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Ci a ion: Rocha, C.P.; Cab al, H.N.;
Ma ques, J.C.; Gonçal es, A.M.M. A
Global O e iew o Aquacul u e
Food P oduc ion wi h a Focus on he
Ac i i y’s De elopmen in
T ansi ional Sys ems—The Case
S udy o a Sou h Eu opean Coun y
(Po ugal). J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10,
417. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
jmse10030417
Academic Edi o : Ca e ina Longo
Recei ed: 30 Decembe 2021
Accep ed: 7 Ma ch 2022
Published: 13 Ma ch 2022
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Jou nal o
Ma ine Science
and Enginee ing
Re iew
A Global O e iew o Aquacul u e Food P oduc ion wi h a Focus
on he Ac i i y’s De elopmen in T ansi ional Sys ems—The Case
S udy o a Sou h Eu opean Coun y (Po ugal)
Ca olina P. Rocha 1, Hen ique N. Cab al 2,3 , João C. Ma ques 1and Ana M. M. Gonçal es 1,4,*
1Uni e si y o Coimb a, MARE—Ma ine and En i onmen al Sciences Cen e, Depa men o Li e Sciences,
Calçada Ma im de F ei as, 3000-456 Coimb a, Po ugal; ca [email p o ec ed] (C.P.R.);
[email p o ec ed] (J.C.M.)
2INRAE, UR EABX, 50 A enue de Ve dun, 33612 Ces as, F ance; [email p o ec ed]
3MARE—Ma ine and En i onmen al Sciences Cen e, Facul y o Sciences, Uni e si y o Lisbon,
Campo G ande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Po ugal
4Depa men o Biology and CESAM, Uni e si y o A ei o, 3810-193 A ei o, Po ugal
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +351-239-240-700 (ex . 262-286)
Abs ac :
Wo ld aquacul u e ood p oduc ion ises e e y yea , amoun ing, by 2018, o ano he
all- ime eco d o 82.1 million onnes o a med sea ood, wi h Asia leading global p oduc ion. In
Eu ope, al hough coas al coun ies p esen his o ical ishing habi s, aquacul u e is in ue expansion.
No way, he leading Eu opean p oduce , is he eigh h main p oduce wo ldwide. Po ugal is a
adi ional ishing coun y bu has in es ed in he de elopmen o aquacul u e o he pas decade,
a aining, by 2018, 13.3 onnes p oduced, making Po ugal he 16 h main p oduce amongs Eu opean
Union membe s a es ha yea . Mos Po uguese aquacul u e acili ies ope a e in coas al sys ems,
eso ing o ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e ea ing echniques. In Po ugal, ma ine ood p oduc ion
in ansi ional sys ems is pa icula ly in e es ing as he p ac ice has, wo ldwide, been con inuously
subs i u ed by in ensi e me hods. In ac , acili ies in ansi ional sys ems ha e de eloped o e
ime and p oduc s gained highe comme cial alue. Clams and oys e s co esponded, oge he ,
o o e h ee qua e s o o al mollusc p oduc ion in Po ugal in 2018, while gil head seab eam
and Eu opean seabass made up nea ly all ish p oduc ion in coas al en i onmen s. The s a e o
aquacul u e p ac ices wo ldwide is e iewed in he p esen wo k, p o iding a pa icula ocus on
Po ugal, whe e conside able de elopmen o he aquacul u e sec o is expec ed.
Keywo ds:
aquacul u e; ea ing me hods; ansi ional sys ems; Po ugal case s udy; wo ld aquacul u e
p oduc ion
1. In oduc ion
Al hough da ing back housands o yea s, aquacul u e has only ecen ly expe ienced
g ea de elopmen wo ldwide.
I is unclea when aquacul u e p ac ices began, bu indings o e he yea s sugges
he ac i i y has exis ed o cen u ies. The i s s eps in his p oduc ion may da e back
o he Neoli hic age, a ound 4000 B.C., ocusing on apping aqua ic animals in small
wa e bodies o hem o be a ailable a any ime needed [
1
]. Pic o ial eng a ings on ancien
Egyp ian ombs, da ing om 2500 B.C., ep esen he ha es o ilapia om a i icial ponds;
he ea ing o ca ps in China, da ing back o he i h cen u y B.C., is p obably he mos
well-known e idence o ancien aquacul u e ac i i ies. In Eu ope, Romans a ened ish in
anks ha we e p ima ily aimed o he ea ing o oys e s o o sal p oduc ion, bu i was
only du ing he Middle Ages ha Eu opean communi ies ook he i s s eps in aqua ic
animals’ ea ing, g owing ish, especially ca ps, in monas e ies’ ponds [1–3].
