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1In oduc ion
O e  hepas  ewdecades, heai lineindus yhasunde goneap o ound ans o ma ion ha has ecen ly apidlyaccele a ed(Pels,2008).Theo igino  hisp ocesso changeliesin hede egula iono  hisindus y,which
beganin hela e1970sin heUni edS a esandled o heen yo newac o sandasubsequen inc easeincompe i ion(MinandJoo,2016).Among hesenewac o s,low-cos (Pels,2008)andGul -basedai lines(Anwa ,2015)(Anwa ,
2007)a eno ablebecauseo  hei no elandagg essi ebusinessmodels.Becauseo  hesechangesin heindus y,nume ous adi ionalcompaniesha esu e ed omd ama icc ises,whichled o heclosu eo ce ainiconicai lines
andnume ousme ge sandacquisi ions,subs an iallymodi ying hes uc u eo  heindus y(Fane al.,2001).
Inc easedcompe i ionwi hin hesec o andce ainexogenous ac o s,suchaspoli icaldecisions,ha ep omp edcompanies oadop di e en beha io s,e iden in hei in e na ionaliza ions a egies(Albe se al.,2010),in
hei g ow hp ocess(Anwa ,2007) h oughme ge sandacquisi ions(Fane al.,2001),s a egicalliances(deMane al.,2010),and hesubcon ac ingo domes icandseconda y ou es(Gillene al.,2015).Inaddi ion,asigni ican
endhaseme ged ega ding he o ma iono globalai linesalliances1(Gagge oandBa olini,2012).This endhasled ochangesin hecompe i ionands uc u eo  heindus yand hesea eexaminedinnume ouss udies
(Alde ighiandGagge o,2014;Co boandShi,2015;E ans,2001;Wang,2014).
Al houghce ains udiesha ein es iga ed hebusinesss a egieso  hissec o (Anwa ,2007;Gillene al.,2015),li leo no esea chhasanalyzed hee olu iono  heses a egies, he oleo alliancesin hedeep-sea ed
ans o ma ionswi hin heindus y,o  he ela ionshipbe ween hese wo hemes.The e o e,insigh in o heindus y'ss uc u alchangesandcompanies's a egicbeha io andabe e unde s andingo  he ac o s ha de e mine
hesechangeswillp o idebe e con ex ualiza ion o  henume ouss udies ega ding hisessen ialindus ywi hin heb oade economicsys em.
Consequen ly, hep ima yobjec i eo  hiss udyis oillus a eandanalyze hee olu iono  heai lineindus yo e  hepas decade(2005–2015),basedonchangesincompanies's a egicbeha io becausep io s udiesha e
The i ualiza iono  heai lineindus y:As a egicp ocess
Ma coCas iglionia,∗
mcas [email protected]
ÁngelesGallegob
[email protected]
José-LuisGalána
[email protected]
aUni e si yo Se ille,Facul yo EconomicsandBusinessAdminis a ion,Depa men o BusinessAdminis a ionandMa ke ing,A daRamónyCajal,1,41018,Spain
bUni e si yo Se ille,Facul yo Tou ismandFinance,Depa men o BusinessAdminis a ionandMa ke ing,A daSanF anciscoJa ie ,s/n,41005,Spain
∗Co espondingau ho .
Abs ac
Thispape analyses he i ualiza iono  heai lineindus yasas a egic esponse ocompe i i ep essu es.Inc easedcompe i ionhasd i en heassocia i ebeha io o ai lines, os e ed hede elopmen o global
alliancesand heuseo codesha eag eemen s, subs an iallymodi ying hes uc u e o  heindus y.These changesha e esul eding ea e  e iciencyand di ision o labo in heindus y,and ha ecausedai lines o
signi ican lymodi y hei ope a ionals a egies.Theanalysiso  hee olu iono ope a ionalandassocia i es a egiesin heai lineindus ydu ing hepas decade(2005–2015)shows heg owing i ualiza iono  hesec o ,
de i ed om heuseo codesha eag eemen sando he alliancesbe weencompanies.The esul sshow ha  heassocia i ebeha io allowsai lines ospecialize hei ope a ionals a egyand o ocus hei  esou cesand
capabili iesonace ain ypeo  ou eso o igin-des ina ion(OD)ma ke s,wi hawide a ie yo s a egicbeha io sin heindus y.
Keywo ds:Ai linealliance;Alliancepo olio;Cons ella ions;Codesha eag eemen s;Vi ualiza ion;S a egicbeha io
demons a ed ha majo changesha eoccu edin heindus ydu ing hispe iodo  ime(MinandJoo,2016).Thise olu ionhasgene allybeenanalyzedbyconside ing wo ypeso companys a egies:ope a ionals a egiesbased
onai lines’ esou cesandassocia i es a egiesca iedou  h oughcoope a i eag eemen swi ho he ai lines.Weused he heo e icalapp oacho s a egicg oups oanalyzeope a ionals a egies(Po e ,1980)and he ela ional
app oach oanalyzeassocia i es a egies(DasandTeng,2002).Tocomple eou analysisweha ealso akenelemen s om he esou cedependence heo y(P e e andSalancik,1978)and heins i u ionaliza ion heo y(Ba leyand
Tolbe ,1997).
Theanalysisand esul so  hiss udya ebasedonasampleo 28ai lines,eachha ingdi e en cha ac e is ics, oensu e ha  hey e lec ,asmuchaspossible, hedi e si yo companiesands a egieswi hin heindus y.The
esul s e e  oai lines’ope a ionals a egiesandassocia i ebeha io andexpoundon he ela ionshipbe ween hese wos a egies.
Thes udydemons a es ha  heai lineindus yhasadop ed h eep ima yope a ionals a egies:na ional,global,and egional.Fu he mo e, he esul sindica e ha whileonlya ewai linesha echanged hei s a egies
o e  ime,someo  hesechangesa esigni ican .Addi ionally, hiss udyhighligh s heconside ableandg owingde elopmen o associa i ephenomenawi hin heai lineindus y,al houghdi e encesexis be weencompanies.These
wo a eas o  company ac i i y should be join ly analyzed because associa i e beha io  is a na u al complemen  o he ope a ional s a egies de eloped by he ai lines. The ocal ai line's ne wo k o  ou es and des ina ions is
complemen edbymobilizing he ou esanddes ina ionso i spa ne s h oughcodesha eag eemen s(Casanue ae al.,2014).Thisp ocess educes henumbe andpe cen ageo  ou esdi ec lyope a edbyanai lineandinc eases
henumbe o  ou esope a edby hi dpa ies,whichinc eases he i ualiza iono  he ocalai line.The esul ssys ema izeanddocumen  hep ima y endsobse edin hesec o ,whicha ee idencedbycompanys a egiesbu no
p e iouslyanalyzedinasys ema ico comp ehensi emanne .Animpo an con ibu iono  hiss udyde i es omi slongi udinalcha ac e ,whichallowsus ounde s and hee olu iono  heses a egies.
