Advanced materials: Introduction to nanotechnology

Pilar Mercader-Moyano Paula Porras-Pereira Editors Life Cycle Analysis Based on Nanoparticles Applied to the Construction Industry A Comprehensive Curriculum Life Cycle Analysis Based on Nanoparticles Applied to the Construction Industry Pilar Mercader-Moyano ·Paula Porras-Pereira Editors Life Cycle Analysis Based on Nanoparticles Applied to the Construction Industry A Comprehensive Curriculum Editors Pilar Mercader-Moyano Department of Building Construction I Higher Technical School of Architecture University of Seville, Seville, Spain Paula Porras-Pereira Department of Building Construction I Higher Technical School of Architecture University of Seville Seville, Spain ISBN 978-3-031-79114-7 ISBN 978-3-031-79115-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79115-4 This work was supported by University of Seville, Spain, Business Association for Research of Marble, Stone and Materials, Spain, Delta—Materials process & innovation solutions, Greece, National Technical University of Athens, Greece and Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2025. 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Preface In recent years, there has been a notable upsurge in the use of nanomaterials, particularly within the construction and building sectors. The incorporation of nanoparticles introduces noteworthy changes in the physico-mechanical and physical–chemical characteristics of construction materials. Despite the acknowledged advantages of employing nanomaterials, uncertainties persist regarding their widespread adoption in development and applications, especially concerning potential environmental and human health implications. A crucial aspect in thoroughly assessing the environmental impacts of nanoproducts is the imperative quantification of effects on ecosystems and human health throughout the entire life cycle of these products. The indispensable utilization of a comprehensive tool, such as Life Cycle Assessment, becomes paramount in gaining a nuanced understanding of potential environmental and health challenges, thereby ensuring the environmental sustainability of nanomaterials. This academic publication endeavours to provide nanoproduct manufacturers, construction industry professionals, and waste managers with the necessary knowledge to comprehend the environmental and health impacts associated with the manufacturing, application, and disposal processes of nanoproducts used in the construction industry. This contribution aims to enhance their personal and professional development, consequently bolstering their employability at the European level. A thorough comprehension of potential releases throughout the entire life cycle of nanoproducts and their potential effects is imperative for ensuring the safe and sustainable utilization of these innovative materials. The application of life cycle thinking emerges as a pivotal component in appropriately evaluating the potential impacts associated with nanomaterial releases. Seville, Spain Pilar Mercader-Moyano Paula Porras-Pereira v Acknowledgments The results of this article derive from the project Educational platform for life cycle analysis of treatments based on nanoparticles applied to the construction industry project (code 2022-1-ES01-KA220-HED-000089985), an Erasmus+ project co-funded by the European Union and within the framework of an initiative of 2022 KA220, cooperation partnerships in higher education, with the support of the “Servicio Español para la Internacionalización de la Educación (SEPIE, Spain)”. The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. As a final contribution, it is imperative to duly acknowledge the active participation and unwavering commitment of the collaborators associated with this Erasmus+ Project, whose contributions have been instrumental in the realization of the outcomes encapsulated within this book: University of Sevilla, Business Association for Research of Marble, Natural Stone and Materials Technology Center, National Technical University of Athens, Delta Materials Process & Innovation, and Chalmers University of Technology. vii Introduction Buildings exert a direct influence on the environment, extending from the consumption of raw materials in construction, maintenance, and renovation to the discharge of detrimental substances over the building’s entire life cycle. The interconnection between the construction industry and the environment is undeniable, with building materials leaving a lasting imprint on both the constructed and natural surroundings throughout their life cycle [1]. In recent years, the utilization of nanomaterials has witnessed a notable upsurge across various applications, particularly within the construction and building sectors. Nanotechnology has proven to be a focal point of uncovering novel applications for nanomaterials, owing to their characteristics such as high-performance attributes, substantial commercial influence, efficacy in energy storage and conversion, costeffectiveness, energy savings, and diminished environmental impacts. These unique physical, chemical, mechanical, and efficacy characteristics of nanomaterials have sparked a growing interest in their production, surpassing even the use of natural materials, due to the transformative impact of nanomaterials in elevating the performance of building materials [2, 3, 