Pila Me cade -Moyano
Paula Po as-Pe ei a Edi o s
Li e Cycle
Analysis Based
on Nanopa icles
Applied
o he Cons uc ion
Indus y
A Comp ehensi e Cu iculum
Li e Cycle Analysis Based on Nanopa icles
Applied o he Cons uc ion Indus y
Pila Me cade -Moyano ·Paula Po as-Pe ei a
Edi o s
Li e Cycle Analysis Based
on Nanopa icles Applied
o he Cons uc ion Indus y
A Comp ehensi e Cu iculum
Edi o s
Pila Me cade -Moyano
Depa men o Building Cons uc ion I
Highe Technical School o A chi ec u e
Uni e si y o Se ille,
Se ille, Spain
Paula Po as-Pe ei a
Depa men o Building Cons uc ion I
Highe Technical School o A chi ec u e
Uni e si y o Se ille
Se ille, Spain
ISBN 978-3-031-79114-7 ISBN 978-3-031-79115-4 (eBook)
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-79115-4
This wo k was suppo ed by Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain, Business Associa ion o Resea ch o Ma ble,
S one and Ma e ials, Spain, Del a—Ma e ials p ocess & inno a ion solu ions, G eece, Na ional Technical
Uni e si y o A hens, G eece and Chalme s Uni e si y o Technology, Sweden.
© The Edi o (s) (i applicable) and The Au ho (s) 2025. This book is an open access publica ion.
Open Access This book is licensed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional
License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu-
ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal
au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons license and indica e i changes we e
made.
The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his book a e included in he book’s C ea i e Commons license,
unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line o he ma e ial. I ma e ial is no included in he book’s C ea i e
Commons license and you in ended use is no pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed
use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly om he copy igh holde .
The use o gene al desc ip i e names, egis e ed names, adema ks, se ice ma ks, e c. in his publica ion
does no imply, e en in he absence o a speci ic s a emen , ha such names a e exemp om he ele an
p o ec i e laws and egula ions and he e o e ee o gene al use.
The publishe , he au ho s and he edi o s a e sa e o assume ha he ad ice and in o ma ion in his book
a e belie ed o be ue and accu a e a he da e o publica ion. Nei he he publishe no he au ho s o
he edi o s gi e a wa an y, exp essed o implied, wi h espec o he ma e ial con ained he ein o o any
e o s o omissions ha may ha e been made. The publishe emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional
claims in published maps and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
This Sp inge imp in is published by he egis e ed company Sp inge Na u e Swi ze land AG
The egis e ed company add ess is: Gewe bes asse 11, 6330 Cham, Swi ze land
I disposing o his p oduc , please ecycle he pape .
P e ace
In ecen yea s, he e has been a no able upsu ge in he use o nanoma e ials, pa icu-
la ly wi hin he cons uc ion and building sec o s. The inco po a ion o nanopa icles
in oduces no ewo hy changes in he physico-mechanical and physical–chemical
cha ac e is ics o cons uc ion ma e ials.
Despi e he acknowledged ad an ages o employing nanoma e ials, unce ain ies
pe sis ega ding hei widesp ead adop ion in de elopmen and applica ions, espe-
cially conce ning po en ial en i onmen al and human heal h implica ions. A c ucial
aspec in ho oughly assessing he en i onmen al impac s o nanop oduc s is he
impe a i e quan i ica ion o e ec s on ecosys ems and human heal h h oughou he
en i e li e cycle o hese p oduc s. The indispensable u iliza ion o a comp ehen-
si e ool, such as Li e Cycle Assessmen , becomes pa amoun in gaining a nuanced
unde s anding o po en ial en i onmen al and heal h challenges, he eby ensu ing
he en i onmen al sus ainabili y o nanoma e ials.
This academic publica ion endea ou s o p o ide nanop oduc manu ac u e s,
cons uc ion indus y p o essionals, and was e manage s wi h he necessa y knowl-
edge o comp ehend he en i onmen al and heal h impac s associa ed wi h he
manu ac u ing, applica ion, and disposal p ocesses o nanop oduc s used in he
cons uc ion indus y. This con ibu ion aims o enhance hei pe sonal and p o es-
sional de elopmen , consequen ly bols e ing hei employabili y a he Eu opean
le el.
A ho ough comp ehension o po en ial eleases h oughou he en i e li e cycle
o nanop oduc s and hei po en ial e ec s is impe a i e o ensu ing he sa e and
sus ainable u iliza ion o hese inno a i e ma e ials. The applica ion o li e cycle
hinking eme ges as a pi o al componen in app op ia ely e alua ing he po en ial
impac s associa ed wi h nanoma e ial eleases.
Se ille, Spain Pila Me cade -Moyano
Paula Po as-Pe ei a
Acknowledgmen s
The esul s o his a icle de i e om he p ojec Educa ional pla o m o li e
cycle analysis o ea men s based on nanopa icles applied o he cons uc ion
indus y p ojec (code 2022-1-ES01-KA220-HED-000089985), an E asmus+ p ojec
co- unded by he Eu opean Union and wi hin he amewo k o an ini ia i e o
2022 KA220, coope a ion pa ne ships in highe educa ion, wi h he suppo o he
“Se icio Español pa a la In e nacionalización de la Educación (SEPIE, Spain)”.
