How can parents obtain knowledge about their adolescent children?

1 This is an Accepted Manuscript version of the following article, accepted for publication in Journal for the Study of Education and Development : Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Moreno, C., García-Moya, I., & Ramos, P. (2013). How can parents obtain knowledge about their adolescent children? Journal for the Study of Education and Development, 36(2), 181– 197. https://doi.org/10.1174/021037013806196256 It is deposited under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits noncommercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. How can parents obtain knowledge about their adolescent children? ¿Cómo las madres y los padres consiguen conocer detalles acerca de las vidas de sus hijos e hijas adolescentes? Antonia Jiménez-Iglesias1,*, Carmen Moreno2, Irene García-Moya3 and Pilar Ramos4 1, 2, 3, 4 Departamento de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad de Sevilla C/ Camilo José Cela, s/n. 41018 Sevilla. 1, * Correspondig author. E-mail address: amjimig[email protected]s 2E-mail address: [email protected] 3E-mail address: irene[email protected] 4E-mail address: [email protected] 2 Acknowledgements This research has been funded by an agreement signed between the Spanish Ministry of Health, Social Policy and Equality, and the University of Seville (Spain). How can parents obtain knowledge about their adolescent children? Abstract The aim of this study is to analyse the influence of family dimensions on parental knowledge of their adolescent children based on the country, gender and age of the adolescents. This study adopts two different perspectives, national and international, with data taken from the results of the 2006 edition of the Health Behaviour in Schoolaged Children (HBSC) study in Spain and other member countries of the international network, namely, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany and the United Kingdom. The results indicate that both fathers and mothers obtain knowledge about their adolescent children through the children’s disclosures, parental care, parental solicitation and family activities. The discussion focuses on how these family dimensions promote parental knowledge. Keywords: adolescence, parental knowledge, care, promotion of autonomy, disclosure, solicitation, family activities 3 ¿Cómo las madres y los padres consiguen conocer detalles acerca de las vidas de sus hijos e hijas adolescentes? Resumen El objetivo de este estudio es analizar la influencia de diferentes dimensiones familiares sobre el conocimiento que padres y madres tienen acerca de sus hijos e hijas adolescentes, teniendo en cuenta el país, el sexo y la edad de los adolescentes. Esta investigación se realiza desde dos perspectivas, nacional e internacional, con datos tomados de la edición 2006 del estudio Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) en España y otros países de la red internacional, concretamente, Alemania, Austria, Bélgica, Bulgaria, Canadá, Croacia, Dinamarca, Estonia, Finlandia, Francia, Reino Unido y República Checa. Los resultados indican que tanto los padres como las madres consiguen información sobre sus hijos e hijas a través de la revelación adolescente, el afecto parental, el interés parental y las actividades familiares. En la discusión se aborda cómo estas dimensiones familiares favorecen la consecución del conocimiento parental. Palabras clave: adolescencia, conocimiento parental, afecto, promoción de la autonomía, revelación, interés, actividades familiares 4 Introduction The field of parental knowledge is an extremely important area of research given the large number of published studies on this topic (Stattin, Kerr, & Tilton-Weaver, 2010). The majority of these studies has identified the parental knowledge as an important component of effective parenting, being related to better adjustment in adolescents (Jacobson & Crockett, 2000; Tilton-Weaver et al., 2010), for example lower problem behaviours, like substance use (Jiménez-Iglesias, Moreno, Granado-Alcón, & López, 2012; Rai et al., 2003; Soenens, Vansteenkiste, Luyckx, & Goossens, 2006; Tebes et al., 2011), and better psychological well-being (Fröjd, Kaltiala-Heino, & Rimpelä, 2007; Jiménez-Iglesias, Moreno, Granado-Alcón et al., 2012; Reitz, Deković, & Meijer, 2006). The studies done by Kerr and Stattin (2000; Stattin & Kerr, 2000) involved a major advance in