4]. Utilizing nanoparticles introduces noteworthy changes in the physico-mechanical and physical–chemical behaviour of constructional materials. This transformative impact encompasses properties such as increased strength, self-sensing capabilities, self-cleaning features, antimicrobial attributes, and pollution remediation capabilities, all of which can be significantly improved through the incorporation of nanoparticles in construction materials [4]. The significance of these materials became evident as researchers discovered that size could exert a profound influence on the physiochemical properties of a substance [3]. Nanoparticles, owing to their nanoscale dimensions, showcase remarkable attributes, with size being a pivotal factor [4]. Despite the reported benefits of nanomaterial applications for specific industrial applications and consumer products in various sectors, the widespread adoption of nanomaterials in development and applications remain significant uncertainties, particularly concerning their potential environmental and human health impacts if released into the environment [2, 5]. The release of nanomaterials can take place at any stage in the nanomaterial life cycle, spanning from their production, through the ix xIntroduction manufacturing of nanoproducts, to the utilization/application of these nanoproducts, and finally, their end-of-life management and disposal [5]. To date, much of the research on nanomaterials has centred on their unique functionality in diverse fields and applications, with less attention given to potential environmental effects throughout their life cycle. Concerns also exist regarding the environmental sustainability of nanomaterial pathways contributing to broader environmental problems [2]. The effective incorporation of nanoparticles into construction materials enhances the likelihood of workers being exposed to potentially toxic particles released during construction. Consequently, there is a burgeoning research emphasis on comprehending the toxicity of nanomaterials to the environment and human health, particularly through construction materials, encompassing their manufacturing and recycling processes. It is imperative for humanity to address these issues comprehensively, seeking a thorough understanding of the limitations that nanoparticles may impose on the environment and human health, while also addressing relevant safety concerns. This proactive approach is crucial to ensure responsible and sustainable practices in the utilization of nanomaterials in construction and related industries. In order to thoroughly evaluate the environmental impacts of nanoproducts, it becomes imperative to quantify the effects on ecosystems and human health arising from releases throughout the entire life cycle of these products [6]. A comprehensive tool, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), proves essential in gaining a better understanding of potential environmental and health challenges and ensuring the environmental sustainability of nanomaterials. LCA, rooted in the concept of life cycle thinking, offers a holistic approach to assessing the environmental impacts of products, services, and processes. It accomplishes this by identifying the materials used and the energy and emissions released to the environment, which is critical in evaluating the potential impacts of nanomaterial releases [2, 5, 7]. A thorough comprehension of potential releases across the entire life cycle and their potential effects is vital for ensuring the safe and sustainable utilization of these new materials. The application of life cycle thinking emerges as a key component in appropriately evaluating the potential impacts associated with nanomaterial releases [5]. After establishing the current significance of nanoparticles in the construction sector, in the context of the Erasmus+ project, a comprehensive series of analyses has been conducted to underscore the significance of integrating Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) into the realm of building materials involving nanoproducts. The first analysis within this framework entailed the production of a comparative study report designed to systematically gather and scrutinize the existing curricula related to LCA across partner countries, namely Spain, Sweden, and Greece. The primary objective of the comparative study report is to amass information on various instructional resources provided by educational institutions, specifically focusing on training and education in the domain of Life Cycle Assessment. Moreover, subsequent to a meticulous examination of the respective national reports, the comparative study aspires to accentuate exemplary practices while Introduction xi concurrently identifying any discernible gaps and weaknesses in the current educational landscape pertaining to Life Cycle Assessment. This multifaceted approach aims to contribute to a nuanced understanding of LCA practices and educational strategies, thereby fostering an environment conducive to informed decision-making. The dearth of training opportunities in Life Cycle Assessments, despite their recognized effectiveness in gauging the environmental impact of products, is conspicuous in the three countries under examination. In an initial exploration, it becomes evident that a significant proportion of the scrutinized academic degrees provide limited