Aqua ic animals’ a ming in ansi ional en i onmen s also began o de elop a ound
ha ime in Sou he n Eu opean coun ies, whe e coas al lagoons and ponds we e used o
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/jmse10030417 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/jmse
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 2 o 20
main ain ish b ough in by he ocean ide, usually al e na ing wi h sal p oduc ion in he
same a eas. As o he a ming o molluscs, i s ea ly de elopmen da es o he 13 h cen u y,
and o ganisms, especially oys e s and mussels, we e p oduced in pole cul u es, sp eading
along he F ench A lan ic coas line du ing he 19 h cen u y; No he n Eu opean coun ies,
on he o he hand, de eloped bo om cul u es o he ea ing o he same o ganisms [1,3].
Aquacul u e wo ldwide expe ienced signi ican de elopmen om he beginning
o he 20 h cen u y, and, a ound he 1970s, awa eness o he nega i e impac s ha yea s
o in ensi e ishing had caused on wild ish s ocks aised an ecological conce n. This
con ibu ed o g ea e de elopmen o aquacul u e ac i i y and discussion abou i s bene i s
and impo ance om ei he ecological o economical pe spec i es. Hence, a ound ha
ime, aquacul u e p ac ices began o be ega ded no only as a means o ob ain sea ood
complemen a y o cap u e ishe ies, bu also as a way o eleasing he o e p essu e on wild
s ocks and p oducing o ganisms o es ock o e exploi ed wild s ocks.
The de elopmen o ishe ies and aquacul u e enabled popula ions o sea ch o mo e
di e si ied die s, which, oge he wi h he awa eness o he heal h bene i s associa ed wi h
sea ood consump ion, led o an inc ease in he demand o such p oduc s. Acco ding o
he Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO), sea ood p oduc ion om cap u e ishe ies
has s abilized since he 1980s, whe eas aquacul u e p oduc ion has inc eased, almos
hand-in-hand wi h he g ow h in sea ood consump ion wo ldwide [3].
The p esen e iew aims o ga he a concise o e iew o he s a us o aquacul u e
p ac ices wo ldwide, s ess asymme ies ega ding p oduc ion ac oss he globe—be ween
and wi hin con inen s—and aise ques ions abou he de elopmen o he ac i i y and
i s impac a di e en scales. Mo eo e , he wo k ocuses on he case s udy o coas al
aquacul u e in Po ugal, which has eso ed o ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e ea ing. These
me hods a e, nowadays, almos obsole e in mos Sou he n Eu opean coun ies—which
ha e ansi ioned o mos ly in ensi e me hods o p oduc ion—bu h i e in Po ugal.
2. Me hodology
To cha ac e ize he s a us o aquacul u e wo ldwide, published wo k ega ding he
sec o was sea ched o each con inen and deepened o majo p oducing coun ies, as
well as o Po ugal, as case s udy. Two main sou ces we e used o da a analysis: (i) he
Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO) egula publica ions on he s a e o ishe ies and
aquacul u e [
4
] and FAO s a is ics [
5
]. Al hough he mos ecen publica ions on cap u e
ishe ies and speci ic in o ma ion ega ding aquacul u e in pa icula coun ies da e o
2019 o 2020, he mos comp ehensi e da a collec ion ega ding he aquacul u e sec o
wo ldwide da es o 2018 [
4
,
5
], which is he eason o conside ing he yea 2018 as epo ing
yea in he p esen e iew; (ii) he Po uguese Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics (Es a ís icas da
Pesca) (INE) [
6
–
9
], which cons i u es a “g ey” a ea o da a accessibili y as he published
in o ma ion exis s only in Po uguese, being less accessible o a wide public.
Fo simpli ica ion pu poses, he e m “sea ood” will be used in his wo k o ela e o
all aqua ic animals aimed o human consump ion, including in ish species, molluscs and
c us aceans.