The Eu opean Commission suppo o he p oduc ion o his publica ion does
no cons i u e an endo semen o he con en s which e lec s he iews only o he
au ho s, and he Commission canno be held esponsible o any use which may be
made o he in o ma ion con ained he ein.
As a inal con ibu ion, i is impe a i e o duly acknowledge he ac i e pa icipa-
ion and unwa e ing commi men o he collabo a o s associa ed wi h his E asmus+
P ojec , whose con ibu ions ha e been ins umen al in he ealiza ion o he ou comes
encapsula ed wi hin his book: Uni e si y o Se illa, Business Associa ion o
Resea ch o Ma ble, Na u al S one and Ma e ials Technology Cen e , Na ional Tech-
nical Uni e si y o A hens, Del a Ma e ials P ocess & Inno a ion, and Chalme s
Uni e si y o Technology.
ii
In oduc ion
Buildings exe a di ec in luence on he en i onmen , ex ending om he consump-
ion o aw ma e ials in cons uc ion, main enance, and eno a ion o he discha ge
o de imen al subs ances o e he building’s en i e li e cycle. The in e connec ion
be ween he cons uc ion indus y and he en i onmen is undeniable, wi h building
ma e ials lea ing a las ing imp in on bo h he cons uc ed and na u al su oundings
h oughou hei li e cycle [1].
In ecen yea s, he u iliza ion o nanoma e ials has wi nessed a no able upsu ge
ac oss a ious applica ions, pa icula ly wi hin he cons uc ion and building sec o s.
Nano echnology has p o en o be a ocal poin o unco e ing no el applica ions o
nanoma e ials, owing o hei cha ac e is ics such as high-pe o mance a ibu es,
subs an ial comme cial in luence, e icacy in ene gy s o age and con e sion, cos -
e ec i eness, ene gy sa ings, and diminished en i onmen al impac s. These unique
physical, chemical, mechanical, and e icacy cha ac e is ics o nanoma e ials ha e
spa ked a g owing in e es in hei p oduc ion, su passing e en he use o na u al
ma e ials, due o he ans o ma i e impac o nanoma e ials in ele a ing he pe o -
mance o building ma e ials [2, 3, 4]. U ilizing nanopa icles in oduces no e-
wo hy changes in he physico-mechanical and physical–chemical beha iou o
cons uc ional ma e ials. This ans o ma i e impac encompasses p ope ies such
as inc eased s eng h, sel -sensing capabili ies, sel -cleaning ea u es, an imic obial
a ibu es, and pollu ion emedia ion capabili ies, all o which can be signi ican ly
imp o ed h ough he inco po a ion o nanopa icles in cons uc ion ma e ials [4].
The signi icance o hese ma e ials became e iden as esea che s disco e ed
ha size could exe a p o ound in luence on he physiochemical p ope ies o
a subs ance [3]. Nanopa icles, owing o hei nanoscale dimensions, showcase
ema kable a ibu es, wi h size being a pi o al ac o [4].
Despi e he epo ed bene i s o nanoma e ial applica ions o speci ic indus ial
applica ions and consume p oduc s in a ious sec o s, he widesp ead adop ion
o nanoma e ials in de elopmen and applica ions emain signi ican unce ain ies,
pa icula ly conce ning hei po en ial en i onmen al and human heal h impac s i
eleased in o he en i onmen [2, 5]. The elease o nanoma e ials can ake place a
any s age in he nanoma e ial li e cycle, spanning om hei p oduc ion, h ough he
ix
xIn oduc ion
manu ac u ing o nanop oduc s, o he u iliza ion/applica ion o hese nanop oduc s,
and inally, hei end-o -li e managemen and disposal [5].
To da e, much o he esea ch on nanoma e ials has cen ed on hei unique
unc ionali y in di e se ields and applica ions, wi h less a en ion gi en o po en-
ial en i onmen al e ec s h oughou hei li e cycle. Conce ns also exis ega ding
he en i onmen al sus ainabili y o nanoma e ial pa hways con ibu ing o b oade
en i onmen al p oblems [2].
The e ec i e inco po a ion o nanopa icles in o cons uc ion ma e ials enhances
he likelihood o wo ke s being exposed o po en ially oxic pa icles eleased du ing
cons uc ion. Consequen ly, he e is a bu geoning esea ch emphasis on comp e-
hending he oxici y o nanoma e ials o he en i onmen and human heal h, pa ic-
ula ly h ough cons uc ion ma e ials, encompassing hei manu ac u ing and ecy-
cling p ocesses. I is impe a i e o humani y o add ess hese issues comp ehen-
si ely, seeking a ho ough unde s anding o he limi a ions ha nanopa icles may
impose on he en i onmen and human heal h, while also add essing ele an sa e y
conce ns. This p oac i e app oach is c ucial o ensu e esponsible and sus ainable
p ac ices in he u iliza ion o nanoma e ials in cons uc ion and ela ed indus ies.