exposure to subjects encompassing competences associated with Life Cycle Assessment or Environmental Impact Assessment. Spain emerges as the nation with the highest inclination towards LCA training, with 44% of the analysed degrees incorporating courses dedicated to LCA-related subjects. In contrast, Greece demonstrates a markedly lower commitment, with only 7% of degrees including such courses, while Sweden falls even below this threshold, with less than 5% of degrees offering LCA-related content. It is noteworthy that the majority of LCA courses are predominantly affiliated with curricula centred on Environmental studies. In the domain of Civil Engineering and Architecture, there is a discernible scarcity of courses dedicated to addressing the intricacies of Life Cycle Assessment. In addition to the realm of higher education, the findings pertaining to the present curriculum on Life Cycle Assessment and Environmental Impact in the construction sector underscore a substantial gap in the availability of professional courses addressing these crucial subjects. It is noteworthy that within professional education, a significant majority of examined professional associations do not incorporate any courses or programs within their training offerings that encompass competences associated with Life Cycle Assessment or Environmental Impact Assessment. Notably, it is only in Sweden that certain entities provide training specifically geared towards the development of Environmental Product Declarations. The profound importance of LCA in the construction sector is reflected in its application in various disciplines, since not only Architecture field, but also Civil, Environmental, Building, Industrial, Materials and Architectural Engineering academic areas are focused on Life Cycle Assessment basic principles, methods, and applications as well. This analysis emphasizes a notable deficiency in educational coverage regarding essential facets of environmental impact assessment. This calls for careful consideration and the possibility of incorporating modules specifically centred on Life Cycle Assessment into pertinent academic programs. It underscores the imperative for a more thorough assimilation of LCA principles into educational frameworks, encompassing both academic and professional realms within the construction industry. Concluding this comprehensive examination of partner countries’ curricula, a parallel study concentrating on nanoparticulate products within the construction sector is concurrently conducted. This study’s objective is to gather and assess extant curricula related to nanoparticulate products in the construction sector across partner countries. It involves compiling diverse training guides provided by educational Contents Part I Fundamental Principles of Sustainability in the Construction Sector: Life Cycle Assessment 1 Sustainable Criteria Within the Construction Industry ........... 3 Juana Esperanza Llorente-García, David Caparrós-Pérez, and María Desiré Alba-Rodríguez 2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Fundamental Principles ............ 27 Esperanza Conradi-Galnares, Begoña Blandón-González, and Madelyn Marrero-Meléndez 3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methodology ...................... 43 Marco Antonio Sánchez-Burgos, Esperanza Conradi-Galnares, and Dimitrios Dragatogiannis Part II Nanoproducts in the Construction Sector 4 Advanced Materials: Introduction to Nanotechnology ............ 61 Begoña Blandón-González, Aikaterini Flora Trompeta, and Pilar Mercader-Moyano 5 Nanoproducts in Building Materials ............................ 75 Paula Porras-Pereira, Juana Esperanza Llorente-García, and Costas A. Charitidis 6 Nanomaterials in Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) Management .................................................. 95 David Caparrós-Pérez, Georgios Zaverdinos, and Jaime Solís-Guzmán xix xx Contents Part III Integration of Life Cycle Assessment and Nanomaterial Assessment 7 Calculation of Life Cycle Assessment of Construction Products with Nanoparticles ................................... 111 Marco Antonio Sánchez-Burgos, Paula Porras-Pereira, and Pilar Mercader-Moyano Part IV Application of Life Cycle Assessment Results in Building Assessment 8 EPDs for Construction Products with Nanoparticles .............. 127 Varun Gowda Palahalli Ramesh and Christina Lee 9 Interpretation of LCA Results and EPD Comparability ........... 147 Varun Gowda Palahalli Ramesh and Christina Lee 10 Results and Discussion ......................................... 163 Paula Porras-Pereira and Pilar Mercader-Moyano Conclusions ....................................................... 203 Bibliography ...................................................... 205 Chapter 4 Advanced Materials: Introduction to Nanotechnology Begoña Blandón-González, Aikaterini Flora Trompeta, and Pilar Mercader-Moyano Abstract The initial segment unfolds by expounding upon the foundational concepts of nanotechnology, tracing its historical evolution, delving into its normative framework of reference, and elucidating its diverse applications across various sectors, navigating the inherent challenges associated with nanotechnology. 