The esul so  hiss udyshouldbeo in e es  oschola swho ocuson heai lineindus y,manage s,andpublicau ho i ies.F omanacademicpe spec i e, hiss udyis ele an  o heai lineindus yli e a u ein h eeways.
Fi s , he esul sp esen aconsis en andsys ema ico e iewo  he a iousope a ionals a egiesusedin heai lineindus y,whichisuse ul o indi idualswhoneed oimp o e hei unde s andingo companybeha io .Second, his
s udyin oduces he opico ai line i ualiza ion,aphenomenon ha hasno ye  ecei edmucha en ionins udies ega ding heai lineindus y,bu willsu elyma k hecompe i i e u u eo  hissec o .Finally, he esul sa e
ob ainedbyadop ing wo heo e icalpe spec i esno p e iouslycombinedinp io s udies: he ela ional-socialpe spec i e(DasandTeng,2002)and hes a egicg oupspe spec i e(Po e ,1980).
F omabusinessp ac iceandpublicpolicype spec i e,iden i ying hes a egiesde elopedin heindus yand hei e olu ionp o idesin o ma ion ha maybeo in e es  op o essionalswhomakedecisions ega ding he
u u eo  hei companies.Thiss udyhighligh s he a iousope a ionals a egiesusedin heindus y,whiche ol edindi idually.Inaddi ion, hiss udyemphasizes heimpo anceo  he oleo codesha eag eemen sandglobal
alliancesin heexpansiono anai line'sne wo ko  ou esanddes ina ions.Theinc easein henumbe o codesha eag eemen sandpa ne salsoimplieschallenges o manage sbecause heymus manageab oadpo olioo
alliancesandde e mines a egies ha can akead an ageo po en ialsyne gies(deMane al.,2010;Ho mann,2005).Finally, he esul sdemons a e ha someo  he as es -g owingai linesin ecen yea sa eloca edindi e en
a eas,ha ebeensuppo edby hei  espec i ego e nmen s,anda elikely obecome heleadingcompaniesin heindus y.
Thepape iss uc u edas ollows:Thenex sec ionp o idesano e iewo p io s udies ega dingalliances,globalalliances,ands a egicg oupsin heai lineindus y.Sec ion3desc ibes heme hodologyusedin hiss udy.
Sec ion4analyzes he p ima yope a ionalandassocia i es a egies usedin he indus y and hei  e olu ion and demons a es how heyha eled o inc eased i ualiza ion in he indus y.Sec ion 5 p esen s heconclusions,
implica ions o p ac i ione sand esea che s,andlimi a ionso  hiss udyandsugges ions o  u u es udies.
2Theo e icalbackg ound
2.1Ai linealliancesandglobalalliances
Theai lineindus yisama u eindus ywi hahighdeg eeo  i al yandawide angeo compe i i ep ac ices.Recen ly,ai linesha eengagedinin ensecollabo a i eac i i y h oughs a egicalliances.The o ma iono
heseallianceshasinc easedconside ablybecauseo  hei manyad an ages o  heai lines.Mos impo an ly,alliancesallowai lines oaccessnew ou esanddes ina ionsanda oidlegalo  egula o yba ie s(Wane al.,2009).
Second,alliancesallowai lines oob aincoope a ionbene i s,due oeconomieso scaleandscope(Webe andDinwoodie,2000),asin hecaseso sha ingsaleso ices,ope a ional acili ies,main enancecos s,and equen  lie plans
(Wang,2014;WuandLee,2014).Thi d,alliancescaninduceaninc easein he a ico  heai lines,whichin u n esul s,unde equalcondi ions, oaninc easein heload ac o andope a ionale iciencyo  heai lines(Alde ighiand
Gagge o,2014;Ba ose al.,2013).Finally,alliancesin ol eanumbe o bene i s o  he a ele s,suchas lexibleschedules,inc eased ligh  equencies,imp o edluggagehandlingse ices,andsha ed equen - lye p og ams(Wang,
2014),which esul inpassenge loyal y o  heai lines(Wane al.,2009).Al houghmany ypeso s a egicalliancesexis ,suchasco-loca ionag eemen sa ai po s(WuandLee,2014), equen - lye p og ams(Wang,2014),and
codesha eag eemen s(E ans,2001),code-sha ingis hemos common ypeo alliancein heindus y(Alde ighie al.,2015;MinandJoo,2016)andla gelyde e mines heai lines’coope a i ebeha io .Acodesha eisacomme cial
ag eemen be ween woai lines ha allowspassenge s ousea icke  omoneai line o a elonano he ai line.This ypeo ag eemen hasinc easedconside ablybecausei allowsanai line oinc easei sma ke sha ewhile
educingope a ionalcos sbybene i ing omeconomieso scale,scope,anddensi y(Adle andHanany,2016).
In hisindus y,des ina ionsa eakey esou ce,whe he  hesea epe cei edasanelemen inane wo ks uc u eo asama ke .Wassme andDussauge(2012,p.874)no e ha “ o anai line,oneo  hec i ical esou ces
h oughwhich oachie ecompe i i ead an ageisi s ou ene wo k, ha is,access oawide angeo ci y-pai ma ke s.”Themobiliza iono  hesepa ne des ina ionshasled oab oadspec umo collabo a i ea angemen s,
pa icula lycodesha es(Casanue ae al.,2014).Howe e ,inaddi ion o hesead an ages, heg ow ho  his ypeo alliance aisesimpo an s a egicques ions o  hecompanies, ega ding heissueo whe he  he ea esome“co e
esou ces” ha anai lineshouldp o ec ,in hesenseo keeping hose ou es/ma ke swi hini sownpo olio(Kleymann,2005).