In o de o ho oughly e alua e he en i onmen al impac s o nanop oduc s, i
becomes impe a i e o quan i y he e ec s on ecosys ems and human heal h a ising
om eleases h oughou he en i e li e cycle o hese p oduc s [6]. A comp ehensi e
ool, such as Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA), p o es essen ial in gaining a be e
unde s anding o po en ial en i onmen al and heal h challenges and ensu ing he
en i onmen al sus ainabili y o nanoma e ials. LCA, oo ed in he concep o li e
cycle hinking, o e s a holis ic app oach o assessing he en i onmen al impac s o
p oduc s, se ices, and p ocesses. I accomplishes his by iden i ying he ma e ials
used and he ene gy and emissions eleased o he en i onmen , which is c i ical in
e alua ing he po en ial impac s o nanoma e ial eleases [2, 5, 7].
A ho ough comp ehension o po en ial eleases ac oss he en i e li e cycle and
hei po en ial e ec s is i al o ensu ing he sa e and sus ainable u iliza ion o hese
new ma e ials. The applica ion o li e cycle hinking eme ges as a key componen in
app op ia ely e alua ing he po en ial impac s associa ed wi h nanoma e ial eleases
[5].
A e es ablishing he cu en signi icance o nanopa icles in he cons uc ion
sec o , in he con ex o he E asmus+ p ojec , a comp ehensi e se ies o analyses has
been conduc ed o unde sco e he signi icance o in eg a ing Li e Cycle Assessmen
(LCA) in o he ealm o building ma e ials in ol ing nanop oduc s.
The i s analysis wi hin his amewo k en ailed he p oduc ion o a compa a i e
s udy epo designed o sys ema ically ga he and sc u inize he exis ing cu icula
ela ed o LCA ac oss pa ne coun ies, namely Spain, Sweden, and G eece. The
p ima y objec i e o he compa a i e s udy epo is o amass in o ma ion on a ious
ins uc ional esou ces p o ided by educa ional ins i u ions, speci ically ocusing on
aining and educa ion in he domain o Li e Cycle Assessmen .
Mo eo e , subsequen o a me iculous examina ion o he espec i e na ional
epo s, he compa a i e s udy aspi es o accen ua e exempla y p ac ices while
In oduc ion xi
concu en ly iden i ying any disce nible gaps and weaknesses in he cu en educa-
ional landscape pe aining o Li e Cycle Assessmen . This mul i ace ed app oach
aims o con ibu e o a nuanced unde s anding o LCA p ac ices and educa ional
s a egies, he eby os e ing an en i onmen conduci e o in o med decision-making.
The dea h o aining oppo uni ies in Li e Cycle Assessmen s, despi e hei
ecognized e ec i eness in gauging he en i onmen al impac o p oduc s, is conspic-
uous in he h ee coun ies unde examina ion. In an ini ial explo a ion, i becomes
e iden ha a signi ican p opo ion o he sc u inized academic deg ees p o ide
limi ed exposu e o subjec s encompassing compe ences associa ed wi h Li e Cycle
Assessmen o En i onmen al Impac Assessmen .
Spain eme ges as he na ion wi h he highes inclina ion owa ds LCA aining,
wi h 44% o he analysed deg ees inco po a ing cou ses dedica ed o LCA- ela ed
subjec s. In con as , G eece demons a es a ma kedly lowe commi men , wi h only
7% o deg ees including such cou ses, while Sweden alls e en below his h eshold,
wi h less han 5% o deg ees o e ing LCA- ela ed con en . I is no ewo hy ha
he majo i y o LCA cou ses a e p edominan ly a ilia ed wi h cu icula cen ed on
En i onmen al s udies. In he domain o Ci il Enginee ing and A chi ec u e, he e is
a disce nible sca ci y o cou ses dedica ed o add essing he in icacies o Li e Cycle
Assessmen .
In addi ion o he ealm o highe educa ion, he indings pe aining o he p esen
cu iculum on Li e Cycle Assessmen and En i onmen al Impac in he cons uc-
ion sec o unde sco e a subs an ial gap in he a ailabili y o p o essional cou ses
add essing hese c ucial subjec s. I is no ewo hy ha wi hin p o essional educa ion,
a signi ican majo i y o examined p o essional associa ions do no inco po a e any
cou ses o p og ams wi hin hei aining o e ings ha encompass compe ences asso-
cia ed wi h Li e Cycle Assessmen o En i onmen al Impac Assessmen . No ably,
i is only in Sweden ha ce ain en i ies p o ide aining speci ically gea ed owa ds
he de elopmen o En i onmen al P oduc Decla a ions.
The p o ound impo ance o LCA in he cons uc ion sec o is e lec ed in i s appli-
ca ion in a ious disciplines, since no only A chi ec u e ield, bu also Ci il, En i on-
men al, Building, Indus ial, Ma e ials and A chi ec u al Enginee ing academic a eas
a e ocused on Li e Cycle Assessmen basic p inciples, me hods, and applica ions
as well.
This analysis emphasizes a no able de iciency in educa ional co e age ega ding
essen ial ace s o en i onmen al impac assessmen . This calls o ca e ul consid-
e a ion and he possibili y o inco po a ing modules speci ically cen ed on Li e
Cycle Assessmen in o pe inen academic p og ams. I unde sco es he impe a-
i e o a mo e ho ough assimila ion o LCA p inciples in o educa ional ame-
wo ks, encompassing bo h academic and p o essional ealms wi hin he cons uc ion
indus y.