1 Historical Approach to New Materials The nanotechnology revolution is making a ground-breaking impact on diverse science, engineering, and commercial sectors, including the construction industry. The physical and chemical properties unique to the nanoscale can lead to remarkable efficacy enhancement in (photo)catalysis, (thermal and electrical) conductivity, mechanical strength, and optical sensitivity, enabling applications such as catalysts, electronic and energy storage devices, advanced mechanical materials, and sensors [1]. The earliest ideas surrounding nanotechnology can be traced back to the pioneering insights of physicist Richard Feynman (Nobel Prize in physics 1965), who, in his seminal lecture titled “There is a lot of room in the background”, presented at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society in 1959. Within his discourse, Present Address: B. Blandón-González ·P. Mercader-Moyano (B) Department of Building Construction I, Higher Technical School of Architecture, University of Seville, Seville, Spain e-mail: [email protected] B. Blandón-González e-mail: [email protected] Present Address: A. F. Trompeta Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering Iroon Polytechniou, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Athens, Greece e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2025 P. Mercader-Moyano and P. Porras-Pereira (eds.), Life Cycle Analysis Based on Nanoparticles Applied to the Construction Industry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79115-4_4 61 62 B. Blandón-González et al. Feynman eloquently expressed: “Most cells are tiny, but they are very active, they make substances, they move, they contort, and they do a lot of wonderful things, all on a small scale. They also store information. Let’s consider the possibility that we, too, could make entities so small that they did whatever we wanted, that we could make an object that maneuverer at that level” [2]. The word nanotechnology was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, to designate a nanoscale production technique, which involves processes of separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials with the help of a single atom or a single molecule. But it was not really disseminated until 1986 by Eric Drexler in his book “Creation Machines”, in which he described the bases for the construction of atom-by-atom materials that “would open the doors to a technological development unprecedented in the history of mankind, which would make it possible to overcome disease and death, make intergalactic trips and have almost infinite material resources” [2,3]. Louis Brus, working at AT&T Bell Laboratories, discovered colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals, called quantum dots, that led him to be recognized as one of the leading researchers in the field of nanoscience in the early 1980s [2]. In 1985 Sir Harold W. Kroto, Richard E. Smalley and Robert F. Curl, Jr. (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996) obtained hollow carbon molecules that formed a closed cage by using a laser to vaporize graphite rods in a helium gas atmosphere. The capsule comprised 60 carbon atoms intricately bonded through both single and double bonds, meticulously arranged to fashion a hollow sphere characterized by 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces. Such nanostructures, exemplified by this configuration, are commonly referred to as fullerenes [2,4]. Japanese physicist Sumio Iijima in 1991 discovered and detailed the atomic structure and helical shape of singleand multi-walled carbon nanotubes [2]. In 1993, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Moungi Bawendi and his collaborators developed a synthesis of nanocrystals obtaining semiconductor colloidal quantum dots, this nanotechnology being one of the first to be integrated with the biological sciences [5]. Since 1998 chemical engineer Thomas Webster worked on the design, synthesis and evaluation of nanomaterials for various medical applications. This included selfassembled chemistries, nanoparticles, nanotubes and nanostructured surfaces. Some of the medical applications included inhibiting the growth of bacteria, controlling inflammation, and promoting tissue growth [6,7]. In the new century multiple contributions have been generated, among them are the gold nanocapsules for cancer treatment of Medicine and Surgery; nanoscale assembled devices similar to DNA and a methodology to generate nanoscale patterns and structures [2,8]. 4 Advanced Materials: Introduction to Nanotechnology 63 2 Nanotechnology: Basic Concepts Nanotechnology has been a recognized field of inquiry since the previous century, notably propelled into the scientific Richard P. Feynman during his aforementioned seminal lecture “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” in 1959. Since then, the landscape of nanotechnology has been marked by a succession of groundbreaking advancements. This domain has witnessed the synthesis and manipulation of materials at the nanoscale level, ushering in a new era of scientific exploration and technological innovation [9]. Central to the realm of nanotechnology are nanoparticles (NPs), a diverse class of materials encompassing particulate substances characterized by at least one dimension measuring less than 100 nm. The significance of these nanostructures became evident as researchers uncovered their capacity to profoundly influence the physiochemical properties of materials. Indeed, the size of nanoparticles emerged as a