3. A Global O e iew
The olume o aquacul u e p oduc s’ supply o human consump ion su passed he
supply o he same pu pose om cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 2014 [
4
,
5
]. In 2018,
he o al wo ld aquacul u e sea ood p oduc ion accoun ed o abou 82.1 million onnes,
aluing an es ima e o 250.1 billion US dolla s, wi h ish being he main cul u ed g oup,
aluing abou 139.7 billion US dolla s [
4
,
5
]. Ma ine and coas al aquacul u e o aqua ic
animals co esponded o 37.5% o o al wo ld aquacul u e, o which 56.2% was o molluscs’
p oduc ion [
4
,
5
]. Al hough eshwa e and diad omous ish supply su passed ha o
cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 1986 and 1997, espec i ely, and despi e ma ine ish
a ming being in ue expansion, i is conside ed unlikely o su pass supply om cap u e
ishe ies in he nea u u e. This may be due o a ious easons, including he ac ha no
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 3 o 20
all desi ed species can be cu en ly p oduced in aquacul u e (ei he due o echnological
cons ain s o unp o i abili y compa ed o cap u e ishe ies), and he public’s pe cep ion
o he quali y—usually in o ganolep ic e ms—o aquacul u e p oduc s. This las possible
explana ion is mos common in ishing coun ies, which, especially nowadays, may be
biased by adi ional beha iou and habi s alone, coupled wi h a lack o in o ma ion abou
he quali y o a med sea ood. All his in luences he accep ance o aquacul u e p oduc s,
main aining he demand o cap u ed p oduc s [4,5,10,11].
Global aquacul u e p oduc ion o aqua ic animals has been g owing a an a e age a e
o 5.3% in he pe iod 2001–2018, al hough a dec ease o 4.5% was eco ded be ween 2016
and 2018. This is a ibu ed o a lowe p oduc ion in China, he wo ld leading p oduce ,
which esul ed in a dec eased wo ld g ow h a e o 4% in 2017 and 3.2% in 2018. Al hough
he es o he wo ld combined also wi nessed a slowe g ow h a e in p oduc ion, i s ill
p esen ed a a e o 6.7% and 5.5% g ow h in 2017 and 2018, espec i ely [4,5].
Asia is he leading con inen in ma ine, coas al and eshwa e sea ood aquacul u e
p oduc ion, bo h in e ms o olume and es ima ed i s -sale alue, p oducing in 2018
abou 88.7% o he o al olume o aquacul u e p oduc s wo ldwide. The Ame icas a e he
second con inen wi h he highes p oduc ion in e ms o olume, accoun ing o 4.6% o he
o al aquacul u e p oduc ion, ollowed by Eu ope, which con ibu ed abou 3.8% o wo ld
p oduc ion. A ica p oduced abou 2.7% o he wo ld’s a med aqua ic animals in 2018
and Oceania accoun ed o he p oduc ion o less han 0.25% o o al wo ld aquacul u e
p oduc s in olume in 2018 [
4
,
5
]. Al hough Asia is he leade in aquacul u e p oduc ion
conce ning bo h olume and alue, as men ioned abo e, he p oduc s a med in The
Ame icas and Eu ope especially, sus ain g ea e ma ke alue pe olume uni [
4
]. The
con ibu ion o he di e en ypes o aquacul u e en i onmen o each con inen o al
p oduc ion is ep esen ed in Figu e 1.
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 21
3. A Global O e iew
The olume o aquacul u e p oduc s’ supply o human consump ion su passed he
supply o he same pu pose om cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 2014 [4,5]. In 2018,
he o al wo ld aquacul u e sea ood p oduc ion accoun ed o abou 82.1 million onnes,
aluing an es ima e o 250.1 billion US dolla s, wi h ish being he main cul u ed g oup,
aluing abou 139.7 billion US dolla s [4,5]. Ma ine and coas al aquacul u e o aqua ic
animals co esponded o 37.5% o o al wo ld aquacul u e, o which 56.2% was o
molluscs’ p oduc ion [4,5]. Al hough eshwa e and diad omous ish supply su passed
ha o cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 1986 and 1997, espec i ely, and despi e
ma ine ish a ming being in ue expansion, i is conside ed unlikely o su pass supply
om cap u e ishe ies in he nea u u e. This may be due o a ious easons, including
he ac ha no all desi ed species can be cu en ly p oduced in aquacul u e (ei he due
o echnological cons ain s o unp o i abili y compa ed o cap u e ishe ies), and he
public’s pe cep ion o he quali y—usually in o ganolep ic e ms—o aquacul u e
p oduc s. This las possible explana ion is mos common in ishing coun ies, which,
especially nowadays, may be biased by adi ional beha iou and habi s alone, coupled
wi h a lack o in o ma ion abou he quali y o a med sea ood. All his in luences he
accep ance o aquacul u e p oduc s, main aining he demand o cap u ed p oduc s
[4,5,10,11].
