomy x F ance x 13 yea s -0.15 0.07 -.02 .00 .037 P omo ion o au onomy x Ge many x 13 yea s -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .433 P omo ion o au onomy x Uni ed Kingdom x 13 yea s -0.02 0.06 -.002 .00 .789 36 TABLE III Mul iple linea eg ession analysis on ma e nal knowledge om a na ional pe spec i e P edic o B E o β s2 p Model adjus ed Ca e 0.19 0.01 .21 .04 .000 Solici a ion 0.08 0.004 .16 .03 .000 Disclosu e 0.12 0.003 .31 .08 .000 Family ac i i ies 0.01 0.001 .09 .01 .000 Con as Model Ca e 0.21 0.02 .23 .01 .000 Solici a ion 0.07 0.01 .13 .003 .000 Disclosu e 0.11 0.01 .29 .02 .000 Family ac i i ies 0.01 0.002 .13 .003 .000 Boy -0.03 0.01 -.04 .002 .000 13-14 yea s -0.03 0.01 -.03 .001 .001 15-16 yea s -0.01 0.01 -.01 .00 .147 P omo ion o au onomy 0.05 0.01 .06 .001 .000 Ca e x boy -0.07 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 P omo ion o au onomy x boy -0.03 0.01 -.02 .00 .056 Solici a ion x boy 0.04 0.01 .05 .001 .000 Disclosu e x boy 0.00 0.01 .00 .00 .972 Family ac i i ies x boy 0.00 0.001 .003 .00 .815 Ca e x 13-14 yea s 0.01 0.02 .01 .00 .577 P omo ion o au onomy x 13-14 yea s -0.02 0.02 -.02 .00 .199 Solici a ion x 13-14 yea s 0.01 0.01 .01 .00 .268 Disclosu e x 13-14 yea s -0.01 0.01 -.01 .00 .342 Family ac i i ies x 13-14 yea s -0.01 0.002 -.04 .00 .011 Ca e x 15-16 yea s -0.03 0.02 -.02 .00 .203 P omo ion o au onomy x 15-16 yea s 0.05 0.02 .03 .00 .007 Solici a ion x 15-16 yea s -0.004 0.01 -.01 .00 .706 Disclosu e x 15-16 yea s 0.002 0.01 .003 .00 .831 Family ac i i ies x 15-16 yea s -0.004 0.002 -.03 .00 .050 37 TABLE IV Mul iple linea eg ession analysis on pa e nal knowledge om a na ional pe spec i e P edic o B E o β s2 p Model adjus ed Ca e 0.33 0.01 .33 .07 .000 Solici a ion 0.11 0.004 .19 .03 .000 Disclosu e 0.14 0.004 .25 .05 .000 Family ac i i ies 0.01 0.001 .08 .01 .000 Con as Model Ca e 0.38 0.02 .37 .02 .000 Solici a ion 0.07 0.01 .13 .003 .000 Disclosu e 0.15 0.01 .28 .01 .000 Family ac i i ies 0.02 0.002 .15 .003 .000 Boy 0.01 0.01 .01 .00 .352 13-14 yea s -0.04 0.01 -.04 .001 .000 15-16 yea s -0.02 0.01 -.02 .00 .063 P omo ion o au onomy 0.02 0.02 .02 .00 .299 Ca e x boy -0.07 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 P omo ion o au onomy x boy -0.06 0.02 -.03 .001 .001 Solici a ion x boy 0.03 0.01 .04 .001 .000 Disclosu e x boy -0.03 0.01 -.03 .00 .004 Family ac i i ies x boy -0.004 0.002 -.03 .00 .020 Ca e x 13-14 yea s -0.02 0.02 -.01 .00 .320 P omo ion o au onomy x 13-14 yea s -0.01 0.02 -.01 .00 .598 Solici a ion x 13-14 yea s 0.03 0.01 .03 .00 .013 Disclosu e x 13-14 yea s -0.004 0.01 -.01 .00 .696 Family ac i i ies x 13-14 yea s -0.01 0.003 -.04 .00 .002 Ca e x 15-16 yea s -0.04 0.02 -.02 .00 .092 P omo ion o au onomy x 15-16 yea s 0.04 0.02 .02 .00 .058 Solici a ion x 15-16 yea s 0.04 0.01 .04 .001 .001 Disclosu e x 15-16 yea s -0.01 0.01 -.02 .00 .255 Family ac i i ies x 15-16 yea s -0.004 0.003 -.02 .00 .143