critical factor, intricately shaping phenomena such as optical properties, and offering tantalizing prospects for tailored material functionalities [9]. As aforementioned, nanoparticles are complex entities, consisting of three distinct layers: (a) The surface layer, which can be functionalized with various small molecules, metal ions, surfactants, and polymers, (b) the shell layer, a chemically distinct material from the core in all aspects, and (c) the core, which is essentially the central portion of the NP and usually refers the NP itself [10]. Due to these remarkable attributes, researchers across diverse fields have been captivated by the potential of these materials, sparking widespread interest and enthusiasm among multidisciplinary practitioners [9]. NPs are extensively categorized into different classes, delineated by their morphology, dimensions, and chemical attributes. Notable among these classifications are the following well-recognized categories, distinguished based on their distinct physical and chemical characteristics [9]: •Carbon-based NPs Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) stand out as prominent categories within the realm of carbon-based nanoparticles. Fullerenes are characterized by their globular hollow cage-like structures, comprising various allotropic forms of carbon. These nanostructures have garnered substantial commercial attention owing to their exceptional electrical conductivity, impressive strength, unique structural attributes, high electron affinity, and remarkable versatility [11]. Given their distinctive physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, these materials find utility not only in their pristine form but also as integral components in nanocomposites, facilitating a myriad of commercial applications. These applications include utilization as fillers, efficient gas adsorbents for environmental remediation, and support mediums for a diverse array of inorganic and organic catalysts [9]. •Metal NPs 64 B. Blandón-González et al. Metal nanoparticles are exclusively composed of metal precursors. Harnessing the intrinsic properties of these metals, metal NPs exhibit distinct optoelectrical behaviour attributed to their well-documented localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) phenomenon. Among the alkali and noble metals, including copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au), these NPs display a broad absorption band within the visible range of the electromagnetic solar spectrum [12]. The controlled synthesis of metal NPs, with precise manipulation of their facets, sizes, and shapes, is paramount in contemporary materials science and pivotal in the development of cutting-edge materials, enabling tailored properties and functionalities that cater to diverse technological applications [12]. Metal nanoparticles, owing to their sophisticated optical properties, are instrumental across various research domains. Notably, gold nanoparticles (NPs) coatings are extensively employed in the realm of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in order to augment the electronic beam, thereby enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio and overall quality of SEM images [9]. •Ceramics NPs Ceramic nanoparticles represent a class of inorganic non-metallic solids, synthesized through processes involving intense heat followed by controlled cooling. Exhibiting a diverse array of morphologies including amorphous, polycrystalline, dense, porous, or hollow structures, these nanoparticles have garnered significant interest from researchers. Their versatile properties render them indispensable in various applications such as catalysis, photocatalysis, the photodegradation of dyes, and imaging applications [9,13]. •Semiconductor NPs Semiconductor materials occupy a unique position between metals and nonmetals, endowing them with a spectrum of properties that make them highly versatile in various applications [14]. Semiconductor nanoparticles, in particular, are characterized by wide bandgaps, which render them susceptible to significant alterations in their properties through bandgap tuning. As a result, these nanoparticles play a pivotal role in fields such as photocatalysis, photo optics, and electronic devices [9]. For instance, semiconductor nanoparticles exhibit remarkable efficiency in water splitting applications, attributed to their suitable bandgap and bandedge positions. This capability to efficiently harness solar energy for catalytic reactions underscores the pivotal role of semiconductor nanoparticles in advancing sustainable energy technologies and addressing environmental challenges [9]. •Polymeric NPs Typically derived from organic materials, nanoparticles in the literature are often referred to collectively as polymer nanoparticles (PNPs). These nanoparticles predominantly exhibit nanospheric or nanocapsular shapes [15]. Nanospheres represent matrix particles with a solid overall mass, with additional molecules adsorbed at the outer boundary of their spherical surface. Conversely, nanocapsules encapsulate a solid mass entirely within the particle structure [9,16]. 