understanding the meaning of parental knowledge and its relationship with adolescent adjustment. Parental knowledge includes general knowledge that parents have about their children: where they go, when they are out, what they do and who their friends are (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Stattin & Kerr, 2000). Parental knowledge allows parents to be informed about the lives of their adolescents, in a period in which opportunities of taking part in problematic activities increase, while direct parental supervision decreases (Jacobson & Crockett, 2000). But probably parental knowledge is also important for a positive adolescents' development because of the ways that parents have to obtain knowledge and the actions that parents do after acquiring it (Stattin et al., 2010). Parental knowledge is a mental state rather than a parenting behaviour (Kakihara & Tilton-Weaver, 2009); it does not necessarily reflect parental behaviours because 5 adolescents’ management of their own information is also important (Laird, Marrero, & Sherwood, 2010). Three factors are commonly associated with parents’ knowledge about their adolescent children: the parental skills needed to ask children or another source for information (Bumpus & Rodgers, 2009; Crouter & Head, 2002), such as information that parents can obtain from the parents of their children’s friends (Bourdeau, Miller, Duke, & Ames, 2011); the tendency of adolescents to provide information about their activities of their own free will (Bourdeau et al., 2011; Bumpus & Rodgers, 2009; Crouter & Head, 2002), and the quality of the parent-child relationship (Bumpus & Rodgers, 2009; Crouter & Head, 2002). Therefore, parental knowledge, is generated by loving parents who attempt to be informed (Darling, Cumsille, Peña-Alampay, & Coatsworth, 2009) while encouraging a positive family context in which adolescents are likely to communicate openly and parents are likely to be knowledgeable about their children’s activities, locations and friends (Fletcher, Steinberg, & Williams-Wheeler, 2004; Salafia, Gondoli, & Grundy, 2009; Soenens et al., 2006). That is, communication between parents and adolescents is an effective way to obtain parental knowledge of adolescent children (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Stattin & Kerr, 2000), and it implies adolescent disclosure and parental solicitation (Keijsers, Branje, VanderValk, & Meeus, 2010). Furthermore, parents’ involvement in the activities of their sons and daughters (Bumpus, Crouter, & McHale, 2006), time spent with the family and adolescents’ acceptance of the appropriateness of parental monitoring involve higher levels of parental knowledge (Laird, Pettit, Dodge, & Bates, 2003; Smetana, Metzger, Gettman, & Campione-Barr, 2006). In general, parents who are integrated into their adolescents’ worlds are aware of their children’s daily experiences (Waizenhofer, Buchanan, & Jackson-Newsom, 2004). 6 However, adolescents also play a role in parental knowledge acquisition. Adolescents’ trust in sharing information with their parents is an important way for parents to obtain knowledge about their children’s lives (Eaton, Krueger, Johnson, McGue, & Iacono, 2009; Keijsers et al., 2010; Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Kerr, Stattin, & Burk, 2010; Stattin & Kerr, 2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). Adolescent disclosure is more likely to occur among adolescents whose parents rarely react negatively to their comments and who do not feel controlled by their parents (Hayes, Hudson, & Matthews, 2003, 2004; Tilton- Weaver et al., 2010). These previous studies show that parental knowledge is an important area of research and a well-studied topic. In the field of parental knowledge, this current study proposes to include different aspects, which could be interesting. Different family dimensions, that aforementioned studies have indicated important for parental knowledge, are here analysed together in the same research. Each family dimension (except family activities) has maternal and paternal variable, and these variables are analysed separately, because it is important to know how mother and father get their own knowledge (Crouter & Head, 2002). Moreover, this study examines if variables like country, gender and age of adolescents (variables related to the sampling) have a moderating effect on the relationship between family dimensions and