Concluding his comp ehensi e examina ion o pa ne coun ies’ cu icula, a
pa allel s udy concen a ing on nanopa icula e p oduc s wi hin he cons uc ion
sec o is concu en ly conduc ed. This s udy’s objec i e is o ga he and assess ex an
cu icula ela ed o nanopa icula e p oduc s in he cons uc ion sec o ac oss pa ne
coun ies. I in ol es compiling di e se aining guides p o ided by educa ional
Con en s
Pa I Fundamen al P inciples o Sus ainabili y in he
Cons uc ion Sec o : Li e Cycle Assessmen
1 Sus ainable C i e ia Wi hin he Cons uc ion Indus y ........... 3
Juana Espe anza Llo en e-Ga cía, Da id Capa ós-Pé ez,
and Ma ía Desi é Alba-Rod íguez
2 Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) Fundamen al P inciples ............ 27
Espe anza Con adi-Galna es, Begoña Blandón-González,
and Madelyn Ma e o-Meléndez
3 Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) Me hodology ...................... 43
Ma co An onio Sánchez-Bu gos, Espe anza Con adi-Galna es,
and Dimi ios D aga ogiannis
Pa II Nanop oduc s in he Cons uc ion Sec o
4 Ad anced Ma e ials: In oduc ion o Nano echnology ............ 61
Begoña Blandón-González, Aika e ini Flo a T ompe a,
and Pila Me cade -Moyano
5 Nanop oduc s in Building Ma e ials ............................ 75
Paula Po as-Pe ei a, Juana Espe anza Llo en e-Ga cía,
and Cos as A. Cha i idis
6 Nanoma e ials in Cons uc ion and Demoli ion Was e (CDW)
Managemen .................................................. 95
Da id Capa ós-Pé ez, Geo gios Za e dinos,
and Jaime Solís-Guzmán
xix
xx Con en s
Pa III In eg a ion o Li e Cycle Assessmen and Nanoma e ial
Assessmen
7 Calcula ion o Li e Cycle Assessmen o Cons uc ion
P oduc s wi h Nanopa icles ................................... 111
Ma co An onio Sánchez-Bu gos, Paula Po as-Pe ei a,
and Pila Me cade -Moyano
Pa IV Applica ion o Li e Cycle Assessmen Resul s in Building
Assessmen
8 EPDs o Cons uc ion P oduc s wi h Nanopa icles .............. 127
Va un Gowda Palahalli Ramesh and Ch is ina Lee
9 In e p e a ion o LCA Resul s and EPD Compa abili y ........... 147
Va un Gowda Palahalli Ramesh and Ch is ina Lee
10 Resul s and Discussion ......................................... 163
Paula Po as-Pe ei a and Pila Me cade -Moyano
Conclusions ....................................................... 203
Bibliog aphy ...................................................... 205
Chap e 4
Ad anced Ma e ials: In oduc ion
o Nano echnology
Begoña Blandón-González, Aika e ini Flo a T ompe a,
and Pila Me cade -Moyano
Abs ac The ini ial segmen un olds by expounding upon he ounda ional
concep s o nano echnology, acing i s his o ical e olu ion, del ing in o i s no ma-
i e amewo k o e e ence, and elucida ing i s di e se applica ions ac oss a ious
sec o s, na iga ing he inhe en challenges associa ed wi h nano echnology.
1 His o ical App oach o New Ma e ials
The nano echnology e olu ion is making a g ound-b eaking impac on di e se
science, enginee ing, and comme cial sec o s, including he cons uc ion indus y.
The physical and chemical p ope ies unique o he nanoscale can lead o ema k-
able e icacy enhancemen in (pho o)ca alysis, ( he mal and elec ical) conduc i i y,
mechanical s eng h, and op ical sensi i i y, enabling applica ions such as ca alys s,
elec onic and ene gy s o age de ices, ad anced mechanical ma e ials, and senso s
[1].
The ea lies ideas su ounding nano echnology can be aced back o he
pionee ing insigh s o physicis Richa d Feynman (Nobel P ize in physics 1965),
who, in his seminal lec u e i led “The e is a lo o oom in he backg ound”, p esen ed
a he annual mee ing o he Ame ican Physical Socie y in 1959. Wi hin his discou se,
P esen Add ess:
B. Blandón-González ·P. Me cade -Moyano (B)
Depa men o Building Cons uc ion I, Highe Technical School o A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o
Se ille, Se ille, Spain
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
B. Blandón-González
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
P esen Add ess:
A. F. T ompe a
Depa men o Ma e ials Science and Enginee ing, School o Chemical Enginee ing I oon
Poly echniou, Na ional Technical Uni e si y o A hens (NTUA), A hens, G eece
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
© The Au ho (s) 2025
P. Me cade -Moyano and P. Po as-Pe ei a (eds.), Li e Cycle Analysis Based on
Nanopa icles Applied o he Cons uc ion Indus y,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-79115-4_4
61
62 B. Blandón-González e al.
Feynman eloquen ly exp essed: “Mos cells a e iny, bu hey a e e y ac i e, hey
make subs ances, hey mo e, hey con o , and hey do a lo o wonde ul hings, all
on a small scale. They also s o e in o ma ion. Le ’s conside he possibili y ha we,
oo, could make en i ies so small ha hey did wha e e we wan ed, ha we could
make an objec ha maneu e e a ha le el” [2].
