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Selec ed aSpec S o zooSemy:
he concep ual dimenSion
o igin/social s a us a wo k
Robe Kieł yka
Uni e si y o Rzeszów (Poland)
Resumen: En el p esen e a ículo se habla del p oblema de la zoosemia — é -
mino que alude al p oceso po el que me a ó icamen e se elaciona la conduc a
de los se es humanos con el compo amie o o la isionomía de cie os animales,
p oceso po el cual el nomb e de dichos animales se ex apola pa a designa el
ca ác e o el compo amien o de las pe sonas. Basándose en los plan eamien-
os de la linguís ica cogni i a se ha p opues o que en la lengua inglesa la zoo-
semia ac úa en sie e campos semán icos, a sabe : p o esión/ unción social,
compo amien o/ca ác e , p ocedencia/posición social, mo alidad,
sexualidad, asgos insul an es, apa iencia/ asgos ísicos. El p esen e
abajo se limi a a es udia el campo semán ico de p ocedencia/posición so-
cial. El ma e ial lingüís ico analizado aba ca lexemas p oceden es no sólo de
di e en es momen os his ó icos de la e olución de la lengua inglesa sino am-
bién de en idades lingüís icas p oceden es de a ios idiomas indoeu opeos (es-
pañol, i aliano, ancés, polaco, uso, eslo aco, aleman) y así mismo de lenguas
no indoeu opeas (chino, húnga o). En la úl ima pa e del a ículo se p esen an
las obse aciones y las conclusiones de i adas de dicho análisis.
Palab as cla e: zoosemia, me á o a concep ual, campo concep ual, p oceden-
cia/posición social, lengua inglesa, animales domes icados.
Abs ac : The p esen pape discusses he p oblem o zoosemy, unde s ood as
one o he mechanisms o seman ic change whe eby animal names a e em-
ployed o designa e human cha ac e is ics. In acco dance wi h he main ene s
o cogni i e linguis ics, i is pos ula ed ha he wo kings o zoosemy in Eng-
lish may be accoun ed o by e e ence o se en concep ual dimensions/sphe es,
i.e. p o ession/social unc ion, beha iou /cha ac e , o igin/social s a us, phys-
ical cha ac e is ics/appea ance, mo ali y, sexuali y, con emp /opp ob ium o
which one, i.e. he concep ual dimension o igin/social s a us, is in es iga ed he e
in de ail. The lexical ma e ial in ocus comp ises lexemes used no only in a ious
pe iods o his o ical de elopmen o English, bu also lexical uni s selec ed om
o he languages bo h Indo-Eu opean (Spanish, I alian, F ench, Polish, Russian,
Slo ak, Ge man) and non-Indo-Eu opean (Chinese, Hunga ian). The inal pa
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o he a icle p esen s obse a ions and conclusions d awn om he analysis o
he ele an lexical ma e ial.
Keywo ds: zoosemy, concep ual me apho , concep ual sphe e, o igin/social s a us,
English, domes ica ed animals.
1. In Roduc Ion
In his pape , employing he b oadly unde s ood mechanisms o cogni i e
linguis ics which ea seman ic change as a cogni i ely condi ioned p ocess, we
pu sue he p oblem o wha has been e e ed o in ele an li e a u e as a his-
o ically uni e sal connec ion be ween he concep ual ca ego ies human being
and domes ica ed animals (see, among o he s, MacWhinney (1989), Klepa -
ski (1997: 238), Hsieh (2000, 2003), Baide and Gesua o (2003), Kieł yka
(2008)). Thus, he aim o he p esen a icle is o p o ide a his o ical accoun
o selec ed aspec s o English zoosemy; ha is, he p ocess o seman ic change
whe eby animal names a e employed o designa e human cha ac e is ics. Ou
analysis o zoosemic me apho isa ion is ca ied ou in e ms o he concep ual
me apho heo y (hence o h: cm ) (see, among o he s, Lako and Johnson
(1980), Lako and Tu ne (1989)). We belie e ha cm is a sound me hod-
ological amewo k which is capable o accoun ing o seman ic change in a
panch onic pe spec i e. The heo e ical app oach we ha e chosen makes i clea
ha me apho s a e cen al o he way we hink abou he wo ld. They p o ide
an essen ial link be ween ou immedia e expe ience and abs ac hough and,
wha is mo e, hey may no me ely elucida e a poin bu o en, wi hou hem,
unde s anding he in angible would be impossible (see Lukeš (2005)).
As a gued by MacWhinney (1989), he me apho ical ex ensions associa ed
wi h he ca ego y human being poin o a ce ain isomo phism ha is es ab-
lished be ween he wo ld o animal cha ac e is ics and he wo ld o human
cha ac e is ics. We hope o be able o show ha he linguis ic ma e ial analysed
in he p esen pape allows us o o mula e some obse a ions and gene alisa-
ions conce ning he p oblem o animal me apho s and he issue o isomo -
phism be ween a ious subca ego ies o he concep ual ca ego ies human being
and domes ica ed animals.
2. He conceP uAl dImensIon oRIgIn/socIAl s A us In ocus
Kieł yka (2006) no iced ha he wo kings o English zoosemy may be ac-
coun ed o by e e ence o se en concep ual dimensions/sphe es, i.e. p o es-
sion/social unc ion, beha iou /cha ac e , o igin/social s a us, physical
cha ac e is ics/appea ance, mo ali y, sexuali y, con emp /opp ob ium o
which one, i.e. he concep ual dimension o igin/social s a us will be in es i-
ga ed he e in de ail.