Asa esul o  heinc easein henumbe o coope a ionag eemen s,manyai linesha ec ea edago e nances uc u e omanage hei alliancepo olio(deMane al.,2010).Thispo olio e e s o“a i m'scollec iono di ec
allianceswi hpa ne s”(La ie,2007,p.1188)andmanaging hesepo olioshasbecomeac i icalac i i ybecausei di ec lya ec sa i m'scompe i i enessand inancialpe o mance(Ho mann,2005).
Thec ea iono alliancepo oliosand hesubsequen need o po oliomanagemen ha ealso esul ed om he o ma iono globalalliancesin hela e1980s(Fane al.,2001).Thesenewo ganiza ional o mswe eini ially
c ea edbecauseo  heinc easingimpo anceo globalscale(Gomes-Casse es,1994).Aglobalalliance e e s o“ase o  i ms,linked h oughalliances ha compe einaspeci icbusinessdomain.”(Gomes-Casse es,2003,p.1)Unlike
globalalliances o medino he indus ies,whicha e empo a yandlinked oaspeci icp ojec ,globalalliancesin heai lineindus ya epe manen andgene alincha ac e (Gudmundssone al.,2012).
Thep ima yobjec i eo ai lineglobalalliancesis ocon ibu e o hep o i abili yandde elopmen o ai linesin helong e m, a beyondwha anyai linecouldachie eindi iduallyo bila e ally(Co boandShi,2015).This
objec i eisachie ed h oughmeasu es ha  acili a ein eg a ionbe weencompaniesandinclude hede elopmen o join ITsys ems, equen - lye bene i s,andlinkingma ke s,o  h oughmeasu es ha  educecos s,suchas
ai po co-loca ionandjoin p ocu emen (Gomes-Casse es,2003).The e o e,bene i so  heeconomieso scopeanddensi yincen i izenewai lines ojoinglobalalliances(Gagge oandBa olini,2012).
Fo anai line,pa icipa ioninglobalalliancesin ol esag ea e commi men  han he o ma iono abila e alai linealliancebecause heseo ganiza ionse alua epo en ialnewmembe sin e mso secu i y equi emen s,
ne wo kcompa ibili y,andpo en ialg ow h.Beingpa o analliance equi esanai line oassumeace ain olewi hini (Hue inge ,2014);in hesealliancessomeai linesa especialis since ainma ke s,whileo he s end o
posi ion hemsel esaslinkp o ide s,connec ing hedi e en ma ke s(Kleymann,2005).
Fu he mo e,pa icipa ioninglobalalliancesa ec sanai line'sabili y ojoino he alliancesbecause heseo ganiza ionsp e en o limi  he o ma iono allianceswi hai lines ha a emembe so compe ingglobalalliances
(Co boandShi,2015).
Consequen ly,globalalliancesha echanged hecompe i i epa adigmin heai lineindus y(Lazza ini,2007),mo ing omcompe i ionbe weenai lines ocompe i ionbe weeng oupso ai lines(Gomes-Casse es,1994),which
in u nhasled o heunceasingg ow ho  hei membe sin hepas decade.
2.2S a egicg oups
Theconcep o s a egicg oupswasin oducedbyHun (1972)wi h heaimo  econciling hepa adigmo indus ialeconomicswi h ha o s a egicmanagemen .Thepa adigmo indus ialeconomicsasse s ha  he
s uc u eo anindus yul ima elyde e mines hepe o manceo acompany,whe eas hepa adigmo s a egicmanagemen pos ula es ha pe o manceisp ima ilyde e minedbyacompany's esou cesandcapabili ies(Mu hie
al.,2013).
Acco ding oPo e (1980,p.129),“as a egicg oupis heg oupo  i msinanindus y ollowing hesameo asimila s a egyalong hes a egicdimensions.”Thisconcep highligh s hein luenceo  heindus yon
indi idualcompaniesand heimpo anceo  hecompanies’indi idualcha ac e is ics.
Theuseo  his heo e icalapp oachallowsus oiden i y hep ima ys a egiesu ilizedin heindus ybyanalyzingase ieso  a iablesanddimensions(McGeeandThomas,1986).Iden i yingcompanies’s a egiccon igu a ion
isimpo an anduse ulbecausei “ ep esen saway omeaning ullycap u e hecomplexi yo o ganiza ional eali y”(Ke chenandShook,1996,p.441)andallowsus ounde s andbe e  hes uc u eande olu iono anindus y.
Fu he mo e,s a egicg oupanalysisispa icula ly ele an becauseo i suse ulness o iden i yingpossibleba ie s omobili yand hedi e en s a egiesde elopedwi hin ha indus y(Meh aandFloyd,1998).The e o e, his
heo e icalapp oachisapp op ia e o de elopingapano amicpe spec i eo anindus y,whichis e yuse ul o anexplo a o ys udysuchas hisone.Cu en s udiesha eno p o idedagene alo e iewo  heexis ings a egies
in heai lineindus y,bu  a he ha e ocusedonspeci icai linep o iles,suchas egionalai lines(Gillene al.,2015)o ai linesloca edinspeci icgeog aphicala eas,suchasGul ai lines(Anwa ,2007)o USai lines(Mu hie al.,
2013).
In hecon ex o  heai lineindus y,se e als udiesha eused hes a egicg oupsapp oach,al hough heyusea a ie yo me hods oiden i y hedi e en g oups(BaileyandWilliams,1988;Cosmase al.,2013;KlingandSmi h,
1995;Magalhãese al.,2015;Mu hie al.,2013).Theses udiesshow“ heexis enceo s a egicg oupsbydemons a ing ha  he ea eg oupe ec sindependen  om he i me ec sand heindus ye ec s”(Mu hie al.,2013p.60).
Howe e , he emaybeanumbe o o igins o  heseg oups,since heymaybe he esul o pa hdependency,coo dina edin e ac ions,andmime icp ocesses(Mu hie al.,2013).
Fu he mo e, headop iono  his heo e icalapp oachisuse ul o ananalysiso  heai lineindus y o  wo easons.Fi s , hisapp oachp o idese idenceo  hedi e en ope a ionals a egiesu ilizedin heai lineindus y
andindica eshow heye ol ed,whichimp o esou knowledgeo  heindus y.Second, his heo e icalapp oachclea lycomplemen s he ela ionalapp oachp omo edbys udies ega dingalliancene wo ksandglobalalliances(Das
andTeng,2002;Gomes-Casse es,1994,2003;Lazza ini,2007).Al hough he o ma iono alliancene wo ksandglobalalliancesinanindus ysugges sa ansi ion omcompe i ionbe weencompanies ocompe i ionbe weeng oups
(Gomes-Casse es,1994),wemus no  o ge  ha associa i ebeha io  ep esen sacomplemen  oandanimp o emen inacompany'sope a ionals a egy.