parental knowledge (and not only effect on separate dimensions). Until now, there are not studies about this topic in Spain. Regarding differences between mothers and fathers, research show that adolescents perceive their mothers more affectionate and promoter their autonomy than fathers (Klimidis, Minas, & Ata, 1992; Oliva, Parra, Sánchez-Queija, & López, 2007), and also more interested in their adolescents’ lives and more knowledgeable about them (Crouter, Bumpus, Davis, & McHale, 2005; Waizenhofer et al., 2004). Besides, mothers 7 share more time with their adolescents (Dubas & Gerris, 2002), and adolescents disclose them more information about their lives (Oliva, Parra et al., 2007). Concerning adolescents’ gender, boys and girls perceive high levels of parental care and parental promotion of autonomy (Klimidis et al., 1992). Differences between boys and girls in family activities depend on the type of activity (Zaborskis, Zemaitiene, Borup, Kuntsche, & Moreno, 2007). Girls usually disclose more information than boys, and parents require more information from their daughters (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Parra & Oliva, 2006; Stattin & Kerr, 2000; Waizenhofer et al., 2004) and they know more about their daughters than their sons (Crouter et al., 2005; Rai et al., 2003; Waizenhofer et al., 2004). However, research have also found that fathers usually know considerably more about their sons, whilst mothers know more about their daughters (Maccoby, 2003; Moreno, Ramos, Rivera, Jiménez-Iglesias, & García-Moya, 2012), and fathers spend more time with their sons, and mothers spend more time with their daughters (Dubas & Gerris, 2002). In relation to the adolescents’ age, the following changes take place in the main family dimensions during adolescence: the ways to show affection change (Collins & Laursen, 2004), promotion of autonomy increases (Steinberg & Silk, 2002) and time shared with family (Zaborskis et al., 2007), as well as parental solicitation, adolescent disclosure and parental knowledge usually decrease (Laird et al., 2003; Pettit, Keiley, Laird, Bates, & Dodge, 2007). Finally, different research show that, in Spain, family cohesion is a deeply rooted value (Morgan, Rivera, Moreno, & Haglund, 2012; Oliva & Parra, 2001), family activities are frequent (Zaborskis et al., 2007), and communication with parents is easier than in other countries (Currie et al., 2012) 8 This paper uses data from the results of the 2006 edition of the WHO’s international survey on Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) in Spain and other member countries of the international network. The HBSC study takes place in more than 40 western countries, but in this paper were studied 13 countries, which included the variables analysed. Data collection with school-aged adolescents is carried out every four years, with the objective of obtaining a global vision of the adolescents’ lifestyles, their main developmental contexts, and the implications of all of them for the adolescents’ health and psychological adjustment (Currie, Nic Gabhainn, Godeau, & the International HBSC Network Coordinating Committee, 2009; Currie et al., 2012). For more information, visit http://www.hbsc.org/ The aim of this paper, according to the adolescents’ perceptions, is to analyse the importance of different family dimensions for obtaining parental knowledge, taking into account the maternal and paternal dimensions in separate analysis. Besides, it is analysed if the relationship between family dimensions and parental knowledge is moderated by country, gender and age of adolescents. This study is done from two perspectives: international and national. From an international perspective, the objective of this study is to determine, separately for fathers and mothers and based on the country, gender and age of the adolescents, the influence of parental care and the parental promotion of autonomy on parental knowledge about adolescent children. From a Spanish national perspective, the international objective is examined in more detail with the addition of variables present only in the Spanish HBSC questionnaire. The general objective is to analyse (again, separately for fathers and mothers and based on the adolescents’ gender and age) how different variables in the family context (care, promotion of autonomy, disclosure, solicitation and family activities) are associated with parental knowledge. 