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ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
As will be poin ed ou , he concep ual domain o igin/social s a us is closely
ela ed o he concep ual ca ego y human being. Mo e impo an ly, i seems
ha he concep ual domain o igin/social s a us may be simul aneously e-
ga ded as one o he concep ual dimensions by means o which he concep-
ual ca ego y domes ica ed animals is also ela ed o he concep ual ca ego y
human being. Thus, he pu pose o his pape will be o discuss hose aspec s
o he seman ics o domes ica ed animals which a e o be held esponsible o
mappings leading o he zoosemic shi domes ica ed animal > a human
being cha ac e ised in e ms o o igin/social s a us. Below we shall
p opose an in-dep h analysis o zoosemic de elopmen o ou lexical i ems,
namely jade, cu , mong el and yke.
The majo e ymological sou ces (see odee, edme) in o m us ha jade is
o unknown o igin bu o en assumed o be a double o yaud (Mod.Icel. jalda
‘ma e’). In i s li e al sense he wo d designa es ‘a so y, ill-condi ioned, wea-
ied, o wo n-ou ho se o in e io b eed’ o ‘a icious, wo hless, ill- empe ed
ho se’. This lexical i em unc ioned p oduc i ely in English om he 14 h cen-
u y o he 19 h cen u y. The o iginal sense o his lexical ca ego y is accoun a-
ble o in e ms o an en enchmen 1 ela ion o he a ibu i e pa h o domain2
o species […] o which he a ibu i e elemen (equine) is b ough o he
o e, a ended by he ac ua ion o he alues ( emale) and (old) p esupposed
o he a ibu i e pa hs o domain o sex […] and domain o age […] e-
spec i ely. Addi ionally, he seman ic pe iphe y o his lexical ca ego y sugges s
posi ing an en enchmen link o such cds as, domain o physical cha -
ac e is ics and appea ance […], domain o beha iou […], domain o
u ili y […], domain o o igin […] and domain o abuse […] o which he
ollowing a ibu i e alues a e ac i a ed: (bony), (ill- empe ed)^( icious),
(wo hless)^(wo n-ou ), (in e io ) and (con emp ible) espec i ely. This
1
The no ion o en enchmen should be unde s ood he e in he way i is de ined and ap-
plied by Klepa ski (1997) and Kieł yka (2008). Namely, a lexical ca ego y may be said o be en-
enched in he a ibu i e pa h o a gi en concep ual domain (CD) o se o concep ual domains
(CDs) i i s seman ic pole is ela ed o ce ain loca ions wi hin he a ibu i e pa h o a gi en CD
o se o CDs.
2
In he iew o many linguis s, seman ic s uc u es may be cha ac e ised ela i e o cogni i e
domains, which a e —a e Klepa ski (1997) and Kieł yka (2008)— unde s ood as concep ual
domains which, in u n, a e iewed as se s o a ibu i e alues speci ied o di e en loca ions
wi hin he a ibu i e pa hs o CDs. Acco ding o Taylo (1989), a lexical ca ego y ge s i s mean-
ing by he p ocess o highligh ing (o o eg ounding) a pa icula loca ion wi hin he a ibu i e
pa h o a CD o a numbe o di e en CDs.
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sense- h ead o jade3 is a es ed by he ollowing selec ed quo a ions om he
oed:4
c1386 Be bli he hough hou yde p-on a Iade, Wha hogh hyn ho s be
bo he oule and lene.
1530 Iade a dull ho se, galie .
1600 You a e much decei ed.. ha hinke mine asse o be dead: o he hung ie
iade knowing his mas e s necessi y ha h w ough his sleigh .
1709 False s eps bu help hem o enew he ace, As, a e s umbling, Jades
will mend hei pace.
1819 He palmed upon he owne s a so y jade o an ass.
In he middle o he 16 h cen u y we wi ness he ise o a new sense- h ead
a ached o he wo d, namely — ia zoosemic ex ension— jade came o be ap-
plied as a e m o ep oba ion o a woman meaning ‘a low o sh ewish wom-
an’5 (‘ ep ehensible gi l o woman’ (see odee)) o ‘a li a ious gi l like hussy o
minx’ (see W igh (1898-1905: 342) and BdP ) (16 h>19 h cen u ies). On he
o he hand, Johnson (1755) de ined jade as […] a so y woman. A wo d o con-
emp no ing some imes age, bu gene ally ice and […] a young woman: in i ony
and sligh con emp .6 As a gued by Mills (1993: 128), owa ds he end o he 19 h
cen u y he ea ly sense o i edness and ha o he sexual excesses o a slu we e
used in o he e b o jade; used mos ly in he pas ense his came o mean ‘ o
wea ou wi h ha d wo k o su ei ’.
The accoun o he seman ics o he 16 h cen u y sense- h ead o jade in-
ol es posi ing an en enchmen ela ion o he a ibu i e pa h o domain
o species […] o which he a ibu i e alue (human) is highligh ed. This
is coupled wi h he ac i a ion o he a ibu i e elemen ( emale) speci ied
3
Th oughou his a icle, ollowing Kieł yka (2008), we adop he ollowing no a ional con-
en ion: a con inuous empo al p esence o a gi en sense- h ead is ma ked wi h a bidi ec ional
a ow. Howe e , i he e idence we quo e has ime gaps — e e ed o as empo al hia us by Gee -
ae s (1997: 24-25) and Klepa ski (1997: 250)— o mo e han 150 yea s we ma k he gap wi h
a unidi ec ional a ow as shown abo e. Addi ionally, i mus be s essed ha Gee ae s (1997:
24-25) de elops he no ion o seman ic polygenesis, in which he same ma ginal meaning oc-
cu s a se e al poin s in ime ha a e sepa a ed by a conside able pe iod. In his espec Klepa ski
(1997:251) claims ha he discon inuous p esence o ha meaning is no due o acciden al gaps
in he a ailable ex ual sou ces, bu ha he meaning in ques ion mus ha e come in o being in-
dependen ly a wo poin s in his o y. I seems ha he empo al hia us in he e idence we quo e
—in he majo i y o cases— does no in ol e seman ic polygenesis, bu is a he due o acciden-
al gaps in he a ailable ex ual sou ces.