4 Advanced Materials: Introduction to Nanotechnology 65 One of the distinguishing characteristics of PNPs is their high degree of functionality, enabling researchers to modify their surface properties with ease. This attribute renders PNPs highly versatile and applicable across a wide range of fields in scientific literature [9,16]. •Lipid-based NPs Nanoparticles containing lipid moieties have emerged as valuable assets in numerous biomedical applications. Characteristically spherical, lipid nanoparticles typically exhibit diameters ranging from 10 to 1000 nm. Similar to polymeric nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles feature a solid core composed of lipids, while a matrix within them accommodates soluble lipophilic molecules. The external core of these nanoparticles is stabilized by surfactants or emulsifiers [9,17]. Lipid nanotechnology represents a specialized field dedicated to the design and synthesis of lipid nanoparticles for diverse applications, such as drug delivery and carrier systems, as well as the targeted release of RNA in cancer therapy [9,17]. Nanomaterials are further categorized based on their origins into natural, incidental, and artificial types. Natural nanomaterials originate from sources such as trees, plants, volcanoes, or marine species. Incidental nanomaterials are generated during processes like combustion in vehicles and industrial activities. Artificial nanomaterials, the most prevalent category, are produced through two primary manufacturing processes: top-down and bottom-up techniques (Fig. 1)[2]. Top-down techniques involve the reduction of macroscopic materials or solid groups to nanoscale dimensions. Physical methods like grinding or abrasion, chemical processes, and the vaporization of solids followed by condensation are employed Fig. 1 Nanoparticle synthesis techniques [2] 66 B. Blandón-González et al. to achieve controlled assemblies until the desired size is reached. Conversely, bottomup techniques involve the creation of nanoparticles capable of self-assembly or selforganization through the condensation of atoms or molecular entities in a gaseous phase or solution. These techniques facilitate the precise construction of nanoparticles from atomic or molecular components, enabling tailored design and functionality [2]. 3 Nanotechnology Applications in Different Sectors: Challenges and Trends Considering their unique properties, NPs can be used in a spectrum of applications. Some significant examples of their versatility and practical use are given below [9] •Applications in drugs and medications Nano-sized inorganic particles, whether simple or intricate in nature, exhibit unparalleled physical and chemical characteristics, rendering them indispensable in the advancement of innovative nanodevices. These nanomaterials play a pivotal role across diverse realms including physical sciences, biology, biomedicine, and pharmaceuticals [1]. NPs have garnered escalating attention across various medical disciplines due to their capacity to deliver drugs within the optimal dosage range. This often translates into heightened therapeutic efficacy, diminished side effects, and enhanced patient adherence. When selecting NPs for applications such as biological and cellular imaging, as well as photothermal therapy, emphasis is placed on their optical properties. The ongoing pursuit of hydrophilic NPs as drug carriers reflects a significant challenge in recent years, signifying a pivotal area of research and development in pharmaceutical science [9]. Superparamagnetic iron oxide NPs, when endowed with suitable surface chemistry, boast a wide array of in vivo applications, such as MRI contrast enhancement, tissue repair, and immunoassay, detoxification of biological fluids hyperthermia, drugs delivery and cell separation [9]. In recent decades, there has been a notable surge in the exploration of biodegradable nanoparticles (NPs) as potent drug delivery systems. Researchers have leveraged a plethora of polymers in this pursuit, capitalizing on their ability to efficiently transport drugs to targeted sites. This strategy enhances therapeutic efficacy while mitigating potential side effects. Central to this endeavour is the concept of controlled drug release, aiming to administer pharmacologically active agents precisely to the desired site of action, at the optimal dosage and frequency [9]. Semiconductor and metallic nanoparticles stand out for their significant potential in both cancer diagnosis and therapy, owing to their ability to leverage surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for enhanced light scattering and absorption. Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are witnessing growing utilization in wound dressings, 4 Advanced Materials: Introduction to Nanotechnology 67 catheters, and a variety of household products, thanks to their remarkable antimicrobial properties. The presence of such antimicrobial agents is critical in diverse sectors such as textiles, medicine, water disinfection, and food packaging, where they play a vital role in maintaining hygiene and preventing the spread of infectious agents [9]. •Applications in manufacturing and materials Among consumer products incorporating nanotechnology, health and fitness products dominate the market, constituting the largest category. They are closely followed by products in the electronic and computer sector, as well as those in the home and garden category. Nanotechnology has garnered considerable attention as the next revolutionary force across numerous industries, with anticipated transformations in areas such as food processing