The esul so ou s udyempi icallycon i m hep e iousli e a u eon heai lineindus y,inwhichi iss a ed ha membe so  hesameglobalalliancesadop di e en ope a ionals a egies.Thiss a egic a ie yisdue o he
ac  ha globalalliancesha ebecomemul ile elspecializedhie a chicalo ganiza ionsinwhicheachai lineassumesaspeci icope a ional ole(Kleymann,2005;KleymannandSe is ö,2001).Addi ionally, he esul sshow hedi e si yo
associa i e s a egies, e en among membe s o  he same s a egic g oup.This di e si y isdue o he ac  ha  he associa i e s a egies ep esen  a ela i ely lexiblecomplemen  o he ope a ional s a egy o  he ai lines. An
ope a ionals a egy plays a undamen al ole inensu ing he de elopmen o an ai line andin le e aging heoppo uni ies ha  a ise om pa icipa ion inglobalalliances. Pa icipa ionin aglobalalliancedoesno necessa ily
gua an eeanai line'ssuccess,asdemons a edbyai lineclosu es(e.g.,Male in2012andMexicanain2010)andai lines ha ha ebeenabso bedbyo he ai lines(e.g.,CanadianAi linesin2000andAus ianAi linesin2009).
Despi e heimpo anceo associa i eac i i ies,ai lines'indi iduals a egiesplaya undamen al olein hei de elopmen andsu i al.
Inaddi ion, hes a egicg oups heo e icalapp oachisapp op ia e o s udying heai lineindus ybecauseo  hela genumbe o ai lines ha s illdono belong oaglobalallianceandcon inue oope a eindependen ly.
Howe e , hesecompaniesdousecodesha eag eemen s,andgene ally, hei s a egiesa esimila  o hes a egiesu ilizedbymembe so globalalliances.Cu en ly, he h eeleadingglobalalliances(S a Alliance,SkyTeamand
Onewo ld)include74membe sando he a ilia edai linesandha eapassenge  olume ha isnea ly60%o  heen i eindus y(Wang,2014).
3Me hodology
3.1Sampleandda acollec ion
To ep esen  hedi e si yo  heai lineindus y, hesampleincludes28ai lines2 ha ha edi e en p o iles.A heo e icalsampling echnique(non- andomin en ionalsampling)wasused oselec  heai lines(Cha maz,2006;
LincolnandGuba,1985).Ini ially,23ai lineswe eselec ed,bu a e  heexis ings a egiesin hesec o hadbeeniden i iedusings a egicg oupsanalysis,addi ionalcompanieswe eincluded oaccoun  o possiblechangeswi hin
heg oups.The e o e, heo e icalsa u a ionwas eached(B owne al.,2002;Locke,2001;S aussandCo bin,1998).
Compe i ionin heai linesec o occu sbe weenglobalalliances(Lazza ini,2007),whichincludeaninc easingnumbe o companies.Thesealliancesha ebecomeessen ial o de elopings a egiesandc ea ing alue(Douglas
andTan,2017;Wassme andMeschi,2011).Howe e , hemajo i yo independen ope a o scon inue oexhibi no abledi e encesin hei s a egicbeha io compa ed oai linesa ilia edwi hglobalalliances.Fo  his eason, he
selec ionwasbasedon he ollowingc i e ia:(1)ai linesin he h eemajo globalalliances(S a Alliance,Onewo ldandSkyTeam)andindependen ai lines,(2)ai lines ha ha ejoined he h eemajo globalalliancesa  a ious
poin sin ime(be o eanda e 2005),(3)ai linesloca edindi e en geog aphicala eas,(4) adi ionalandnewlyc ea ed lagai lines,and(5)publiclyandp i a elyownedai lines.Low-cos companieswe eexcluded om he
sample,al hough hey ep esen as a egic ypeandbusinessmodel ha is ep esen a i eo  heindus y(Pels,2008)because hey a elyusealliancesin hei s a egiesandassocia i ebeha io is hep ima y ocuso  hiss udy.
Wecollec edin o ma iononawide angeo  a iables o eachai linedu ing2005–2015.The imepe iodwaschosenbecause heuseo codesha eag eemen sand hede elopmen o globalalliancesha eaccele a edin he
pas  enyea s. Once heda ahadbeen ob ained,weanalyzed wo ele an aspec so s a egic beha io : heope a ional s a egieso  he ai lines,which a ebasedoneachai line'sne wo ko  ou esanddes ina ions, and he
associa i es a egieso  heai lines,whicha ebasedoneachai line'sne wo ko alliances.
As ega ds oai lineope a ions,a as amoun o in o ma ionwassyn hesizedin o11 a iablesin ended ocap u e heai lines's a egicope a ionalbeha io ; heseinclude he ollowing:numbe o hubs; lee size;numbe o
ou es;pe cen ageo in e na ional ou es;pe cen ageo o he  ou es3;numbe o des ina ions;pe cen ageo in e na ionaldes ina ions;numbe o coun iesse edby heai line;numbe o a easse edby heai line4; a e age
ai c a size;anda e age ligh dis ance.Toge he wi h hese a iables,wede elopedap o ile o eachai lineusingquali a i eandins i u ionalin o ma ioncollec ed om hecompanies'webpages, heFligh globalda abaseand
o he  sou cesa ailableon heIn e ne . Fo  each ai linewees ablished i so iginande olu ion,i s majo  miles ones(e.g.en yin o o eignma ke s)andde elopmen , i sowne ships uc u e(publico  p i a e),and i ssenio
managemen  eams.Wealsoiden i ied hecha ac e is icso  hecompany'scoun yo o iginandi smainma ke .F om hesep o ileswewe eable oanalyzeandin e p e  hes a egicg oupsiden i ied h ough heanalysiso  he
ope a ional a iables.