The wo d nano echnology was i s used by No io Taniguchi in 1974, o designa e
a nanoscale p oduc ion echnique, which in ol es p ocesses o sepa a ion, consolida-
ion, and de o ma ion o ma e ials wi h he help o a single a om o a single molecule.
Bu i was no eally dissemina ed un il 1986 by E ic D exle in his book “C ea ion
Machines”, in which he desc ibed he bases o he cons uc ion o a om-by-a om
ma e ials ha “would open he doo s o a echnological de elopmen unp eceden ed
in he his o y o mankind, which would make i possible o o e come disease and
dea h, make in e galac ic ips and ha e almos in ini e ma e ial esou ces” [2,3].
Louis B us, wo king a AT&T Bell Labo a o ies, disco e ed colloidal semicon-
duc o nanoc ys als, called quan um do s, ha led him o be ecognized as one o he
leading esea che s in he ield o nanoscience in he ea ly 1980s [2].
In 1985 Si Ha old W. K o o, Richa d E. Smalley and Robe F. Cu l, J . (Nobel
P ize in Chemis y 1996) ob ained hollow ca bon molecules ha o med a closed cage
by using a lase o apo ize g aphi e ods in a helium gas a mosphe e. The capsule
comp ised 60 ca bon a oms in ica ely bonded h ough bo h single and double bonds,
me iculously a anged o ashion a hollow sphe e cha ac e ized by 12 pen agonal
and 20 hexagonal aces. Such nanos uc u es, exempli ied by his con igu a ion, a e
commonly e e ed o as ulle enes [2,4].
Japanese physicis Sumio Iijima in 1991 disco e ed and de ailed he a omic
s uc u e and helical shape o single- and mul i-walled ca bon nano ubes [2].
In 1993, a he Massachuse s Ins i u e o Technology, Moungi Bawendi and
his collabo a o s de eloped a syn hesis o nanoc ys als ob aining semiconduc o
colloidal quan um do s, his nano echnology being one o he i s o be in eg a ed
wi h he biological sciences [5].
Since 1998 chemical enginee Thomas Webs e wo ked on he design, syn hesis
and e alua ion o nanoma e ials o a ious medical applica ions. This included sel -
assembled chemis ies, nanopa icles, nano ubes and nanos uc u ed su aces. Some
o he medical applica ions included inhibi ing he g ow h o bac e ia, con olling
in lamma ion, and p omo ing issue g ow h [6,7].
In he new cen u y mul iple con ibu ions ha e been gene a ed, among hem a e
he gold nanocapsules o cance ea men o Medicine and Su ge y; nanoscale
assembled de ices simila o DNA and a me hodology o gene a e nanoscale pa e ns
and s uc u es [2,8].
4 Ad anced Ma e ials: In oduc ion o Nano echnology 63
2 Nano echnology: Basic Concep s
Nano echnology has been a ecognized ield o inqui y since he p e ious cen u y,
no ably p opelled in o he scien i ic Richa d P. Feynman du ing his a o emen ioned
seminal lec u e “The e’s Plen y o Room a he Bo om” in 1959. Since hen, he
landscape o nano echnology has been ma ked by a succession o g oundb eaking
ad ancemen s. This domain has wi nessed he syn hesis and manipula ion o ma e-
ials a he nanoscale le el, ushe ing in a new e a o scien i ic explo a ion and
echnological inno a ion [9].
Cen al o he ealm o nano echnology a e nanopa icles (NPs), a di e se class o
ma e ials encompassing pa icula e subs ances cha ac e ized by a leas one dimen-
sion measu ing less han 100 nm. The signi icance o hese nanos uc u es became
e iden as esea che s unco e ed hei capaci y o p o oundly in luence he phys-
iochemical p ope ies o ma e ials. Indeed, he size o nanopa icles eme ged as a
c i ical ac o , in ica ely shaping phenomena such as op ical p ope ies, and o e ing
an alizing p ospec s o ailo ed ma e ial unc ionali ies [9].
As a o emen ioned, nanopa icles a e complex en i ies, consis ing o h ee dis inc
laye s: (a) The su ace laye , which can be unc ionalized wi h a ious small
molecules, me al ions, su ac an s, and polyme s, (b) he shell laye , a chemically
dis inc ma e ial om he co e in all aspec s, and (c) he co e, which is essen ially
he cen al po ion o he NP and usually e e s he NP i sel [10]. Due o hese
ema kable a ibu es, esea che s ac oss di e se ields ha e been cap i a ed by he
po en ial o hese ma e ials, spa king widesp ead in e es and en husiasm among
mul idisciplina y p ac i ione s [9].
NPs a e ex ensi ely ca ego ized in o di e en classes, delinea ed by hei
mo phology, dimensions, and chemical a ibu es. No able among hese classi i-
ca ions a e he ollowing well- ecognized ca ego ies, dis inguished based on hei
dis inc physical and chemical cha ac e is ics [9]:
•Ca bon-based NPs
Fulle enes and ca bon nano ubes (CNTs) s and ou as p ominen ca ego ies wi hin
he ealm o ca bon-based nanopa icles. Fulle enes a e cha ac e ized by hei glob-
ula hollow cage-like s uc u es, comp ising a ious allo opic o ms o ca bon. These
nanos uc u es ha e ga ne ed subs an ial comme cial a en ion owing o hei excep-
ional elec ical conduc i i y, imp essi e s eng h, unique s uc u al a ibu es, high
elec on a ini y, and ema kable e sa ili y [11]. Gi en hei dis inc i e physical,
chemical, and mechanical p ope ies, hese ma e ials ind u ili y no only in hei p is-
ine o m bu also as in eg al componen s in nanocomposi es, acili a ing a my iad
o comme cial applica ions. These applica ions include u iliza ion as ille s, e icien
gas adso ben s o en i onmen al emedia ion, and suppo mediums o a di e se
a ay o ino ganic and o ganic ca alys s [9].