and packaging [9]. Resonant energy transfer (RET) systems, comprising organic dye molecules and noble metal nanoparticles, have emerged as a focal point of interest in both bio photonics and material science. The integration of NPs into commercially available products is increasingly prevalent, reflecting the growing recognition of their potential across various applications [9,18]. Metal nanoparticles, particularly noble metals like gold (Au) and silver (Ag), exhibit a diverse array of colours in the visible spectrum owing to their plasmon resonance phenomenon. This resonance arises from the collective oscillations of electrons at the nanoparticle surface [19]. The wavelength of this resonance is highly influenced by factors such as nanoparticle size and shape, interparticle distance, and the dielectric properties of the surrounding medium. Leveraging these unique plasmon absorbance characteristics, noble metal nanoparticles have found extensive utility in various applications, notably including chemical and biosensors [19]. •Applications in the environment The growing utilization of engineered nanoparticles in both industrial and household settings raise concerns regarding their release into the environment. Evaluating the environmental risk posed by these NPs necessitates a comprehensive understanding of their mobility, reactivity, ecotoxicity, and persistence. Of particular concern is the potential for increased NP concentrations in groundwater and soil due to engineering material applications, as these represent the primary exposure pathways for assessing environmental risks [9]. Natural nanoparticles play a significant role in the partitioning of contaminants between solid and water phases due to their high surface-to-mass ratio. Contaminants can adhere to the surface of NPs, become co-precipitated during the formation of natural NPs, or be trapped through NP aggregation, where contaminants are initially adsorbed. The interaction between contaminants and NPs is influenced by various characteristics of the NPs, including their size, composition, morphology, porosity, aggregation/disaggregation tendencies, and aggregate structure. Additionally, in environmental contexts, luminophores, while not inherently safe, can be shielded from environmental oxygen by encapsulating them within the silica network [9]. 68 B. Blandón-González et al. The majority of environmental applications of nanotechnology can be classified into three main categories: 1. Environmentally benign sustainable products. 2. Remediation of materials contaminated with hazardous substances. 3. Sensors for environmental stages. The extraction of heavy metals, such as mercury, lead, thallium, cadmium, and arsenic, from natural water sources has garnered significant interest due to their detrimental impacts on both environmental ecosystems and human health. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as a potent sorbent material for efficiently capturing these hazardous elements from water, presenting a promising solution for addressing the challenges posed by such toxic contaminants [9]. The scarcity of measurements for engineered nanoparticles in the environment can be attributed to the absence of analytical techniques capable of precisely quantifying trace concentrations of NPs. Additionally, it is noteworthy that photodegradation by NPs is a prevalent phenomenon, with many nanomaterials being deliberately employed for this purpose [9]. •Applications in electronics In recent years, there has been a burgeoning interest in the advancement of printed electronics. This interest stems from the allure of printed electronics as a compelling alternative to conventional silicon-based techniques, which hold the promise of delivering low-cost, large-area electronic solutions, particularly wellsuited for flexible displays and sensor applications [20]. The rapid adoption of printed electronics, which incorporate diverse functional inks containing nanoparticles such as metallic NPs, organic electronic molecules, CNTs, and ceramic NPs, is anticipated to revolutionize mass production processes for novel electronic devices [20]. The distinctive structural, optical, and electrical characteristics exhibited by onedimensional semiconductors and metals position them as pivotal building blocks for the development of a new generation of electronic, sensor, and photonic materials [21]. A prime illustration of the synergy between scientific discovery and technological advancement is exemplified in the electronic industry. The exploration and identification of novel semiconducting materials have sparked a transformative revolution, transitioning from vacuum tubes to diodes and transistors, ultimately culminating in the miniaturization of electronic components into integrated circuits [9]. The important attributes of nanoparticles include their inherent ease of manipulation and reversible assembly, enabling their integration into electric, electronic, or optical devices. This capability, exemplified by “bottom-up” or “self-assembly” approaches, serves as a hallmark of nanotechnology, offering versatile pathways for the design and fabrication of advanced nanoscale devices [9]. •Applications in energy harvesting Recent research has raised concerns regarding the limitations and scarcity of fossil fuel reserves in the foreseeable future, attributed to their non-renewable nature.