Weusedope a ionalda a oiden i y hes a egicg oupsbecause hisisaglobalindus yinwhich“ he ea elikely obespeci iccha ac e is icswhicha ewidesp eadamongo ganiza ions”(Hue inge ,2014p.92).Sinceall

ai lines ace hesamep essu es,because heypa icipa einaglobalindus yandsha especi iccha ac e is ics,i isapp op ia e ouseope a ionalda a oanalyze hesec o .Thisisbecauseope a ionalda a ep esen  heai lines’
isible esponse o hep essu eso  hei en i onmen .
As ega dsalliances, hiss udyanalyzes wo ypeso coope a ionag eemen s:ag eemen s ela ed ooneo  he h eeleadingglobalalliancesandcodesha eag eemen sbe weenai lines.Fu he mo e,eachai line'salliance
po oliowasde e mined o eachyea o  heanalysis(La ie,2007).Theseda aallowus ode e mine heiden i yo  hepa ne s,numbe o codesha e ou eswi heachpa ne ,whe he  hepa ne belongs ooneo  he h eemajo
globalalliances,and“ ele an pa ne s”in hepo olio(pa ne swi hape cen ageo codesha e ou es ha exceeds20%o allcodesha e ou es).
Theda ain hiss udywe eob ained om h eedi e en sou ces.Da a ega ding ligh s, ou es,des ina ions,codesha eag eemen s,ando he ope a ional a iableswe eob ained om heO icialAi lineGuide(OAG)(2016),
he lee size o eachai linewasob ained omFligh Ai lineBusiness(2016),and inally, henumbe o hubswasde e minedbyanalyzing heai lines’webpagesandco po a ein o ma ion.
TheOAGda abasep o idedda a o 2005–2015on wodi e en  ypeso  ou es:1) ou espublishedandope a edby he ocalai line,and2) ou espublishedby he ocalai linesbu ope a edby hi dpa yai lines,namely,
codesha e ou esbene i ing he ocalai line.The i s  ypeo  ou ewasemployed ode e mine hene wo ko  ou esanddes ina ionso  he ocalai lineand hepa ne s ha accessedi .Thesecond ypeo  ou eswasused o
de e mine he ou es owhicha ocalai linehadaccess h oughi spa ne sand hei iden i y.
These wose so da awe ein eg a edwi hin o ma iononall hecu en lyope a ingai po sin hewo ld,ex ac ed omOAGanalyze (2016) oes ablish he ypeo  ou es,des ina ionsandcoun iesinwhich heai lines
ope a e.
3.2Da aanalysis
Usinganexplo a o y ac o analysis, he11 a iableswe e educed o h ee ac o s ha  ep esen signi ican aspec so ai lines'cha ac e is icsands a egicbeha io .The i s  ac o is ela ed osize(numbe o des ina ions,
lee size,numbe o  ou es,andnumbe o hubs).Thesecond ac o  e e s oai lines’in e na ionaliza ion(se edcoun ies,se eda eas,pe cen ageo in e na ionaldes ina ions,pe cen ageo in e na ional ou es,andpe cen ageo
o he  ou es).The inal ac o includes he ypeo  ligh s ha  heai linesope a e(a e agedis anceo  ligh sanda e agesizeo ai c a ).Fac o analysiswaspe o medusing he
maincomponen analysis
ex ac ionme hod,wi h
oblimin o a ion
and
Kaise no maliza ion
.The h ee ac o saccoun ed o mo e han85%o  hesample a ianceineacho  heyea sand he esul o  heKaise -Meye -Olkin es washighe  han0.56(abo e he equi edle elo 0.5) o
all h ee imein e als.
Thes a egicg oupswe ede e mined om hese h ee ac o s o  he h eeselec edpoin sin ime(2005,2010and2015)byconduc ingaclus e analysis.Thiss a is ical echniqueiscommonlyusedina a ie yo disciplines
o classi yingsubjec s(Hagene al.,2012),whilein heai lineli e a u e his echniquehasbeenusedbyCosmase al.(2013),Magalhãese al.(2015),Smi he al.(1997)andWenandChen(2011).
Inapplying heclus e analysis,weinco po a ed heme hodological ecommenda ionsp oposedin heli e a u e(Ke chenandShook,1996).Weapplieda wo-s agep ocedu ebymeanso ahie a chicalclus e andak-means
clus e (non-hie a chical),whichis hemos commonlyusedclus e p o ocol.Thehie a chicalclus e p ocedu ebasedon hesqua edEuclideandis anceandon heWa dme hodwasused ode e mine heop imumnumbe o
clus e s.A e  ha , hesigni icance(F=26.38,p<0005)o  heclus e di e enceswascon i medbyemployingaMANOVAschemeusedbyMo isonandRo h(1992),amongo he s.Theseclus e sa e he e o eposi edas ep esen ing
dis inc s a egic ypes.
Once hecandida enumbe so clus e swe ede e mined, hek-meansclus e p ocedu ewasused oassign hedi e en casesin hesample o hemos app op ia eg oup.Fo each imepe iod, i eclus e swe eiden i ied.
Thesewillbedesc ibedinde ailandanalyzedin henex sec ion.
4Resul s
4.1S a egiesandchangesin heai linesec o
Ai lines a egiesa eanalyzedin hissec ionbyexclusi elyconside ing he a iablesde e minedby he esou ceso eachai line,namely, hei  ou es, lee sandhubs.Following hisanalysis,se e als a egicg oupswe e
iden i iedwi hin hesec o ,whichhelpedwi hiden i ying hei mos  iables a egies(Po e ,1980).Byanalyzing hee olu iono  heseg oups,wecan ackchangesinacompany'sope a ionals a egyo e  ime(Meh aandFloyd,
1998).
Theope a ionals a egies ha we eiden i ied, oge he wi h heassocia i es a egy,makeup heai line'so e alls a egy.The wos a egiescomplemen eacho he anda ein luencedbyase ieso  ac o s ha a ebo h
in e nalandex e nal o heindus y(Hue inge ,2014).In e nal ac o s a ecompoundedby hep esence o low-cos ai lines, he o ma ion o globalalliances and he in luenceo  na ionalcul u e,whileex e nal ac o sa e he
inc easinglibe aliza iono ma ke sand hein luenceo s a eson heindus y(Hue inge ,2014).
Asmen ionedabo e,weob ained i es a egicg oups o eachyea o  heanalysis(2005,2010and2015),al hough hei membe soccasionallychanged.
Theanalysiso  he esul sincludes wo ela edaspec s:(1) heg oupsiden i iedin2015and hei e olu ionbe ween2005and2015and(2) heope a ionals a egiesu ilizedby heai linesdu ing hes udype iod.