Global aquacul u e p oduc ion o aqua ic animals has been g owing a an a e age
a e o 5.3% in he pe iod 2001–2018, al hough a dec ease o 4.5% was eco ded be ween
2016 and 2018. This is a ibu ed o a lowe p oduc ion in China, he wo ld leading
p oduce , which esul ed in a dec eased wo ld g ow h a e o 4% in 2017 and 3.2% in 2018.
Al hough he es o he wo ld combined also wi nessed a slowe g ow h a e in
p oduc ion, i s ill p esen ed a a e o 6.7% and 5.5% g ow h in 2017 and 2018, espec i ely
[4,5].
Asia is he leading con inen in ma ine, coas al and eshwa e sea ood aquacul u e
p oduc ion, bo h in e ms o olume and es ima ed i s -sale alue, p oducing in 2018
abou 88.7% o he o al olume o aquacul u e p oduc s wo ldwide. The Ame icas a e
he second con inen wi h he highes p oduc ion in e ms o olume, accoun ing o 4.6%
o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion, ollowed by Eu ope, which con ibu ed abou 3.8% o
wo ld p oduc ion. A ica p oduced abou 2.7% o he wo ld’s a med aqua ic animals in
2018 and Oceania accoun ed o he p oduc ion o less han 0.25% o o al wo ld
aquacul u e p oduc s in olume in 2018 [4,5]. Al hough Asia is he leade in aquacul u e
p oduc ion conce ning bo h olume and alue, as men ioned abo e, he p oduc s a med
in The Ame icas and Eu ope especially, sus ain g ea e ma ke alue pe olume uni [4].
The con ibu ion o he di e en ypes o aquacul u e en i onmen o each con inen o al
p oduc ion is ep esen ed in Figu e 1.
Figu e 1. Sea ood p oduc ion o b ackish, esh and ma ine aquacul u e: pe cen age o o al
p oduc ion in 2018 by aqua ic sys em in each con inen . Da a sou ces: FAO, 2020; FAOSTAT, 2022.
0 20406080100
A ica
Ame icas
Asia
Eu ope
Oceania
Pe cen age (%)
B ackishwa e F eshwa e Ma ine
Figu e 1.
Sea ood p oduc ion o b ackish, esh and ma ine aquacul u e: pe cen age o o al p oduc-
ion in 2018 by aqua ic sys em in each con inen . Da a sou ces: FAO, 2020; FAOSTAT, 2022.
Asia has led aquacul u e p oduc ion wo ldwide o he pas wo decades. Inland aqua-
cul u e is he mos common in he con inen , ep esen ing abou 65.5% o he con inen ’s
aquacul u e p oduc ion. None heless, Asia is also, by a , he leade in ma ine and coas al
aquacul u e in he wo ld, accoun ing, by 2018, o 25.1 million onnes o sea ood p oduc ion,
abou 81.6% o he wo ld’s o al ma ine and coas al aquacul u e p oduc ion [
4
,
5
]. O he
en op aquacul u e p oducing coun ies, i e belong o he Asian con inen : China (abou
58% o global p oduc ion), India (8.6%), Indonesia (6.6%), Vie nam (5%) and Bangladesh
(abou 3%). O hese, only Indonesia does no exceed 50% o aquacul u e p oduc s o he
o al (cap u e ishe ies and aquacul u e) p oduc ion, accoun ing o 43% o a med p od-
uc s. China alone has p oduced, since 1991, mo e aqua ic ood han he es o he wo ld
combined. The no iceable all in China’s p oduc ion in he pe iod 2016–2018, as b ie ly
men ioned be o e, is explained by he coun y’s ecen adop ion o s a egies owa ds he
imp o emen o he sec o , sea ching o mo e sus ainable and eco-sound p ac ises, wi h
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 4 o 20
highe e iciency in esou ce u iliza ion, while ocusing on he economic de elopmen o
u al and o he a ge ed po e y-s icken a eas [4,5].
Chile alone con ibu es abou a hi d o all aquacul u e p oduc ion in he Ame icas,
being, as well, he eigh h majo p oduce in he wo ld [
4
,
5
]. Chilean aquacul u e ocuses
mainly on he p oduc ion o bo h exo ic and na i e species o in ish, such as salmon
and meag e, and o molluscs, including ed abalone, Japanese oys e and clams. These
species a e qui e commonly a med ac oss he en i e con inen [
12
]. The Uni ed S a es
o Ame ica s ands ou in e ms o eshwa e aquacul u e p oduc ion, wi h he a ming
o mainly ca ish [
13
], con eying he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica he 14 h place o majo
inland aquacul u e p oduce s wo ldwide [
4
,
5
]. Mos coun ies in he Ame icas, apa om
Chile, ely g ea ly on ishing e o s, bu many ha e iden i ied aquacul u e as a po en ially
de eloping indus y [4].