4
The ea lies known p in ed use o a wo d, as eco ded by he oed, p o ides an index o he
da e a which he e m en e ed he language.
5
See also A Ws, BdP , lcRH and mdWPo.
6
Conside he ollowing quo a ion:
You see now and hen some handsome young jades among hem: he slu s ha e e y o en
whi e ee h and black eyes (Johnson (1755)).
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ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
o domain o sex […], and u he a ended by he ac ua ion o he alues
(adul /young), (o low o de s), (sh ewish)/( li a ious), (wo hless)
and (con emp ible) which a e p esupposed o he a ibu i e pa hs o he ol-
lowing cds: domain o age […], domain o o igin/social s a us […],do-
main o cha ac e and beha iou […],7 domain o u ili y and domain o
abuse […] espec i ely. The ollowing selec ed oed quo a ions es i y o his
sense- h ead o jade:
1560 Such a jade she is, and so cu s a quean, She would ou -scold he de il’s
dame I ween.
1668 [M s] Pie ce says she [Miss Da is] is a mos homely jade as e e she saw.
1711 You see now and hen some handsome young Jades among hem [ he
Gipsies].
1812 A lying, p ying, jil ing, hie ish jade.
1883 A p ocession o scamps and jades, who ma ched h ough Pa is wea ing
in mocke y es men s obbed om he chu ches.
In e es ingly, a he end o he 16 h and a he ou se o he 17 h cen u ies
he wo d8 was, in a simila ashion (see he e idence gi en below), me apho i-
cally applied o a man as a e m o ep oba ion (1596>1608) (see also W igh
(1898-1905: 342)).9 Acco ding o Palma ie (1995: 215), a jaded pe son is like
a wo hless nag: ha dened, calloused, lacking in spi i and obli ious o pleasu e
o pain. Thus, apa om he en enchmen ela ion o he a ibu i e pa hs o
he cds speci ied in he o egoing, he seman ics o his sense- h ead in ol es
he shi in he highligh ing o he ele an alue ( emale) > (male) speci-
ied o he a ibu i e pa h o domain o sex […]. This E.Mod.E. sense- h ead
o jade eme ges om he ollowing oed examples:
1596 Wha , his Gen leman will ou - alke s all. luc. Si giue him head, I
know hee’l p oue a jade.
1608 A iolly P a e , bu a jade o doe.
7
I appea s ha —by he p ocess o animal me apho — jade may also be iewed as embody-
ing he concep ual dimension beha iou /cha ac e .
8
As he quo a ions om W nIdu illus a e, his lexical i em is also used as a e b in he
sense ‘ o make a jade o (a ho se); wea ou by o e wo k o abuse’, e.g. (W nIdu) ‘When a ho se
app oaches he goal, he does no , unless he is jaded, slacken his pace’; ‘ o i e by se e e o edi-
ous asks’, e.g. ‘Cons an epe i ion o o en i ial ma e ial jades one’s pala e’. Mills (1989: 128)
explains ha he e b o jade is a usion o he ea ly sense o i edness and ha o he sexual ex-
cesses o a slu . In Shakespea ian imes he e b was used in he sense ‘ o make idiculous o ex-
pose o sco n’, e.g. ‘Do no now ool mysel , o le imagina ion jade me’. As an in ansi i e e b i
means ‘ o become wea y; lose hea , e.g. ‘When I eel my Muse beginning o jade, I e i e o he
soli a y i eside o my s udy’.
9
Acco ding o Pa idge (2002: 610) in he 20 h cen u y Aus. English jade acqui ed he sense
‘a long p ison-sen ence’.

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The e o e, as ou discussion o he seman ics o jade shows, a he beginning
o he E.Mod.E. pe iod he analysed lexical ca ego y s a ed o unc ion as a
zoosem ela ed o he concep ual zones o igin/social s a us (16 h>19 h cen u-
ies) and beha iou /cha ac e (16 h>19 h cen u ies).
E ymologically, he wo d cu co esponds o Mid.E. cu e, Mod.Sw. and Mod.
No w. dialec al ku e/ko e ‘a dog’. The noun ku e/ko e is gene ally associa ed
wi h he onoma opoeic O.N. e b ku a ‘ o mu mu , g umble’, Mod.Sw. ku a
‘ o g umble, umble, sna l’, Mod.Dan. ku e ‘ o coo’. Thus, he p ima y sense
appea s o ha e been ‘g owling o sna ling beas ’ bu no co esponding e b
appea s in English, so ha Mid.E. ku e was p obably in oduced om some
con inen al sou ce.10 The e o e, cu en e ed he English lexicon in he i s hal o
he 13 h cen u y and s a ed o be applied wi hou any ace o dep ecia ion, es-
pecially o ‘a wa ch-dog o shephe d’s dog’ (1225>1884). No ice ha in Mod.E.
his lexical ca ego y is always used as dep ecia i e o con emp uous appella-
ion deno ing ‘a wo hless, low-b ed, o snappish dog’. In e ms o he mecha-
nisms adop ed he e, he p ima y sense o cu , apa om he ac i a ion o such
concep ually cen al elemen s as (canine), (epicene), (young/adul ) p esup-
posed o he a ibu i e pa hs o domain o species […], domain o sex […]
and domain o age […] espec i ely, is explicable by means o an en enchmen
link o he a ibu i e pa hs o such pe iphe al cds as domain o o igin […],
wi h he alue (low-b ed) b ough o he o e, domain o cha ac e and be-
ha iou […] o which he a ibu i e elemen (snappish) is ac i a ed, as well
as domain o unc ions […], domain o u ili y […] and domain o abuse
[…] o which he ollowing se o alues gains p ominence: (wa ch-dog) ^
(shephe d’s dog), (wo hless), (dep ecia i e)^(con emp uous). The o-
llowing oed quo a ions es i y o his Mid.E. sense- h ead o cu :
a1225 Þes dogge o helle.. þe ule ku dogge.