9 Method Participants Sampling was conducted in accordance with the structure of national education systems within countries and was sometimes stratified by region or school type to get a representative sample of school-aged children of each country (Currie et al., 2012; Roberts et al., 2009). In Spain was used a random multistage sampling procedure stratified by conglomerates (taking into account: age, region of Spain, residence -rural and urban-, and type of educational centre -public or private-) (Moreno et al., 2008). In this study, the international sample consisted of 59320 adolescents (49.37% boys and 50.63% girls) aged 13 and 15 from Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom (England, Scotland and Wales). The national sample was composed of 14825 Spanish adolescents (46.41% boys and 53.59% girls) aged 13-14, 15-16 and 17-18 (in Spain, the analysis of the even ages and ages 17-18 were added as national option, so these ages are not included in the international sample). The international sample was used for the results from an international perspective, and the national sample was used for the results from a national perspective. Measures The HBSC-2006 questionnaire was used for the national and international study. The HBSC questionnaire is a broad survey that reveals the adolescent health habits from a multidisciplinary perspective. The variables and items are chosen based on the overall objectives of the study and on the scientific rationale underlying their use. The international questionnaire consists of mandatory items employed in all participating countries and optional items, which are included by countries based on national interest, 16 All of the family dimensions studied, with the exception of parental promotion of autonomy, were relevant for the acquisition of both paternal and maternal knowledge, so father and mother get knowledge in similar ways. In the international data, parental care was the only relevant dimension of the two family dimensions studied. In the national data, paternal care was the most important dimension for paternal knowledge. Parental knowledge is increased by affectionate parents who attempt to maintain current knowledge (Darling et al., 2009), and who generate quality parent-child relationships (Bumpus & Rodgers, 2009; Crouter & Head, 2002; Rai et al., 2003). In the national data (mainly for maternal knowledge), adolescents’ disclosure to their parents was very important for obtaining parental knowledge. As other studies have found, adolescent disclosure is one of the dimensions associated with parental acquisition of knowledge about their adolescent children (Bourdeau et al., 2011; Bumpus & Rodgers, 2009; Crouter & Head, 2002). Furthermore, adolescent disclosure is the best predictor of parental knowledge (Eaton et al., 2009; Keijsers et al., 2010; Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Kerr et al., 2010; Stattin & Kerr, 2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). In fact, when adolescents keep secrets, lie or hide information to their parents, parental knowledge decreases (Darling, Cumsille, Caldwell, & Dowdy, 2006; Engels, Finkenauer, & Van Kooten, 2006; Frijns, Finkenauer, Vermulst, & Engels, 2005). Therefore, boys and girls must trust their parents enough to disclose information to them so that parents can maintain current knowledge about their children’s lives (Eaton et al., 2009; Keijsers et al., 2010; Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Kerr et al., 2010; Stattin & Kerr, 2000; Willoughby & Hamza, 2011). Parents could not know much of this information unless their adolescent children tell them because, in adolescence, the direct parental supervision decreases and the time spent in other contexts increases. 17 The next most important variable was parental solicitation. Parental skill in requesting information from children is another family dimension that has been frequently related to obtaining and maintaining parental knowledge (Bumpus & Rodgers, 2009; Crouter & Head, 2002; Waizenhofer et al., 2004). Mothers and fathers can use different tools to find out about their children (Crouter & Head, 2002), but it is important for adolescents to accept the appropriateness of this parental monitoring (Laird et al., 2003; Smetana et al., 2006). Adolescent disclosure and parental solicitation reflect communication between parents and adolescents (Keijsers et al., 2010), which is