A ica is, o all i e con inen s, he one expe iencing he highes g ow h a es in aqua ic
animals’ p oduc ion since 2001. The highes a e was eco ded in he pe iod 2006–2010, o
o e 14% o g ow h compa ed o he p e ious pe iod. Al hough he a e ell in subsequen
yea s, in he pe iod 2016–2018, he con inen s ill egis e ed a g ow h a e o e 7%, abo e
all o he con inen s and he wo ld a e age. Egyp , Nige ia and Uganda ha e con ibu ed
signi ican ly o ha g ow h, showing an e e - ising end in aquacul u e p oduc ion, and
con ibu ing abou 91% o o al aquacul u e p oduc s o he con inen [
4
,
5
]. Egyp is,
mo eo e , he six h main p oduce wo ldwide. Almos all p oduc ion (99%) in A ican
coun ies is inland, in eshwa e sys ems, ocusing on he ea ing o ilapia and A ican
ca ish. Ma icul u e con ibu es o he emaining 1% o p oduc ion bu is a sec o o which
g ea e impo ance has been gi en since he ea ly 2010s [4,14,15].
The apid ise in p oduc ion in some A ican coun ies has been epo ed o be due o
new in es men s, bo h public and p i a e. Nume ous small and medium scale en e p ises
(SMEs) o aquacul u e ha e been se up, as well as la ge comme cial en e p ises o public
suppo . Acco ding o some au ho s, he expansion o he aquacul u e sec o in some
A ican coun ies is ela ed o an o e all g owing in e es and en husiasm esul an om
s ong public suppo , o eign in es men and impo o expe ise, as well as awa eness
aised by con e ences and he implemen a ion o he SPADA P og am (Special P og am o
Aquacul u e De elopmen in A ica) [15,16].
The in es men in he aquacul u e sec o consis ed o he subs i u ion o ex ensi e
and semi-in ensi e ea ing sys ems by in ensi e pond ea ing, which enabled a much
highe densi y o animals, se up o ha che y and seed p oduc ion, as well as eed p oduc-
ion. Egyp has he highes numbe o ha che y and seed acili ies [
15
–
18
], as well as all
aquacul u e eed being p oduced in he coun y [
19
–
21
]. A SWOT analysis conduc ed
by
Adeleke e al. (2021) [22]
showed ha bo h Egyp and Nige ia p esen well-de eloped
aquacul u e sec o s, wi h h i ing p oduc ion and exis ence o ma ke oppo uni ies o
p oduc low, associa ed wi h economic de elopmen .
Oceania is s ill qui e unde de eloped in e ms o aquacul u e p oduc ion [
4
,
5
]. The
con inen ’s con ibu ion o global aquacul u e in 2018 co esponded o 0.25%, consis ing
mainly o he ea ing o salmonids, una and molluscs [
4
,
5
,
22
–
27
]. New Zealand is he majo
p oducing coun y, ha ing p oduced, in 2018, o e 104 housand onnes o a med li e
weigh . Aus alia ollowed, p oducing o e 96 housand onnes. Aquacul u e is de eloping
in bo h coun ies; howe e , due o hei ex emely la ge Exclusi e Economic Zone (EEZ;
Aus alia’s and New Zealand’s EEZs a e he hi d and ou h la ges in he wo ld), mos
aqua ic animals’ p oduc ion is s ill coming om cap u e ishe ies—only abou 20% and
35% o aqua ic p oduc s a e om aquacul u e in New Zealand and Aus alia, espec i ely.
Despi e he ela i ely low sha e o aquacul u e con ibu ion o aqua ic animal’s p oduc ion
in Aus alia, i is he coun y’s as es de eloping p ima y ac i i y. Fa ming o aqua ic
animals in Aus alia ocuses on he a ening s ages o Sou he n Blue in una in o sho e
cages, p oduc ion o salmonids om ini ial s ages (b oods ock p oduc ion insho e and
o sho e), p awn ea ing in pond s a ions, mussels in opes in ma ine wa e s, as well as on
he p oduc ion o abalone, oys e s and o he in ish (such as ba amundi) []. New Zealand’s
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 5 o 20
aquacul u e ocuses mainly on he ea ing o h ee species: g een shell mussels, paci ic
oys e and Chinook salmon [23–28].