1884 cu , a good, sha p wa chdog. The wo d does no e e , in he leas , o low
b eeding.
By he p ocess o animal me apho isa ion, a he end o he 16 h cen u y cu
was i s applied as a e m o con emp wi h e e ence o ‘a su ly, ill-b ed, low
o cowa dly ellow’11 (1590>1870).12 As poin ed ou by Palma ie (1995: 106),
igu a i ely, a cu is a con emp ible o cowa dly pe son — i.e., one who is as
10
The combina ion ku -dogge mus ha e en e ed English lexicon conside ably ea lie han
ku e/cu .
11
See also A Ws, eWPo, IRcd and WnWd.
12
Acco ding o Pa idge (2002: 1273), he con ex u n cu was —in he 19 h>20 h cen u-
ies— used in he sense ‘ o u n in o me o King’s (o Queen’s) e idence’. Likewise, u n dog in
Aus. English was employed in he sense ‘ o in o m o he police’ (19 h>20 h cen u ies). See Mod.
Pol. piesek ‘dim. dog’ which designa es ‘an in o me ’.
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b a e as a ba king dog (seen in he p o e b Ba king dogs seldom bi e). On he
o he hand, Rawson (1989: 112) concludes ha oday he cu is a mong el and
he wo d is ne e in ended as a complimen when applied o a human being.13
The accoun o his sense in ol es he highligh ing o such concep ually cen-
al elemen s as (human), (epicene) and (young/adul ) speci ied o he a -
ibu i e pa hs o domain o species […], domain o sex […] and domain
o age […], a ended by he ac ua ion o he pe iphe al alues (low)^(ill-
b ed), (su ly)^(cowa dly) and (con emp ible) p esupposed o he a i-
bu i e pa hs o he ollowing cds: domain o o igin and social s a us […],
domain o cha ac e and beha iou […] and domain o abuse […]. This
sense- h ead o cu eme ges om he ollowing oed quo a ions:
1590 Ou dog, ou cu , hou d iu’s me pas he bounds o maidens pa ience.
1870 Tha I may d i e away These cu s, b ough hi he by an e il a e.
The e o e, i eme ges om ou discussion o cu ha a he beginning o he
E.Mod.E. pe iod (16 h cen u y>Mod.E.) he analysed lexical ca ego y s a ed
o unc ion as a e m ela ed o he concep ual zones o igin/social s a us, be-
ha iou /cha ac e and con emp /opp ob ium.
The lexical ca ego y mong el is o med om he I.E. oo meng-/mang-/
mong- ‘ o mix’ (c . meng/mong ‘ o mingle’ which co esponds o P o.Ge . *man-
gjan, O.E. mēngan, O.N. menga, Mod.Du. mengen, Mod.G. mengen, Mod.Sw.
mänga), and he su ix - el. In English, he wo d was i s eco ded a he close
o he 15 h cen u y, in he sense ‘ he o sp ing o wo di e en b eeds o dog’
(1486>1882). In Mod.E. mong el designa es p ima ily ‘a dog o no de inable
b eed, esul ing om a ious c ossings’.14 In e ms o he mechanisms adop ed
he e, he p ima y sense o mong el —apa om he highligh ing o such con-
cep ually cen al elemen s as (canine), (epicene), (young/adul ) p esuppo-
sed o he a ibu i e pa hs o domain o species […], domain o sex […]
and domain o age […] espec i ely— is explicable in e ms o an en ench-
men link o he a ibu i e pa h o he concep ually pe iphe al domain o o i-
gin […] o which he alue (o sp ing o wo di e en b eeds o dog)
gains p ominence. The ollowing oed quo a ions illus a e he his o ically p i-
ma y sense- h ead o mong el (15 h>19 h cen u ies):
13
Conside he ollowing example:
1594-95 Ou , dog! Ou , cu ! Thou d i es me pas he bound o maiden’s pa ience
(William Shakespea e, A midsumme nigh ’s d eam).
14
No ice ha in he 17 h>19 h cen u ies, as he oed examples con i m, mong el s a ed o be
employed in he sense ‘an animal o plan esul ing om he c ossing o di e en b eeds o kinds’:
1677 canis..lyciscus, a mong el, engende ed o a Wol and a Bi ch. > 1879 This c oss-
ing i sel is di e en ly named acco ding o whe he i akes place be ween di e en
aces o di e en species. In he i s case i p oduces a mong el, in he second a hyb id.
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1486 A G ehownd, a Bas a d, a meng ell, a Mas y e.
1573 O mas iues and mung els.
1882 ‘Wha kind o dogs did you see in you a els?’ ‘Two o h ee e y ine
b eeds o mong els’.