4.1.1Iden i ica ionande olu iono  hes a egicg oups
The i s g oupincludes i eEu opeanai lines:Ai F ance,KLM,Lu hansa,B i ishAi ways,andAus ianAi lines.Wi h heexcep iono Aus ianAi lines, heo he ai linescanbelabeledas
majo globalca ie s
anda echa ac e izedby he
global eacho  hei ope a ionsbecause heyse eala genumbe o coun iesandgeog aphicala eas.The e o e, hei  ou esanddes ina ionsex end oallcon inen s, he eby educing hei pe cen ageo domes ic ou es.Thep esenceo Aus ian
Ai linesin hisg oupmaybesu p ising,gi en ha  he ea u eso  hisai linea eappa en ly e ydi e en  om he es o  heg oup.Howe e ,despi e hedi e genceinsize,i sin e na ionaliza ionp o ileisqui esimila  o ha o  heo he ai linesin he
g oup.I couldbea gued, ollowing heideaso Rege andHu (1993), ha Aus ianAi linesisaseconda yg oupmembe (a i m ha implemen s hes a egicg oup ecipelessconsis en ly hanco e i ms),and ha , ollowingi sabso p ionby
Lu hansa,i isqui elikely ochanges a egicg oupin he u u e,dependingon hes a egyo i spa en company.
Theseconds a egicg oup,whichis e e ed oas
la gena ionalca ie s
,includes he h eela ges Ame icanai lines:Ame icanAi lines,Del aAi lines,andUni edAi lines.Thisg oupischa ac e izedby hesizeo i smembe sand hei  ocus
ondomes icma ke s.
The hi ds a egicg oup,whichis e e ed oas
newglobalca ie s
,includes he h eeGul ai lines:Emi a es,E ihadAi ways,andQa a Ai ways.Theseai linesa ebasedin hesamegeog aphicala ea,canbeconside edyoungai lines,and
ha eexpe ienced e y apidg ow hin hepas  enyea scompa ed oallo he ai lines.Thesecompaniesu ilizeanope a ionals a egysimila  o ha o  he i s g oupo ai lines(
majo globalca ie s
),bu ha esmalle  lee s,whicha ec sall he
a iables ele an  oin e na ionalp esenceand hesizeo  heai lines.
The ou hs a egicg oupexclusi elyincludes o me  lagai lines(Ae o lo ,Ai Canada,Ali alia,ChinaSou he n,Ibe ia,Ko eanAi ,RoyalJo danian,Scandina ianAi lines,andTapPo ugal).Thesea echa ac e izedby hei mediumsize,a
mode a edeg eeo in e na ionaliza ion,andas a egy ha  ocusesonspeci icma ke s.Thisg oupis e e ed oas
egionalca ie s
.
Finally, he i hg oupincludesQan as,AllNippon,JapanAi lines,AlaskaAi lines,Je Blue,Ai Eu opa,Ai China,andAi As ana.Thesea e ela i elysmall,excep Ai China,anda echa ac e izedbyap ima y ocuson hei domes icma ke and
onalimi ednumbe o coun iesgene allyadjacen  o hei coun yo o igin.Thisg oupis e e ed oas
zonalca ie s
.
The ollowing able(Table1)summa izes hep ima y ea u eso  heai linesin he a iouss a egicg oupsusing he inal imepe iod(2015)asa e e ence.
Table1S a egicg oups(2015):gene alcha ac e is ics.
al - ex :Table1
Majo globalca ie s La gena ionalca ie s Newglobalca ie s Regionalca ie s Zonalca ie s
Flee size BigLa ge Ve ybigla ge Medium Small Small
A e age 191.40 822.33 169.0 154.89 153.50
SD. (91.284) (130.51) (61.39) (135.77) (95.14)
Numbe o Rou es BigLa ge Ve ybigla ge Small Medium Small
A e age 480.20 2242.33 247.00 555.00 376.75
SD. (184.86) (1143.58) (59.30) (461.46) (188.59)
Numbe o des ina ions BigLa ge Ve ybigla ge Medium Medium Small
A e age 175.80 369.33 118.33 135.00 89.50
SD (39.23) (98.77) (24.583) (50.24) (37.91)
%o in e na ional ou es BigLa ge Small Ve ybigla ge BigLa ge Small
A e age 73.88% 25.4% 91.77% 67.16% 32.30%
SD (11,26%) (6.16%) (4.34%) (19.71%) (16.92%)
Noo se edcoun ies Ve ybigla ge BigLa ge BigLa ge Medium Small
A e age 75.80 63.67 68.00 43,89 19.88
SD (16.72) (11.02) (12.49) (6.13) (8.32)
Noo se eda eas Ve ybigla ge BigLa ge Ve yBigla ge Medium Small
A e age 14.40 11.67 13.33 9.67 6.63
SD (3.05) (4.04) (0.58) (1.80) (2.39)
Thes a egicg oups ha weiden i iedha eno  emaineds a ic; hei membe sha echanged h oughou  hes udype iodasindica edinFig.1below.I ispossible oiden i y wo ypes o connec inglines:con inuousanddiscon inuous.
Con inuouslinesindica e hena u ale olu iono  hes a egicg oups h oughou  hedi e en  imepe iods,whe easdiscon inuouslines ep esen  hechangesin hes a egicg oups.Themaind i e  ha explains hee olu iono  hes a egicg oupsis
heai lines’ope a ionalg ow h.Theo igino  hisope a ionalg ow hmayha ebeenin e nalo ex e nal(me ge sandacquisi ionsands a eaid).Once heai linesha econsolida ed hei in e nalope a ionalp o ile, heybegin os eng hen hei
associa i es a egies, husaccele a ing hei  i ualiza ionp ocess.
As ega ds hee olu iono eachg oup,Table2illus a es he a ia iono ce ainope a ional a iablesincluding lee size,se edcoun ies,and henumbe o  ou esanddes ina ions,which e lec  hedi e en g ow hs a egiesu ilizedby he
ai linesin hedi e en g oups.