Aquacul u e p oduc ion in Eu ope in 2018 ep esen ed nea ly 4% o he wo ld’s
aquacul u e p oduc ion, wi h an ou pu o abou 3.1 million onnes. Ma ine species make
up mos o he Eu opean aquacul u e, accoun ing, by 2018, o abou 83.5% o he con inen ’s
o al p oduc ion [
4
,
29
], hus lea ing mos Eu opean aquacul u e o be ca ied ou in ma ine
and coas al en i onmen s. Fish and molluscs we e he main g oups ea ed, ep esen ing
nea ly he whole o he aquacul u e p oduc ion in Eu ope in 2018; he p oduc ion o
c us aceans and o he aqua ic animals ep esen ed a mino slice o Eu ope’s p oduc ion.
Highly p oducing Eu opean coun ies ocus mainly on he p oduc ion o ma icul u e in ish
species, such as coldwa e salmonids, as is he case o No way and he Uni ed Kingdom
o G ea B i ain, and o he ma ine species, such as seabass and seab eam. No way is
he leading Eu opean coun y in aquacul u e p oduc ion, wi h an ou pu o mo e han
50% o he o al p oduc ion in Eu ope by olume in 2018 (abou 1.4 million onnes o li e
weigh ) and he se en h main aquacul u e p oduce wo ldwide [
4
,
29
,
30
]. I s p oduc ion
ocuses mainly on he ea ing o A lan ic salmon, which has been highly op imized o allow
maximum p oduc ion, adap ing o a he ough condi ions [31].
Spain, he Uni ed Kingdom and F ance we e he ollowing op Eu opean p oduce s,
accoun ing, oge he , o abou 22.3% o he o al Eu opean p oduc ion in 2018 [
30
]. The
Russian Fede a ion alls in i h place o majo aquacul u e p oduce s in Eu ope—al hough
he coun y ex ends h ough wo con inen s, he au ho s ha e chosen o include he in-
o ma ion as pa o he Eu opean p oduc ion da a, simila ly o he FAO. The Russian
Fede a ion ocuses mainly on he p oduc ion o eshwa e species; i is pa icula ly in e es -
ing o no e he ecen de elopmen o s u geon aquacul u e, which enabled he expansion
o black ca ia p oduc ion, especially appealing o in e na ional ma ke s [32]
Sou he n Eu opean coun ies—Spain, I aly, G eece, Tu key and Po ugal—ha e a long
his o y in aquacul u e p oduc ion and a e esponsible o he sha e o p oduc ion o ma ine
in ish, some eshwa e ish and molluscs, which ake he la ges sha e o he p oduc ion.
Apa om Po ugal, all o he coun ies ha e gene ally op imized hei ea ing me hods
in he pas ew decades o maximize ou pu s, eso ing o echnological de elopmen s o
in ensi e ea ing me hods [4,29,30,33–36].
Spain, F ance and I aly, al hough p oducing a numbe o comme cially impo an
ma ine, diad omous and eshwa e in ish species, s and ou om he es o he Eu opean
p oducing coun ies due o he highes sha e o each na ion’s o al aquacul u e p oduc ion
being mollusc a ming [
4
,
33
–
36
]. Spanish sha e p oduc ion o bi al es co esponded, in
2018, o 82.5% o o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he coun y, consis ing mainly o mussels,
oys e s, clams and abalone [
33
,
34
]. F ance’s sha e o bi al es was 78.2%, while I aly’s was
65%. F ance ocused 64% o i s bi al es’ p oduc ion on oys e s and nea ly 34% in mussel
p oduc ion [35].
G eece and Tu key a e he main Eu opean p oduce s o Eu opean seabass and gil head
seab eam, bu hese a e also ex emely impo an species in Spain, I aly and Po ugal. Spain
has he pa icula i y o being he second majo p oduce o A lan ic Blue in una in he
wo ld, only p eceded by Japan. Fish a e cap u ed in he Medi e anean a e hei mig a ion
o spawning, being subjec ed o a sys em o pa ial aquacul u e, whe e ish a e ed wi h
highly nu i ious and a y eeds, o es o e hei high-quali y a con en , and hen be
ma ke ed o he whole wo ld [29,30,33–36].
The con ibu ion o each species’ g oup o aquacul u e p oduc ion in he main Eu o-
pean p oducing coun ies is ep esen ed in Figu e 2.