an effective way for parents to be informed about their adolescent children (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Stattin & Kerr, 2000). According to national data, family activities shared among mothers, fathers and children are important for the parental acquisition of knowledge. Parental involvement with children in activities (Bumpus et al., 2006) and the time spent together as a family (Crouter, Head, McHale, & Tucker, 2004; Laird et al., 2003; Smetana et al., 2006) allow parents to find out how their children behave, what their opinions, feelings, likes and interests are, who their friends are and their progress at school. For another hand, the socio-demographic variables in this study (country, gender and age) had not a moderating effect on the relationship between the family dimensions and parental knowledge, and individually were not involved in the acquisition of parental knowledge. This may be because the family dimensions are more important for parents obtain knowledge, regardless of whether these dimensions are expressed in the presence of boys or girls, or adolescents of a group of age or another, or adolescents from a country or another. Put another way, this study analyses basic dimensions of the 18 family relationships, which are probably less influenced by cultural and socio-economic differences. Consequently, both adolescents and their parents are involved in the acquisition of parental knowledge, as other studies have revealed (Kerr & Stattin, 2000; Laird et al., 2010; Stattin & Kerr, 2000). However, parents can contribute to their children’s role in this process by encouraging adolescent disclosure and listening to children with an open mind when they speak. Adolescent disclosure is more likely to occur in adolescents whose parents rarely react negatively to their comments (they are understanding and affectionate, and they do not react with anger, disapproval or coldness) and who feel more connected and less controlled by their parents (Hayes et al., 2003, 2004; Tilton- Weaver et al., 2010). Furthermore, a positive family context promotes adolescents’ open communication and increases parents’ knowledge of their children’s activities, locations and friends (Fletcher et al., 2004; Salafia et al., 2009; Soenens et al., 2006). The importance of these family processes is also supported from a qualitative perspective used in other study with adolescents (Jiménez-Iglesias, Moreno, García- Moya, & López, 2012). Some limitations must be considered. The fact that all of the information in this study comes from one source, namely, the male and female adolescents, may exaggerate the existing relationships between the different variables and include only the adolescents’ perceptions of parental behaviour. However, adolescents are the most used source of parental knowledge (Kerr, Stattin, & Özdemir, 2012), as well as they are the most reliable, objective source of information and are least influenced by social desirability (Parra & Oliva, 2006). Furthermore, their ideas about adolescence are more positive and consistent with the results of the current research (Ridao & Moreno, 2008) and their perception of parental message determines the efficacy of parental 19 socialization (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). Other limitations of this study are the crosssectional design, which has more limited validity than a longitudinal design, and that the HBSC questionnaire is a broad survey which allows exploring many variables, but not studying them in depth. Besides, this study analyse different countries, but not cultural variations or socio-economic inequalities inside each of them. However, the greatest strength of this study is that the HBSC study provides a well-rounded view of family and adolescents, and the sampling favours the generalisation of the international and national results. Furthermore, although the aim of this study is a well-studied topic, in our country is the first study that analyse how can parents obtain knowledge about the life of their adolescent children. Nevertheless, the non-existence of influence of the country show that this study analyses basic dimensions of the family relationships, and its results can be generalized to any western country. Future studies could improve this research. It would be interesting to include not only the adolescents’ perceptions but also parents’ perceptions. A longitudinal design