•Me al NPs
64 B. Blandón-González e al.
Me al nanopa icles a e exclusi ely composed o me al p ecu so s. Ha nessing
he in insic p ope ies o hese me als, me al NPs exhibi dis inc op oelec ical
beha iou a ibu ed o hei well-documen ed localized su ace plasmon esonance
(LSPR) phenomenon. Among he alkali and noble me als, including coppe (Cu),
sil e (Ag), and gold (Au), hese NPs display a b oad abso p ion band wi hin he
isible ange o he elec omagne ic sola spec um [12].
The con olled syn hesis o me al NPs, wi h p ecise manipula ion o hei ace s,
sizes, and shapes, is pa amoun in con empo a y ma e ials science and pi o al in he
de elopmen o cu ing-edge ma e ials, enabling ailo ed p ope ies and unc ionali-
ies ha ca e o di e se echnological applica ions [12]. Me al nanopa icles, owing
o hei sophis ica ed op ical p ope ies, a e ins umen al ac oss a ious esea ch
domains. No ably, gold nanopa icles (NPs) coa ings a e ex ensi ely employed in
he ealm o scanning elec on mic oscopy (SEM), in o de o augmen he elec-
onic beam, he eby enhancing he signal- o-noise a io and o e all quali y o SEM
images [9].
•Ce amics NPs
Ce amic nanopa icles ep esen a class o ino ganic non-me allic solids, syn he-
sized h ough p ocesses in ol ing in ense hea ollowed by con olled cooling.
Exhibi ing a di e se a ay o mo phologies including amo phous, polyc ys alline,
dense, po ous, o hollow s uc u es, hese nanopa icles ha e ga ne ed signi ican
in e es om esea che s. Thei e sa ile p ope ies ende hem indispensable in
a ious applica ions such as ca alysis, pho oca alysis, he pho odeg ada ion o dyes,
and imaging applica ions [9,13].
•Semiconduc o NPs
Semiconduc o ma e ials occupy a unique posi ion be ween me als and nonme als,
endowing hem wi h a spec um o p ope ies ha make hem highly e sa ile in
a ious applica ions [14]. Semiconduc o nanopa icles, in pa icula , a e cha ac-
e ized by wide bandgaps, which ende hem suscep ible o signi ican al e a ions
in hei p ope ies h ough bandgap uning. As a esul , hese nanopa icles play a
pi o al ole in ields such as pho oca alysis, pho o op ics, and elec onic de ices [9].
Fo ins ance, semiconduc o nanopa icles exhibi ema kable e iciency in wa e
spli ing applica ions, a ibu ed o hei sui able bandgap and bandedge posi ions.
This capabili y o e icien ly ha ness sola ene gy o ca aly ic eac ions unde sco es
he pi o al ole o semiconduc o nanopa icles in ad ancing sus ainable ene gy
echnologies and add essing en i onmen al challenges [9].
•Polyme ic NPs
Typically de i ed om o ganic ma e ials, nanopa icles in he li e a u e a e
o en e e ed o collec i ely as polyme nanopa icles (PNPs). These nanopa icles
p edominan ly exhibi nanosphe ic o nanocapsula shapes [15]. Nanosphe es ep e-
sen ma ix pa icles wi h a solid o e all mass, wi h addi ional molecules adso bed a
he ou e bounda y o hei sphe ical su ace. Con e sely, nanocapsules encapsula e
a solid mass en i ely wi hin he pa icle s uc u e [9,16].
4 Ad anced Ma e ials: In oduc ion o Nano echnology 65
One o he dis inguishing cha ac e is ics o PNPs is hei high deg ee o unc ion-
ali y, enabling esea che s o modi y hei su ace p ope ies wi h ease. This a ibu e
ende s PNPs highly e sa ile and applicable ac oss a wide ange o ields in scien i ic
li e a u e [9,16].
•Lipid-based NPs
Nanopa icles con aining lipid moie ies ha e eme ged as aluable asse s in
nume ous biomedical applica ions. Cha ac e is ically sphe ical, lipid nanopa icles
ypically exhibi diame e s anging om 10 o 1000 nm. Simila o polyme ic
nanopa icles, lipid nanopa icles ea u e a solid co e composed o lipids, while a
ma ix wi hin hem accommoda es soluble lipophilic molecules. The ex e nal co e
o hese nanopa icles is s abilized by su ac an s o emulsi ie s [9,17].
Lipid nano echnology ep esen s a specialized ield dedica ed o he design and
syn hesis o lipid nanopa icles o di e se applica ions, such as d ug deli e y and
ca ie sys ems, as well as he a ge ed elease o RNA in cance he apy [9,17].