Table2E olu iono  hemainope a ing a iableso  hedi e en s a egicg oups.
al - ex :Table2
2005–2010 2010–2015
Fig.1E olu iono  hes a egicg oupsbe ween2005and2015.
al - ex :Fig.1
Flee Rou es Coun ies Des ina ions Flee Rou es Coun ies Des ina ions
A e agesize Va ia ion AnnualVa ia ion A e agenumbe Va ia ion AnnualVa ia ion A e agesize Va ia ion AnnualVa ia ion A e agenumbe Va ia ion AnnualVa ia ion
Majo globalca ie s
SD
176.3
(98.4)
+9 −1.6% 76.5
(11.3)
−6 −1.1% 190.2
(102.0)
+18 −1.9% 76.1
(15.1)
+3 +1.3
La gena ionalca ie s
SD
525.4
(126.7)
+30 +4.2% 49.2
(14.3)
+10 +3.6% 736.4
(76.9)
+413 +10.6%a60.0
(10.1)
+10 +5.9%
Newglobalca ie s
SD
72.4
(41.0)
+58 +6.7% 46.5
(11.6)
+15 +9.1% 141.4
(58.2)
+91 +7.9% 61.5
(9.9)
+15 +8.4%
Regionalca ie s
SD
131.6
(76.9)
+18 +2.2% 38.8
(7.6)
+2 +2.3% 148.5
(114.8)
+26 +3.9% 42.4
(7.5)
+3 +4.1%
Zonalca ie s
SD
125.1
(68.5)
+2 +4.0% 15.4
(8.1)
+5 +4.6% 143.9
(85.7)
+34 +3.7% 18.2
(7.9)
+3 +2.6%
aDue ome ge sbe weenAme icanai lines.
4.1.2Themainope a ionals a egiesin heai lineindus y
Ananalysiso  hes a egicg oupsiden i ied h ee ypeso ope a ionals a egiesin heai lineindus y:na ionals a egy,globaland egional.Thesea ebasedon heai line'sownne wo ko  ou esope a eddi ec lyo  h oughi ssubsidia ieso
subcon ac o ai lines(Wassme andMeschi,2011).Theapp oach ha eachai lineu ilizes oughlyapp oxima es ooneo  hese h ees a egies.
Thena ionals a egyisappliedwhenanai linede o es he as majo i yo i se o sand esou ces oi sdomes icma ke .Howe e , hiso ien a iondoesno necessa ilyimplyalacko a en ion oo in e es inin e na ionalma ke s.The
la ge
na ionalca ie s
(Ame icanAi lines,Del aAi lines,andUni edAi lines)and heChineseai lines(ChinaSou he nandAi China)ha eadop ed hiss a egy.Al hough heseai linesha emanyin e na ionalandin e con inen al ou esandope a einala ge
numbe o coun ies(be ween33and71), heyp ima ily ocuson hei domes icma ke s,whichconsis o 67.9%o  hei  ou esand86.1%o  hei  ligh s.Simila ly,mos o  hei des ina ions(be ween59.4%and66.1%)a edomes ic.Despi eha ing
nume ousin e na ional ou es, heseai linesope a ea e ylowpe cen ageo o he  ou es(be ween0.3%and4.1%),whichindica es ha  hei in e na ional ou essimplyconnec  hei coun yo o igin odes ina ionsab oadandp ima ilyp o idea
se ice opassenge sen e ingandlea ing hei coun y.Theai lines’na ionalo ien a iondependsonanumbe o  ac o s;howe e ,oneo  hemos in luen ialis hesizeand u u ee olu iono  hedomes icpassenge ma ke (IATA,2016).Geog aphically,
heUni edS a esandChinaa e wo e yla gecoun ieswi hla gepopula ions,bu mos impo an ly, heyha eex emelyla gedomes icpassenge ma ke s.Da a ega dingpassenge  olumep o idedbyIATAindica e ha by2015 heUni edS a esand
China we e he wo leading global and domes ic ma ke s o  passenge s and we e conside ably su passing o he  coun ies. Fu he mo e, he domes ic ma ke  ep esen s app oxima ely 70% o  he olume o  passenge s in he Uni ed S a es and
app oxima ely90%inChina.
Theglobals a egyisappliedwhenanai linede elopsi sne wo ko  ou esinawayinwhichi scoun yo o iginisconnec ed oa e yla genumbe o  o eigncoun ies.Gene ally, heseai lines o manin e na ionalne wo klesscen e ed han
hoseo na ionalope a o s.Thiss a egycha ac e izes hemajo globalca ie s(Ai F ance,KLM,Lu hansa,andB i ishAi ways)and henewglobalca ie s(Emi a es,E ihad,andQa a Ai ways).Thehighin e na ionaliza iono  heseai linesis
e lec edin hepe cen ageo  hei in e con inen al ou es(be ween26.1%and55.6%),in e na ionaldes ina ions(be ween86.9%and99.3%),ando he  ou es(be ween3.4%and43.5%),whichallshowhighle elso in e na ionaldi e si ica ion.
A egionals a egyisde elopedwhenanai lineconcen a esi sope a ionsinaspeci icgeog aphicala ea,ei he inapa icula coun y,asis hecase o ce ainUS egionalai lines,o incoun ies ha bo de  heai line'scoun yo o igin.This
s a egyisusedby
egionalca ie s
(Ae o lo ,Ai Canada,Ali alia,Ibe ia,RoyalJo danian,Scandina ianAi lines,andTapPo ugal)and
zonalca ie s
(Qan as,AllNippon,JapanAi lines,Je Blue,Ai Eu opa,andAi As ana).Theseai linesa esmalle  han
hecompanies ha adop  he i s  wos a egiesandexpe iencedalowe g ow hdu ing hes udype iod.Al hough hei ac i i yisconcen a edinaspeci icgeog aphicala ea, hesecompaniescan lylong-haulo in e con inen al ou es oconnec  he
ai line'scoun ywi h hep ima ywo ldpassenge ma ke s,e en hough heyope a eonlyasmallnumbe o such ou es.
Logically, hechoiceo apa icula ope a ionals a egyde e mines he ypeo  ou es ha anai lineope a es, he equencyo  ligh s,and he ypeo ai c a includedini s lee .Ana ionals a egygene allyconsis so sho andmedium-haul
ou es,ahigh equencyo  ligh s,and lee s ha includemediumandsmallai c a .Aglobals a egygene allyconsis so long-haul ou es,alow equencyo  ligh s,and lee s ha includela geai c a .Themos bindingpa ame e  o  hemediumand
long e ms a egiesis he ypeo ai c a includedinanai line's lee because his ep esen sasunkcos (Gagge oandBa olini,2012),namely,acos  ha hasal eadybeenincu edandcanno easilybe eco e ed.