A lan ic salmon (Salmo sala , Linnaeus 1758) was he main species ea ed, especially
in No way, which is he majo salmon p oduce wo ldwide, accoun ing o 1.28 million
onnes p oduced in 2018, ollowed by he Uni ed Kingdom, he hi d main p oduce o
he species in he wo ld, wi h a p oduc ion o 156 housand onnes in ha yea . Rainbow
ou (Onco hynchus mykiss, Walbaum 1792) was he second species mos ea ed, wi h
No way and F ance as he main p oduce s, ollowed by gil head seab eam (Spa us au a a,

J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 6 o 20
Linnaeus, 1758) and Eu opean seabass (Dicen a chus lab ax, Linnaeus 1758), bo h mainly
p oduced by Tu key and G eece, occupying hi d and ou h places, espec i ely, as main
species ea ed [
29
,
30
]. Conce ning molluscs’ p oduc ion, mussels we e he leade in e ms
o olume p oduced, co esponding o abou wo- hi ds o molluscs’ p oduc ion in Eu-
ope, ea ed especially in Spain, ollowed by oys e p oduc ion, wi h F ance as he main
p oducing coun y [4,30].
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 21
G eece and Tu key a e he main Eu opean p oduce s o Eu opean seabass and gil -
head seab eam, bu hese a e also ex emely impo an species in Spain, I aly and Po u-
gal. Spain has he pa icula i y o being he second majo p oduce o A lan ic Blue in una
in he wo ld, only p eceded by Japan. Fish a e cap u ed in he Medi e anean a e hei
mig a ion o spawning, being subjec ed o a sys em o pa ial aquacul u e, whe e ish a e
ed wi h highly nu i ious and a y eeds, o es o e hei high-quali y a con en , and
hen be ma ke ed o he whole wo ld [29,30,33–36].
The con ibu ion o each species’ g oup o aquacul u e p oduc ion in he main Eu-
opean p oducing coun ies is ep esen ed in Figu e 2.
Figu e 2. Aquacul u e ish p oduc ion o he main p oducing coun ies in Eu ope in e ms o ol-
ume: pe cen age o Eu opean o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in 2018. Values abo e each column ep-
esen he aquacul u e p oduc ion o each coun y in e ms o pe cen age o he o al Eu opean aq-
uacul u e p oduc ion in 2018. Da a sou ce: FAO, 2020.
A lan ic salmon (Salmo sala , Linnaeus 1758) was he main species ea ed, especially
in No way, which is he majo salmon p oduce wo ldwide, accoun ing o 1.28 million
onnes p oduced in 2018, ollowed by he Uni ed Kingdom, he hi d main p oduce o
he species in he wo ld, wi h a p oduc ion o 156 housand onnes in ha yea . Rainbow
ou (Onco hynchus mykiss, Walbaum 1792) was he second species mos ea ed, wi h No -
way and F ance as he main p oduce s, ollowed by gil head seab eam (Spa us au a a, Lin-
naeus, 1758) and Eu opean seabass (Dicen a chus lab ax, Linnaeus 1758), bo h mainly p o-
duced by Tu key and G eece, occupying hi d and ou h places, espec i ely, as main
species ea ed [29,30]. Conce ning molluscs’ p oduc ion, mussels we e he leade in e ms
o olume p oduced, co esponding o abou wo- hi ds o molluscs’ p oduc ion in Eu-
ope, ea ed especially in Spain, ollowed by oys e p oduc ion, wi h F ance as he main
p oducing coun y [4,30].
4. Aquacul u e in Po ugal
Po ugal is a adi ional ishing coun y, wi h a as Exclusi e Economic Zone
(EEZ)— he 20 h la ges EEZ in he wo ld—and a wo ld-known adi ion o high sea ood
consump ion, bo h in e ms o quan i y and di e si y o p oduc s [6–9]. Po uguese ish
consump ion pe capi a in 2018 was 61.5 kg, making Po ugal he majo consume wi hin
he Eu opean Union membe s a es and he hi d majo consume wo ldwide, p eceded
only by Ko ea and No way [4,29,30]. A seasonal ise in ish consump ion can also be as-
socia ed wi h in ense ou ism du ing summe mon hs, which demands a signi ican ex a
supply o such p oduc s. The combina ion o an ex emely high demand o sea ood, as-
socia ed o geog aphic, abundance o ma ine esou ces and adi ional easons [37], esul
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
No way Spain Russian
Fede a ion
UK F ance
Thousand onnes
Diad omous in ish F eshwa e in ish Ma ine in ish Molluscs
10%
7%
7%
46%
8%
Figu e 2.