Nanoma e ials a e u he ca ego ized based on hei o igins in o na u al, inci-
den al, and a i icial ypes. Na u al nanoma e ials o igina e om sou ces such as ees,
plan s, olcanoes, o ma ine species. Inciden al nanoma e ials a e gene a ed du ing
p ocesses like combus ion in ehicles and indus ial ac i i ies. A i icial nanoma e-
ials, he mos p e alen ca ego y, a e p oduced h ough wo p ima y manu ac u ing
p ocesses: op-down and bo om-up echniques (Fig. 1)[2].
Top-down echniques in ol e he educ ion o mac oscopic ma e ials o solid
g oups o nanoscale dimensions. Physical me hods like g inding o ab asion, chem-
ical p ocesses, and he apo iza ion o solids ollowed by condensa ion a e employed
Fig. 1 Nanopa icle syn hesis echniques [2]
66 B. Blandón-González e al.
o achie e con olled assemblies un il he desi ed size is eached. Con e sely, bo om-
up echniques in ol e he c ea ion o nanopa icles capable o sel -assembly o sel -
o ganiza ion h ough he condensa ion o a oms o molecula en i ies in a gaseous
phase o solu ion. These echniques acili a e he p ecise cons uc ion o nanopa i-
cles om a omic o molecula componen s, enabling ailo ed design and unc ionali y
[2].
3 Nano echnology Applica ions in Di e en Sec o s:
Challenges and T ends
Conside ing hei unique p ope ies, NPs can be used in a spec um o applica ions.
Some signi ican examples o hei e sa ili y and p ac ical use a e gi en below [9]
•Applica ions in d ugs and medica ions
Nano-sized ino ganic pa icles, whe he simple o in ica e in na u e, exhibi
unpa alleled physical and chemical cha ac e is ics, ende ing hem indispensable
in he ad ancemen o inno a i e nanode ices. These nanoma e ials play a pi o al
ole ac oss di e se ealms including physical sciences, biology, biomedicine, and
pha maceu icals [1].
NPs ha e ga ne ed escala ing a en ion ac oss a ious medical disciplines due o
hei capaci y o deli e d ugs wi hin he op imal dosage ange. This o en ans-
la es in o heigh ened he apeu ic e icacy, diminished side e ec s, and enhanced
pa ien adhe ence. When selec ing NPs o applica ions such as biological and cellula
imaging, as well as pho o he mal he apy, emphasis is placed on hei op ical p op-
e ies. The ongoing pu sui o hyd ophilic NPs as d ug ca ie s e lec s a signi ican
challenge in ecen yea s, signi ying a pi o al a ea o esea ch and de elopmen in
pha maceu ical science [9].
Supe pa amagne ic i on oxide NPs, when endowed wi h sui able su ace chem-
is y, boas a wide a ay o in i o applica ions, such as MRI con as enhancemen ,
issue epai , and immunoassay, de oxi ica ion o biological luids hype he mia,
d ugs deli e y and cell sepa a ion [9].
In ecen decades, he e has been a no able su ge in he explo a ion o biodeg ad-
able nanopa icles (NPs) as po en d ug deli e y sys ems. Resea che s ha e le e -
aged a ple ho a o polyme s in his pu sui , capi alizing on hei abili y o e icien ly
anspo d ugs o a ge ed si es. This s a egy enhances he apeu ic e icacy while
mi iga ing po en ial side e ec s. Cen al o his endea ou is he concep o con olled
d ug elease, aiming o adminis e pha macologically ac i e agen s p ecisely o he
desi ed si e o ac ion, a he op imal dosage and equency [9].
Semiconduc o and me allic nanopa icles s and ou o hei signi ican po en-
ial in bo h cance diagnosis and he apy, owing o hei abili y o le e age su ace
plasmon esonance (SPR) o enhanced ligh sca e ing and abso p ion. Sil e
nanopa icles (Ag NPs) a e wi nessing g owing u iliza ion in wound d essings,
4 Ad anced Ma e ials: In oduc ion o Nano echnology 67
ca he e s, and a a ie y o household p oduc s, hanks o hei ema kable an imic o-
bial p ope ies. The p esence o such an imic obial agen s is c i ical in di e se sec o s
such as ex iles, medicine, wa e disin ec ion, and ood packaging, whe e hey play a
i al ole in main aining hygiene and p e en ing he sp ead o in ec ious agen s [9].
•Applica ions in manu ac u ing and ma e ials
Among consume p oduc s inco po a ing nano echnology, heal h and i ness p od-
uc s domina e he ma ke , cons i u ing he la ges ca ego y. They a e closely ollowed
by p oduc s in he elec onic and compu e sec o , as well as hose in he home and
ga den ca ego y. Nano echnology has ga ne ed conside able a en ion as he nex
e olu iona y o ce ac oss nume ous indus ies, wi h an icipa ed ans o ma ions in
a eas such as ood p ocessing and packaging [9].
Resonan ene gy ans e (RET) sys ems, comp ising o ganic dye molecules and
noble me al nanopa icles, ha e eme ged as a ocal poin o in e es in bo h bio
pho onics and ma e ial science. The in eg a ion o NPs in o comme cially a ail-
able p oduc s is inc easingly p e alen , e lec ing he g owing ecogni ion o hei
po en ial ac oss a ious applica ions [9,18].