By he p ocess o zoosemic ex ension, a he end o he 16 h cen u y mong el
s a ed o be applied o people as a e m o con emp o abuse (1585>1764). The
accoun o he ise o his sense in ol es he ac i a ion o he concep ually cen-
al alues (human), (epicene) and (young/adul ) o ming pa s o he a i-
bu i e pa hs o such cds as domain o species […], domain o sex […] and
domain o age […], espec i ely, a ended by he highligh ing o he ele an
loca ion wi hin he a ibu i e pa h o domain o abuse […], wi h he elemen
(con emp ible) b ough o he o e. This sense- h ead o mong el is a es ed
by he ollowing oed quo a ions (16 h>18 h cen u ies):
a1585 Gleyd gang ell, auld mang ell! o he hang ell, and sa pyne.
1647 To he in en ha his ba king mung el may no delude he igno an wi h
his pedling ash.
1764 Is ha you manne s, you mong el?
I mus be emphasised ha in his case he wo king o he mechanism o
zoosemy was so in ense ha al eady in he i s hal o he 16 h cen u y —in dis-
pa aging use— mong el s a ed o be used in he sense ‘ he o sp ing o pa en s
o di e en na ionali ies o o high and low bi h’ (1542>1898). To accoun o
his sense- h ead o he wo d —apa om he link o he al eady speci ied
cds and a ibu i e alues— one may speak o he ise o an en enchmen
ela ion o he a ibu i e pa h o domain o o igin and social s a us […]
o which he a ibu i e alue (o sp ing o pa en s o di e en na io-
nali ies o o high and low bi h) is highligh ed and domain o abuse
[…], wi h he elemen (dispa aging) ac i a ed. The ollowing oed quo a ions
illus a e his sense- h ead o mong el (16 h>19 h cen u ies):
1542 By he waie o euilyng o despi e, laiyng o he cha ge o he same An-
is henes ha he was a moung eell, and had o his a he a ci ezen o A henes,
bu o his mo he a woman o a ba ba ous o saluage coun ee.
1708 He’s o a igh B eed bo h by Fa he and Mo he , no mung il.
1870 Men..o e e y ace, mong els almos o a man.
1898 Nei he do he A ab mong els..bea any oo good a epu a ion.
selec ed aspec s o zoosemy: o igin/social s a us 175
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Mo eo e , om he middle o he 16 h cen u y —in ans e ed applica-
ions— mong el15 was mo e o less con emp uously used o designa e a pe -
son o mixed o unde ined opinions o o icial posi ion (1554>1713). Simila ly
o he p e ious wo senses in he case o which he same concep ually cen al
cds a e in ol ed, he accoun o his sense- h ead o mong el necessi a es posi-
ing en enchmen links o he ele an loca ions wi hin he a ibu i e pa hs o
he concep ually pe iphe al domain o cha ac e and beha iou […], wi h
he concep ual elemen (one o mixed o unde ined opinions) ac ua ed and
domain o abuse […] o which he alue (con emp ible) is p ominen . The
ollowing oed examples om he E.Mod.E. pe iod es i y o his no el sense-
h ead o mong el (16 h>18 h cen u ies):
1554 A weak b o he see h you, as mung els mingling you sel es wi h he Pa-
pis s in hei idola y.
1713 mong ils in ac ion, poo ain -hea ed ai o s!
Addi ionally, a he beginning o he 17 h cen u y, mong el s a ed o be em-
ployed ‘as an abusi e epi he o a pe son’ (1605>1720).16 In e es ingly, Rawson
(1989: 254) poin s ou ha as a gene alised epi he , mong el was he unc io-
nal equi alen o bas a d. The explica ion o his sense in ol es he highligh ing
o he pe iphe al a ibu i e alue (con emp ible) p esupposed o he a i-
bu i e pa h o domain o abuse […], as well as an en enchmen link o he
h ee cen al cds speci ied abo e. The ollowing oed quo a ions illus a e his
sense- h ead o mong el:
1605 A Knaue, a Rascall,..and he Sonne and Hei e o a mung ill Bi ch.
1720 Pe idious mung el sla e!
Fu he mo e, a he beginning o he 17 h cen u y, mong el in dispa aging use
s a ed o designa e ‘people o mixed ace o na ionali y’ (1606>1879). The e-
o e, o accoun o his sense- h ead o he wo d one mus posi he exis ence
o en enchmen nodes o he pe iphe al a ibu i e pa hs o domain o o i-
gin and social s a us […] o which he alue (one o mixed ace o na io-
nali y) gains p ominence, as well as domain o abuse [...], wi h he elemen
(dispa aging) ac i a ed. This sense- h ead o mong el eme ges om he o-
llowing oed quo a ions (17 h>19 h cen u ies):
15
In he 17 h>19 h cen u ies mong el also deno ed ‘a c oss’, e.g. 1613 Whose Religion was a
mung ell o he G eekish, Egyp ian, and hei own. > 1864 Some ca , o dilapida ed mong el be-
ween ca and baske .
16
Acco ding o dV and Pa idge (2002: 748), in he 18 h cen u y mong el de eloped he
sense ‘a sponge ; a hange -on among chea s’ (1720>1890).
182 Robe Kieł yka
ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
sense ‘a a me as a ep esen a i e o a lowe class’. The lexical ca ego y kobyła ‘an
old ma e o low o igin’ is a me apho ical designa ion o ‘a con emp ible emale’.