Ine i ably,compe i ionoccu sinallma ke sbe weenallai linesbecause his i al ymani es sa  heindi idual ou ele el(Gimeno,2004); he e o e,companieswi hin he a iousg oupscompe eagains eacho he  o ce ain ou es.Howe e ,a
Thisisanexplo a o ys udy ha wasconduc edwi h hesolepu poseo p esen ingas a egico e iewo  hesec o ;howe e , hesamplingo ai linesislinked ooneo  hep ima yweaknesseso  hes udy.I ispossible ha
o he s a egiescouldbeiden i iedwi hin heindus y,al houghbo h heselec iono  hesampleand heconsis encyo  he esul sappea  oindica e ha anynews a egywouldme elybeamodi ica iono  heonesiden i iedin his
s udy.Ano he limi a ionin ol es heda ausedin heanalysisbecauseonly he ou eso e edby heai linesa econside ed,wi hnoin o ma ionon ligh  equency.Howe e ,because hisisanexplo a o ys udy,weconside  ha  his
choice,al houghalimi a ion,isapp op ia ebecause henumbe o  ou esindica es hesizeande olu iono  heai lines.Howe e , u u es udiesmo e ocusedonspeci ic opicsshoulda oid hisomissionbecauseajoin analysiso
ou esand equencieswouldo e anenhancedunde s andingo ai lines’ope a ionals a egiesand hei associa i ebeha io s.
Finally,wewouldpoin ou  ha  hep esen s udyisla gelybasedonquan i a i e a iables,due o he ypeo analysisca iedou .Inspi eo  his,weha e ied ocon i m heconsis encyand eliabili yo  hecompanies’
s a egiesbyanalyzingquali a i e a iables, oallowus ounde s andandin e p e  he esul sob ained.
Acknowledgmen s
This esea chwassuppo edby heMinis e iodeEconomía,Indus iayCompe i i idad,Spain(ECO2013-45329-R).
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Que iesandAnswe s
Que y:Pleasecheck hesu nameandgi ennameo  heau ho "JoséLuisGalán"andamendi necessa y.
Answe :I 'sco ec .TheNameis:"JoséLuis"and hesu nameis"Galán".
Que y:Theci a ion"Anwa ,2015"hasbeenchanged oma ch heda ein he e e encelis .Pleasecheckhe eandinsubsequen occu ences.
Answe :The igh ci a ionis:(Anwa ,2015).So,Ichangedi in he e e encelis .Anwa ,S.T.(2015).Supe ‐Connec o s:ANewModelo In e na ionaliza ion om heMENARegion.
Thunde bi d
In e na ionalBusinessRe iew
,
57
(2),163-180.Idele ed hedoi om he e e encebecause helinkwasw ong.
A achmen s:Anwa ,2015.pd
Que y:Theci a ions‘Wane al.,2014’hasbeenchanged oma ch heda ein he e e encelis .Pleasecheckhe eandinsubsequen occu ences,andco ec i necessa y.
Answe :You changeis igh
Que y:Re e ences"Smi he al.,1997"isci edin he ex bu no p o idedin he e e encelis .Pleasep o ide hemin he e e encelis o dele e heseci a ions om he ex .
Answe :The e e ence o "Smi he al.,1997"is he ollowing:Smi h,K.G.,G imm,C.M.,Wally,S.,&Young,G.(1997).S a egicg oupsand i al ous i mbeha io :Towa dsa econcilia ion.
S a egic
Managemen Jou nal
,18(2),149-157.SoIaddedi in he e e ences.
A achmen s:Smi he al.,1997-SMJ.pd
Foo no es
1The e m“globalalliances”, e e s omul ila e alag eemen swi hago e ningsupe s uc u e,suchasOnewo ld,SkyTeam,e c.
2Ae o lo ,Ai As ana,Ai Canada,Ai China,Ai Eu opa,Ai F ance,AlaskaAi lines,Ali alia,AllNippon,Ame icanAi lines,Aus ianAi lines,B i ishAi ways,ChinaSou he n,Del aAi lines,Emi a es,E ihadAi ways,Ibe ia,Japan
Ai lines,Je Blue,KLM,Ko eanAi ,Lu hansa,Qan as,Qa a Ai ways,RoyalJo danian,Scandina ianAi lines,TapPo ugal,andUni edAi lines.
3This a iablemeasu es hepe cen ageo  ou es ha dono o igina eo landin heai line'scoun yo o igin.Gene ally,mos  ou eso igina eo landin heai line'scoun yo o igin; his a iablehelpsuse alua e hedi e si ica ion
o ai lines.
4TheOAGda abasedi ides he239coun iesand e i o ieso  hewo ldin o18mac oa eas,al houghoneo  hesea easonlyincludesAn a c ica.
5Gene ally,a ilia edai linesa e egionalai lines ha a eownedbyo ha eas ongbusiness ela ionshipwi hamembe ai line.
6Thepe cen ageso pa allelcodesha eag eemen sa eno p o idedin he able;howe e , hesepe cen agesa ecalcula edas100%minus hepe cen ageo complemen a ycodesha eag eemen s.
7Wewouldlike o hankananonymous e iewe  o sugges ing hislineo  esea ch.
Highligh s
•Ope a ionals a egiesand hei e olu ionin heai linesec o a eanalyzed.
•Inc easingimpo anceo globalalliances o indus ycompe i ion.
•Ai lines'associa i es a egiescomplemen  hei ope a ionals a egies.
•Associa i eac i i iesposenewchallenges o manage s,suchas hemanagemen o alliancepo olios.
•Ai lines a egieslead oap ocesso ai line i ualiza ion.
Que y:Pleasecon i m ha gi ennamesandsu namesha ebeeniden i iedco ec lyanda ep esen edin hedesi edo de andpleaseca e ully e i y hespellingo allau ho s’names.
Answe :All heau ho sha ebeeniden i iedco ec ly.
Que y:You a icleis egis e edasa egula i emandisbeingp ocessed o inclusionina egula issueo  hejou nal.I  hisisNOTco ec andyou a iclebelongs oaSpecialIssue/Collec ionplease
con ac  .ganesan@else ie .comimmedia elyp io  o e u ningyou co ec ions.
Answe :Icon i m ha  hea iclewasw i en o a egula issue.