Me al nanopa icles, pa icula ly noble me als like gold (Au) and sil e (Ag),
exhibi a di e se a ay o colou s in he isible spec um owing o hei plasmon
esonance phenomenon. This esonance a ises om he collec i e oscilla ions o
elec ons a he nanopa icle su ace [19]. The wa eleng h o his esonance is highly
in luenced by ac o s such as nanopa icle size and shape, in e pa icle dis ance,
and he dielec ic p ope ies o he su ounding medium. Le e aging hese unique
plasmon abso bance cha ac e is ics, noble me al nanopa icles ha e ound ex ensi e
u ili y in a ious applica ions, no ably including chemical and biosenso s [19].
•Applica ions in he en i onmen
The g owing u iliza ion o enginee ed nanopa icles in bo h indus ial and house-
hold se ings aise conce ns ega ding hei elease in o he en i onmen . E alua ing
he en i onmen al isk posed by hese NPs necessi a es a comp ehensi e unde -
s anding o hei mobili y, eac i i y, eco oxici y, and pe sis ence. O pa icula
conce n is he po en ial o inc eased NP concen a ions in g oundwa e and soil
due o enginee ing ma e ial applica ions, as hese ep esen he p ima y exposu e
pa hways o assessing en i onmen al isks [9].
Na u al nanopa icles play a signi ican ole in he pa i ioning o con aminan s
be ween solid and wa e phases due o hei high su ace- o-mass a io. Con ami-
nan s can adhe e o he su ace o NPs, become co-p ecipi a ed du ing he o ma-
ion o na u al NPs, o be apped h ough NP agg ega ion, whe e con aminan s a e
ini ially adso bed. The in e ac ion be ween con aminan s and NPs is in luenced by
a ious cha ac e is ics o he NPs, including hei size, composi ion, mo phology,
po osi y, agg ega ion/disagg ega ion endencies, and agg ega e s uc u e. Addi ion-
ally, in en i onmen al con ex s, luminopho es, while no inhe en ly sa e, can be
shielded om en i onmen al oxygen by encapsula ing hem wi hin he silica ne wo k
[9].
68 B. Blandón-González e al.
The majo i y o en i onmen al applica ions o nano echnology can be classi ied
in o h ee main ca ego ies:
1. En i onmen ally benign sus ainable p oduc s.
2. Remedia ion o ma e ials con amina ed wi h haza dous subs ances.
3. Senso s o en i onmen al s ages.
The ex ac ion o hea y me als, such as me cu y, lead, hallium, cadmium, and
a senic, om na u al wa e sou ces has ga ne ed signi ican in e es due o hei
de imen al impac s on bo h en i onmen al ecosys ems and human heal h. Supe -
pa amagne ic i on oxide nanopa icles ha e eme ged as a po en so ben ma e ial o
e icien ly cap u ing hese haza dous elemen s om wa e , p esen ing a p omising
solu ion o add essing he challenges posed by such oxic con aminan s [9].
The sca ci y o measu emen s o enginee ed nanopa icles in he en i onmen can
be a ibu ed o he absence o analy ical echniques capable o p ecisely quan i ying
ace concen a ions o NPs. Addi ionally, i is no ewo hy ha pho odeg ada ion
by NPs is a p e alen phenomenon, wi h many nanoma e ials being delibe a ely
employed o his pu pose [9].
•Applica ions in elec onics
In ecen yea s, he e has been a bu geoning in e es in he ad ancemen o
p in ed elec onics. This in e es s ems om he allu e o p in ed elec onics as
a compelling al e na i e o con en ional silicon-based echniques, which hold he
p omise o deli e ing low-cos , la ge-a ea elec onic solu ions, pa icula ly well-
sui ed o lexible displays and senso applica ions [20]. The apid adop ion o p in ed
elec onics, which inco po a e di e se unc ional inks con aining nanopa icles such
as me allic NPs, o ganic elec onic molecules, CNTs, and ce amic NPs, is an icipa ed
o e olu ionize mass p oduc ion p ocesses o no el elec onic de ices [20].
The dis inc i e s uc u al, op ical, and elec ical cha ac e is ics exhibi ed by one-
dimensional semiconduc o s and me als posi ion hem as pi o al building blocks o
he de elopmen o a new gene a ion o elec onic, senso , and pho onic ma e ials
[21].
A p ime illus a ion o he syne gy be ween scien i ic disco e y and echnological
ad ancemen is exempli ied in he elec onic indus y. The explo a ion and iden i i-
ca ion o no el semiconduc ing ma e ials ha e spa ked a ans o ma i e e olu ion,
ansi ioning om acuum ubes o diodes and ansis o s, ul ima ely culmina ing in
he minia u iza ion o elec onic componen s in o in eg a ed ci cui s [9].
The impo an a ibu es o nanopa icles include hei inhe en ease o manip-
ula ion and e e sible assembly, enabling hei in eg a ion in o elec ic, elec onic,
o op ical de ices. This capabili y, exempli ied by “bo om-up” o “sel -assembly”
app oaches, se es as a hallma k o nano echnology, o e ing e sa ile pa hways o
he design and ab ica ion o ad anced nanoscale de ices [9].
•Applica ions in ene gy ha es ing
Recen esea ch has aised conce ns ega ding he limi a ions and sca ci y o
ossil uel ese es in he o eseeable u u e, a ibu ed o hei non- enewable na u e.