In a simila way, świnia ‘a pig’ which ep esen s he animal hough o as bo h
low and di y is used seconda ily wi h e e ence o a pe son ha ing no manne s,
e.g. jeść jak świnia ‘ea like a pig’. Likewise, świnka ‘dim. a pigle ’ is used in he
mo ally e alua i e sense ‘an obscene pe son’.27
As poin ed ou by Hsieh (2000: 88-89), in Mod.Chinese he dog is associa-
ed p ima ily wi h in e io i y and low social s a us. The Mod.Chinese wo d gou
狗, whose p ima y sense is ‘dog’ may be seconda ily employed in he ex ended
sense ‘a bondsman, se ’. In e ms o he mechanisms adop ed in his wo k, he
seconda y sense- h ead o his lexical ca ego y can be unde s ood in e ms o
an en enchmen ela ion o he a ibu i e pa h o he domain o o igin/so-
cial unc ion […] o which he elemen (low) is highligh ed. Likewise, he
Mod.Chinese ji 雞‘a chicken, hen’ conno es in e io i y and low social s a us.
Seconda ily, he wo d may be used in he sense ‘a low, unimpo an pe son’ and
‘an unimpo an hing/me e no hing’.
One migh also men ion some occupa ions o human beha iou s embo-
dying he concep ual dimension p o ession/social unc ion which a e com-
monly iewed as socially con emp ible and despised and a e hus ela ed o he
concep ual zone o igin/social s a us. In his connec ion le us conside ani-
mal names om many languages which a e seconda ily employed in he sense
‘a p os i u e’ o ‘a hie ’: Spanish28 a aña ‘a spide ; a who e’, laga a ‘a emale li-
za d; a who e, a ’, penco ‘a hack, nag; a who e’ (Cana y Islands), pe a ‘a bi ch;
a who e’, zángana ‘a d one; a who e’ (Nica agua), zo a ‘a ixen; who e’, Polish29
ląd a ‘a lounde ; who e’, piesek ‘dim. a dog; an in o me ’, kobyła ‘a hack; an ex-
pe ienced p os i u e’, pszczółka ‘dim. a bee; a cou esan’, o zeł ‘an eagle’ in hie es’
slang cu en ly applied in he sense ‘an expe ienced hie ’; p ak ‘a bi d’ — secon-
da ily ‘a c iminal’; kana ‘aug. a cana y’ and me apho ically ‘a icke inspec o ’;
bocian ‘a s o k’ and also ‘a slow playe ’; jeleń ‘a dee ’ and seconda ily ‘an inexpe-
ienced playe ’; papuga ‘a pa o ’ and seconda ily, in o mally ‘a lawye ’; pająk30 ‘a
spide ’ me apho ically ‘a policeman wi h a ada ’; bied onka ‘lady-bi d’, ćma ‘a
mo h’, kuna ‘a ma en’, mewka ‘a (li le) sea-gull’ a e all e ms used in he sense
‘a p os i u e’; jeleń ‘a dee ’ in i s ex ended sense unc ions as ‘a p os i u e’s clien ’;
Mod.Russ. заяц ‘a ha e’ > ‘a passenge wi hou a alid icke : a s owaway/a a e
27
In e es ingly, dachowiec ‘no a pu eb ed ca ’ co esponding o Mod.E. ile , o iginally, ‘one
ha co e s oo s wi h iles’, and me apho ically ‘no a pu eb ed ca ha equen s he iles o oo s’
de eloped no me apho ical ex ension.
28
See Chamizo Domínguez and Zawislawska (2006: 163).
29
See Zimnowoda (2003: 106).
30
In con as , Mod.Russ. паук ‘a spide ’ is used in he sense ‘a g eedy pe son’.

selec ed aspec s o zoosemy: o igin/social s a us 183
ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
dodge ’31, бабочка ‘a bu e ly’ > ‘a p os i u e’ and Mod.Slo ak32 s aka ‘a magpie’
> ‘a hie ’, Hunga ian sza ka ‘a magpie’ > ‘a hie ’, éjszakai pillangó ‘a nigh bu -
e ly’ > ‘a who e’.
As shown by Baide and Gesua o (2003), Mod.F . and Mod.I . employ a
numbe o wo ds om he concep ual ca ego y domes ica ed animals which
en e he me apho ical pa h embodying bo h he concep ual dimension p o es-
sion/social unc ion and he concep ual zone o igin/social s a us. Speci ica-
lly, he ollowing animal e ms ha e acqui ed he seconda y sense ‘a p os i u e’
in Mod.F .:33 ache ‘a cow’; poule ‘a hen’, being a cons i uen pa o poule de luxe;
pouliche ‘a illy’; canasson ‘an old ho se’; ca ne o cha ogne ‘a ca cass; a bad ho se’.
In Mod.I . p os i u es a e e e ed o as scozzona a ‘a amed, ained ho se; cicca
( egional) ‘a hen’; giumen a ‘a ma e’; acca ‘a cow’; isona ‘a cow’; oia ‘( egional)
a sow’; oione ‘aug. sow’; peco a ‘a sheep’; cagna ‘a bi ch’; ga a ‘a ca ’; zoccola ‘a e-
male sewe a ’; pan egana ‘a big emale a ’; gabbiana ‘a emale sea gull’.
As a as he names o wild animals a e conce ned, in bo h F ench and I a-
lian one inds a subs an ial numbe o zoosemic e ms which en e ed he me a-
pho ical pa h embodying he concep ual zones p o ession/social unc ion and
o igin/social s a us. Fo example, he ollowing lexical ca ego ies a e employed
in he sense ‘a p os i u e’ in Mod.F .: g ue ‘a c ane’; guenon ‘a monkey’, while luc-
ciola ‘a i e ly’; a alla ‘a bu e ly’ and lupa ‘a ixen’ a e Mod.I . zoosems used o
designa e women o dubious mo als.