about this topic would allow a better understanding of the family processes. In addition, it would be necessary to consider the improvement of measures (like solicitation and disclosure) and the addition of new related measures (like parent-child trust, or parents reactions to adolescent disclosure). Finally, all family dimensions that are involved in the acquisition of parental knowledge must be promoted in parent interventions beginning in childhood (Moilanen, Shaw, & Criss, 2009; Rodrigo, Máiquez, & Martín, 2010), taking into account that parents must adapt their methods of acquiring this knowledge to their children’s stages of development (Dishion & McMahon, 1998; Palacios, 2012). 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Las conductas relacionadas con la salud y el desarrollo de los adolescentes 32 Predictor B Error β rs2 p 13 years Promotion of autonomy x Denmark x 13 years 0.09 0.05 .02 .00 .072 Promotion of autonomy x Estonia x 13 years -0.05 0.05 -.01 .00 .309 Promotion of autonomy x Finland x 13 years -0.13 0.05 -.02 .00 .018 Promotion of autonomy x France x 13 years -0.04 0.06 -.01 .00 .464 Promotion of autonomy x Germany x 13 years 0.01 0.04 .001 .00 .917 Promotion of autonomy x United Kingdom x 13 years 0.03 0.05 .01 .00 .585 33 TABLE II Multiple linear regression analysis on paternal knowledge from an international perspective Predictor B Error β rs2 p Model adjusted Care 0.62 0.01 .56 .31 .000 Contrast Model Care 0.63 0.02 .57 .02 .000 Austria -0.18 0.02 -.10 .004 .000 Belgium -0.17 0.02 -.07 .003 .000 Bulgaria -0.07 0.02 -.04 .001 .000 Canada -0.10 0.02 -.06 .001 .000 Croatia -0.03 0.02 -.02 .00 .046 Czech Republic -0.11 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Denmark -0.12 0.02 -.06 .002 .000 Estonia -0.12 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Finland -0.14 0.02 -.06 .002 .000 France -0.17 0.02 -.07 .003 .000 Germany -0.07 0.02 -.03 .001 .000 United Kingdom -0.11 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Boy 0.01 0.01 .01 .00 .268 13 years 0.03 0.01 .02 .00 .000 Promotion of autonomy -0.02 0.03 -.02 .00 .403 Care x Austria 0.11 0.04 .04 .00 .003 Care x Belgium -0.08 0.05 -.02 .00 .114 Care x Bulgaria -0.09 0.04 -.02 .00 .038 Care x Canada -0.02 0.04 -.01 .00 .626 Care x Croatia -0.01 0.04 -.001 .00 .893 Care x Czech Republic 0.04 0.04 .01 .00 .352 Care x Denmark 0.08 0.05 .02 .00 .091 Care x Estonia -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .467 Care x Finland 0.06 0.05 .01 .00 .240 Care x France -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .514 Care x Germany -0.03 0.05 -.01 .00 .452 Care x United Kingdom -0.03 0.05 -.01 .00 .533 Promotion of autonomy x Austria 0.02 0.05 .004 .00 .745 Promotion of autonomy x Belgium -0.02 0.06 -.004 .00 .724 Promotion of autonomy x Bulgaria 0.03 0.05 .01 .00 .566 Promotion of autonomy x Canada -0.11 0.05 -.03 .00 .019 Promotion of autonomy x Croatia -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .440 Promotion of autonomy x Czech Republic -0.07 0.06 -.01 .00 .254 Promotion of autonomy x Denmark -0.11 0.07 -.02 .00 .098 Promotion of autonomy x Estonia -0.09 0.06 -.02 .00 .144 Promotion of autonomy x Finland -0.05 0.07 -.01 .00 .430 Promotion of autonomy x France 0.03 0.07 .004 .00 .674 Promotion of autonomy x Germany 0.02 0.05 .004 .00 .725 Promotion of autonomy x United Kingdom -0.07 0.06 -.01 .00 .214 34 Predictor B Error β rs2 p Care x Austria x boy -0.13 0.04 -.03 .00 .000 Care x Belgium x boy -0.01 0.05 -.001 .00 .897 Care x Bulgaria x boy 0.003 0.04 .001 .00 .934 Care x Canada x boy 0.06 0.04 .01 .00 .074 Care x Croatia x boy 0.01 0.04 .002 .00 .763 Care x Czech Republic x boy - 0.001 0.04 .00 .00 .981 Care x Denmark x boy 0.01 0.04 .001 .00 .885 Care x Estonia x boy 0.05 0.05 .01 .00 .344 Care x Finland x boy -0.08 0.06 -.01 .00 .152 Care x France x boy -0.04 0.06 -.01 .00 .517 Care x Germany x boy -0.05 0.04 -.01 .00 .302 Care x United Kingdom x boy 0.07 0.04 .01 .00 .097 Promotion of autonomy x Austria x boy 0.04 0.05 .01 .00 .422 Promotion of autonomy x Belgium x boy 0.03 0.07 .004 .00 .656 Promotion of autonomy x Bulgaria x boy 0.04 0.05 .01 .00 .388 Promotion of autonomy x Canada x boy -0.06 0.04 -.01 .00 .147 Promotion of autonomy x Croatia x boy - 0.001 0.05 .00 .00 .992 Promotion of autonomy x Czech Republic x boy 0.02 0.06 .002 .00 .755 Promotion of autonomy x Denmark x boy 0.03 0.06 .004 .00 .598 Promotion of autonomy x Estonia x boy -0.01 0.07 -.001 .00 .880 Promotion of autonomy x Finland x boy 0.03 0.07 .003 .00 .680 Promotion of autonomy x France x boy -0.02 0.07 -.003 .00 .732 Promotion of autonomy x Germany x boy -0.05 0.05 -.01 .00 .349 Promotion of autonomy x United Kingdom x boy 0.05 0.06 .01 .00 .403 Care x Austria x 13 years -0.01 0.04 -.002 .00 .763 Care x Belgium x 13 years 0.05 0.05 .01 .00 .369 Care x Bulgaria x 13 years 0.07 0.04 .01 .00 .103 Care x Canada x 13 years -0.05 0.04 -.01 .00 .187 Care x Croatia x 13 years 0.01 0.04 .002 .00 .832 Care x Czech Republic x 13 years 0.002 0.04 .00 .00 .967 Care x Denmark x 13 years -0.03 0.05 -.01 .00 .569 Care x Estonia x 13 years 0.01 0.05 .002 .00 .795 Care x Finland x 13 years 0.002 0.06 .00 .00 .975 Care x France x 13 years 0.1 0.06 .01 .00 .090 Care x Germany x 13 years -0.02 0.04 -.003 .00 .736 Care x United Kingdom x 13 years 0.003 0.04 .001 .00 .946 Promotion of autonomy x Austria x 13 years 0.06 0.05 .01 .00 .175 Promotion of autonomy x Belgium x 13 years 0.07 0.07 .01 .00 .287 Promotion of autonomy x Bulgaria x 13 years -0.02 0.05 -.002 .00 .754 Promotion of autonomy x Canada x 13 years 0.06 0.05 .01 .00 .157 Promotion of autonomy x Croatia x 13 years 0.01 0.05 .002 .00 .830 35 Predictor B Error β rs2 p Promotion of autonomy x Czech Republic x 13 years -0.08 0.06 -.01 .00 .204 Promotion of autonomy x Denmark x 13 years 0.04 0.06 .01 .00 .483 Promotion of autonomy x Estonia x 13 years -0.01 0.07 -.001 .00 .912 Promotion of autonomy x Finland x 13 years 0.05 0.07 .01 .00 .505 Promotion of autonomy x France x 13 years -0.15 0.07 -.02 .00 .037 Promotion of autonomy x Germany x 13 years -0.04 0.05 -.01 .00 .433 Promotion of autonomy x United Kingdom x 13 years -0.02 0.06 -.002 .00 .789 36 TABLE III Multiple linear regression analysis on maternal knowledge from a national perspective Predictor B Error β rs2 p Model adjusted Care 0.19 0.01 .21 .04 .000 Solicitation 0.08 0.004 .16 .03 .000 Disclosure 0.12 0.003 .31 .08 .000 Family activities 0.01 0.001 .09 .01 .000 Contrast Model Care 0.21 0.02 .23 .01 .000 Solicitation 0.07 0.01 .13 .003 .000 Disclosure 0.11 0.01 .29 .02 .000 Family activities 0.01 0.002 .13 .003 .000 Boy -0.03 0.01 -.04 .002 .000 13-14 years -0.03 0.01 -.03 .001 .001 15-16 years -0.01 0.01 -.01 .00 .147 Promotion of autonomy 0.05 0.01 .06 .001 .000 Care x boy -0.07 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Promotion of autonomy x boy -0.03 0.01 -.02 .00 .056 Solicitation x boy 0.04 0.01 .05 .001 .000 Disclosure x boy 0.00 0.01 .00 .00 .972 Family activities x boy 0.00 0.001 .003 .00 .815 Care x 13-14 years 0.01 0.02 .01 .00 .577 Promotion of autonomy x 13-14 years -0.02 0.02 -.02 .00 .199 Solicitation x 13-14 years 0.01 0.01 .01 .00 .268 Disclosure x 13-14 years -0.01 0.01 -.01 .00 .342 Family activities x 13-14 years -0.01 0.002 -.04 .00 .011 Care x 15-16 years -0.03 0.02 -.02 .00 .203 Promotion of autonomy x 15-16 years 0.05 0.02 .03 .00 .007 Solicitation x 15-16 years -0.004 0.01 -.01 .00 .706 Disclosure x 15-16 years 0.002 0.01 .003 .00 .831 Family activities x 15-16 years -0.004 0.002 -.03 .00 .050 37 TABLE IV Multiple linear regression analysis on paternal knowledge from a national perspective Predictor B Error β rs2 p Model adjusted Care 0.33 0.01 .33 .07 .000 Solicitation 0.11 0.004 .19 .03 .000 Disclosure 0.14 0.004 .25 .05 .000 Family activities 0.01 0.001 .08 .01 .000 Contrast Model Care 0.38 0.02 .37 .02 .000 Solicitation 0.07 0.01 .13 .003 .000 Disclosure 0.15 0.01 .28 .01 .000 Family activities 0.02 0.002 .15 .003 .000 Boy 0.01 0.01 .01 .00 .352 13-14 years -0.04 0.01 -.04 .001 .000 15-16 years -0.02 0.01 -.02 .00 .063 Promotion of autonomy 0.02 0.02 .02 .00 .299 Care x boy -0.07 0.02 -.05 .001 .000 Promotion of autonomy x boy -0.06 0.02 -.03 .001 .001 Solicitation x boy 0.03 0.01 .04 .001 .000 Disclosure x boy -0.03 0.01 -.03 .00 .004 Family activities x boy -0.004 0.002 -.03 .00 .020 Care x 13-14 years -0.02 0.02 -.01 .00 .320 Promotion of autonomy x 13-14 years -0.01 0.02 -.01 .00 .598 Solicitation x 13-14 years 0.03 0.01 .03 .00 .013 Disclosure x 13-14 years -0.004 0.01 -.01 .00 .696 Family activities x 13-14 years -0.01 0.003 -.04 .00 .002 Care x 15-16 years -0.04 0.02 -.02 .00 .092 Promotion of autonomy x 15-16 years 0.04 0.02 .02 .00 .058 Solicitation x 15-16 years 0.04 0.01 .04 .001 .001 Disclosure x 15-16 years -0.01 0.01 -.02 .00 .255 Family activities x 15-16 years -0.004 0.003 -.02 .00 .143