5. concludIng RemARKs
One o he eme ging obse a ions is ha he seman ics o he zoosems analy-
sed in his a icle seems o ha e a p o o ypical na u e in ha new sense- h eads
a e o a a ying ex en con inua ions o olde ones. Simul aneously, he p ocess
o seman ic change is non-linea and allows o mo e han one new sense de e-
lopmen a a ime. This may be isualised by means o he diag am below (based
on he me hodological appa a us p oposed by Gee ae s (1983)), which shows
he mu ual co ela ions o he panch onicaly ske ched senses o mong el. Thus,
acco ding o he oed he lexeme has he ollowing main senses:
31
In his pape Russian examples a e, unless o he wise indica ed, quo ed om Ожегов and
Шведова (1998) (TCPЯ), Hunga ian da a a e aken om Klepa ski (2002) and english-Hun-
ga ian online dic iona y and, he sou ce o Spanish examples is english-spanish online dic ion-
a y (esod), while Polish da a a e quo ed om słownik języka polskiego PWn (sJP) and słownik
języka polskiego PAn (sJPP).
32
All Slo ak da a a e aken om online english slo ak dic iona y a ailable a www.lea nslo-
ak.com/english-slo ak-dic iona y.h ml
33
Addi ionally, Mod.F . poule ‘chicken’ in me apho ical use is employed in he sense ‘police/a
police o ice ’ and poulain ‘young ho se’ is seconda ily used in he ex ended sense ‘a disciple/a pu-
pil o a gu u’.
184 Robe Kieł yka
ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
(1) ‘ he o sp ing o wo di e en b eeds o dog’ (15 h>19 h cen u ies)
(2) ‘applied o pe sons as a e m o con emp o abuse’ (16 h >18 h cen u ies)
(3) ‘ he o sp ing o pa en s o di e en na ionali ies’ (16 h>19h cen u ies)
(4) ‘a pe son o mixed o unde ined opinions’ (16 h>18 h cen u ies)
(5) ‘an abusi e epi he o a pe son’ (17 h>18 h cen u ies)
(6) ‘a pe son o mixed ace o na ionali y’ (17 h>19 h cen u ies)
(7) ‘an animal o plan esul ing om he c ossing o di e en b eeds’ (17 h>19 h
cen u ies)
igu e 1. A p o o ypical s uc u e o mong el.
As can be no iced, all he sense- h eads in ol ed seem o be mu ually in e-
ela ed and explicable in e ms o he p ocess o seman ic ex ension. Acco ding
o, among o he s, Łozowski (2000: 102), seman ic changes ake place by mo-
di ica ion o some cha ac e is ics o he old sense in he new one. Speci ically,
many ex ended senses a e said o o m pe iphe ies su ounded by new senses.
Thus, he mechanism o seman ic change is no o be ega ded as a linea p o-
g ession o senses, whe e a new meaning may a ise only when he old one ceases
o exis , bu , qui e he opposi e, he p ocess displays cha ac e is ics o a p o o y-
pical s uc u e wi h blu ed edges o in e nally dynamic ca ego ies.
Wha is mo e, in he amewo k adop ed he e no only pa icula lexical
ca ego ies a e belie ed o display a p o o ypical na u e, bu also se s o con-
cep ually in e ela ed lexemes o ming concep ual ca ego ies a e said o o m
adial s uc u es, which esemble he s uc u e o a p o o ype. Thus, he zoo-
sems analysed in his sec ion may be a gued o o m he ollowing adial s uc-
u e:
selec ed aspec s o zoosemy: o igin/social s a us 185
ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
igu e 2. A adial s uc u e illus a ing he ela ionship be ween he concep ual
ca ego ies HUMAN BEING/DOMESTICATED ANIMAL and he concep-
ual dimension ORIGIN/SOCIAL STATUS.
Le us s ess again ha ce ain aspec s o ins inc i e animal beha iou , hei
o igin o physical cha ac e is ics a e highligh ed and mapped on he ca ego y
human being gi ing ise o a numbe o zoosems in he case o which he ela-
ion o he concep ual dimension o igin/social s a us is said o igge seman-
ic change.
F om he analysis o he linguis ic ma e ial ca ied ou in his pape a numbe
o o he p elimina y conclusions can be de i ed. Fi s , he p ocess whe eby he
names o domes ica ed animals s a o designa e o igin/social s a us is no only
ypical o English bu may be said o be equally p oduc i e in o he langua-
ges such as, o example, Polish, whe e kundel ‘mong el’ is used in he ex ended
sense ‘a con emp ible human being’; bu ek, in i s p ima y sense being a de o-
ga i e designa ion o a mong el dog, is —by he p ocess o zoosemy— me a-
pho ically used in he sense ‘a a me as a ep esen a i e o a lowe class’; kobyła
‘an old ma e o low o igin’ and me apho ically ‘a con emp ible emale’; o Mod.
Chinese, whe e, o example, gou 狗‘dog’ may be seconda ily employed in he
ex ended sense ‘a bondsman, se ’. Thus, i should be s essed ha he secon-
da y sense- h eads o he lexical ca ego ies men ioned he e may be unde s ood
in e ms o an en enchmen ela ion o he a ibu i e pa h o he domain o
o igin/social unc ion […] o which he elemen (low) is b ough o he
o e.
Secondly, he analysis o he English da a shows ha —in e es ingly— i
is he amilies equidae and canidae, and no elidae, ha a e he mos e-
quen ly employed sou ce o e ms embodying he concep ual dimension o i-
gin/social s a us. The numbe o analysed animal e ms (jade, cu , mong el, yke,
186 Robe Kieł yka
ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
ho oughb ed, cock ail, cayuse, po k) ha in he his o y o English ha e unde gone
zoosemic shi ini ia ed by he concep ual dimension in ques ion is conside-
ably smalle han in he case o he concep ual dimension p o ession/social
unc ion. Howe e , one eels jus i ied in claiming ha al hough he mecha-
nism o zoosemy in ol ing he concep ual dimension o igin/social s a us is
no so common, one may ce ainly speak abou a ce ain deg ee o p oduc i i y
o he said concep ual dimension in he p ocess o animal me apho .
Thi dly, as men ioned ea lie , he p ocess o me apho isa ion disce nible in
he analysis o he da a in he p esen pape is bi-di ec ional; ha is, bo h he
shi animal > human and human > animal a e po en ially in ol ed. Bea-
ing in mind he ac ha he s uc u e o he GcB is cha ac e ised by bi-di-
ec ionali y, which in ol es upwa d and downwa d mapping o a ibu es, i
needs o be emphasised ha zoosems ela ed o he concep ual dimension o i-
gin/social unc ion migh po en ially ep esen wo me apho s cohe en wi h
he s uc u e o he GcB, ha is <a human being is an animal> and < an ani-
mal is a human being >. Howe e , i is only he la e me apho ; he p ocess
which in ol es he shi in he di ec ionali y o mapping om a lowe o a hig-
he le el on he GcB, ha becomes in ol ed he e. The zoosemic ex ension
embodying he concep ual dimension o igin/social unc ion comp ises he o-
llowing cases:
JaDE: <a low o sh ewish woman is pe cei ed as a jade> (16 h>19 h
cen u ies)
<a li a ious gi l like hussy o minx is pe cei ed as a
jade> (16 h>19 h cen u ies)
<a con emp ible, wo hless man is pe cei ed as a jade>
(16 h>17 h cen u ies)
cu : <a low, ill-b ed, su ly, cowa dly and con emp ible human
being is pe cei ed as a cu > (16 h>19 h cen u ies)
Mong El: <o sp ing o pa en s o di e en na ionali ies o
o high and low bi h is pe cei ed as a mong el> (16 h>19 h
cen u ies)
<one o mixed o unde ined opinions is pe cei ed as a
mong el> (16 h>18 h cen u ies)
<one o mixed ace o na ionali y is pe cei ed as a mon-
g el> (17 h>19 h cen u ies)
<a pe son o mixed o igin is pe cei ed as a mong el>
(16 h>19 h cen u ies)
<a con emp ible hing o pe son is pe cei ed as a mon-
g el> (16 h>19 h cen u ies)
selec ed aspec s o zoosemy: o igin/social s a us 187
ISSN 1132-0265 Philologia Hispalensis 24 (2010) 167-189
YKE: <a low-b ed, lazy, mean, su ly and ill-manne ed pe son is
pe cei ed as a yke> (15 h cen u y>mod.e.)
<a oman ca holic is pe cei ed as a yke> (20 h cen u y)
<a yo kshi eman is pe cei ed as a yke> (18 h>20 h cen u ies)
Addi ionally, i mus be poin ed ou ha he lis o me apho s illus a ed
abo e includes bo h simple (uni- h ead) cases, e.g. <a low, ill-b ed, su ly,
cowa dly and con emp ible human being is pe cei ed as a cu > and com-
plex (mul i- h ead) examples, e.g. <a low o sh ewish woman is pe cei ed as
a jade>, <a li a ious gi l like hussy o minx is pe cei ed as a jade>, <a
con emp ible, wo hless man is pe cei ed as a jade>. As a gued in Kieł yka
(2008), a la ge numbe o mul i- h ead me apho s poin s clea ly o he ac ha
he mechanism o zoosemy is by no means in e nally uni o m, bu a he g a-
dual and mul idi ec ional, based on ou knowledge, expe ience and pe cep ion
o he wo ld. Seman ic change is, he e o e, as is equen ly emphasised in he
li e a u e on he subjec , a mechanism which is deeply oo ed in expe ience and
based on g aduali y and de elopmen al p ocesses.
Finally, i needs o be s essed ha some o he me apho s analysed in his
a icle a e e alua i e in cha ac e ; ha is, ei he pejo a i e o amelio a i e,
e.g. <a low, ill-b ed, su ly, cowa dly and con emp ible human being is
pe cei ed as a cu >, o he s like, o example, <a li a ious gi l is pe cei-
ed as a jade> a e o be ega ded as posi i e, o a leas neu al; ha is, de oid
o e alua i ely nega i e load, s ill o he s —howe e a e— like, o example,
<a yo kshi eman is pe cei ed as a yke> may e en be classi ied as (mildly)
complimen a y.
Las bu no leas , i mus be no ed ha no all o he me apho ical ex en-
sions analysed in his pape a e ela ed exclusi ely o he concep ual dimen-
sion o igin/social s a us. On he con a y, some o he me apho s subjec o
ou analysis a e also linked o o he concep ual sphe es, e.g. he concep ual zone
beha iou /cha ac e (<a low-b ed, lazy, mean, su ly and ill-manne ed
pe son is pe cei ed as a yke>, <one o mixed o unde ined opinions is
pe cei ed as a mong el>, <a li a ious gi l like hussy o minx is pe cei-
ed as a jade>), con emp /opp ob ium (<a low o sh ewish woman is pe cei-
ed as a jade>). Clea ly, his poin s o he ac ha meaning cons ual may be
said o be based on c oss-domain mappings in ol ing se e al di e en concep-
ual dimensions.
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nomb e del au o : Robe Kieł yka
di ección-e: bobkiel [email protected]
di ección pos al: Uni e si y o Rzeszów, The Ins i u e o English
S udies, Al. Rej ana 16B, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
echa de ecepción: 29/06/2010
echa de acep ación: 26/04/2011