Aquacul u e ish p oduc ion o he main p oducing coun ies in Eu ope in e ms o olume:
pe cen age o Eu opean o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in 2018. Values abo e each column ep esen
he aquacul u e p oduc ion o each coun y in e ms o pe cen age o he o al Eu opean aquacul u e
p oduc ion in 2018. Da a sou ce: FAO, 2020.
4. Aquacul u e in Po ugal
Po ugal is a adi ional ishing coun y, wi h a as Exclusi e Economic Zone (EEZ)—
he 20 h la ges EEZ in he wo ld—and a wo ld-known adi ion o high sea ood consump-
ion, bo h in e ms o quan i y and di e si y o p oduc s [
6
–
9
]. Po uguese ish consump ion
pe capi a in 2018 was 61.5 kg, making Po ugal he majo consume wi hin he Eu opean
Union membe s a es and he hi d majo consume wo ldwide, p eceded only by Ko ea
and No way [
4
,
29
,
30
]. A seasonal ise in ish consump ion can also be associa ed wi h
in ense ou ism du ing summe mon hs, which demands a signi ican ex a supply o
such p oduc s. The combina ion o an ex emely high demand o sea ood, associa ed
o geog aphic, abundance o ma ine esou ces and adi ional easons [
37
], esul in he
impo o almos wo- hi ds o aqua ic animals o human consump ion. In 2018, Po ugal
impo ed 336.5 housand onnes o sea ood o human consump ion, co esponding almos
en i ely o in ish impo s. Cod (including di e en species o he genus Gadus) is he
main impo ed in ish, ei he esh, ozen o sa ed, co esponding o 37% o o al in ish
impo s [
5
]. The species does no exis in Po uguese wa e s bu has emained a c ucial
ing edien in he coun y’s ea ing habi s, also encou aged by he high-quali y nu i ious
p o ile o he ish, pa icula ly i s con en in omega-3 a y acids. In ac , un il ecen imes,
p o iding “cod li e oil” o child en as an omega-3 a y acids’ supplemen was e y
common in Po ugal [38,39].
Al hough cap u e ishe ies con inue o play a i al ole in he Po uguese economy,
aquacul u e has o a long ime exis ed in he coun y.
Ac i e udimen al aquacul u e me hods a e hough o ha e been p ac iced o cen-
u ies in mainland Po ugal, consis ing essen ially o he imp isonmen o ish ju eniles ha
used ansi ional sys ems as nu se y a eas in sal wo ks and ponds in we lands, le ing hem
g ow o be ha es ed when a a desi able size o consump ion. Aquacul u e in con inen al
Po ugal emained almos exclusi ely a amilia ac i i y un il a ound he beginning o he
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 7 o 20
20 h cen u y when i began o be ega ded as a po en ial comme cial ac i i y ha could
con ibu e o he coun y’s economy. Rainbow ou and eshwa e species we e he i s
o be a med a a comme cial le el, bu aquacul u e in Po ugal la e e ol ed o he ea ing
o mainly ma ine species.
Despi e he men ioned ini ial ad ances in aquacul u e in Po ugal, he ac i i y had
a slow de elopmen o e he yea s, as ishing has always played an impo an ole in
he adi ion and economy o he coun y [
40
]. Be o e he 1970s, 80% o ish aquacul u e
p oduc ion in Po ugal was o mulle s; hen, du ing he 1980s, he p oduc ion was mos ly
o eshwa e ainbow ou and bi al es in in e idal zones. The aquacul u e o ma ine
species did no expe ience ue de elopmen un il he 1990 decade, ocusing a i s on he
ea ing o gil head seab eam and Eu opean seabass, and mo e ecen ly on he ea ing o
u bo (Scoph halmus maximus, Linnaeus 1758) and sole (Solea spp.) [41].
The de elopmen o aquacul u e in Po ugal ook place a e he coun y became a
membe s a e o he Eu opean Union (EU) in 1986 (a ha ime, named Eu opean Economic
Commission). Because aquacul u e was a key componen o he EU’s Blue G ow h Agenda,
communi y unds we e a ibu ed o Po ugal as a membe s a e o he de elopmen o
he ac i i y and he Po uguese Go e nmen i sel in es ed in aquacul u e de elopmen
as well. The inancial suppo gi en was in ended o he de elopmen o esea ch p o-
g ammes ha could enhance knowledge and know-how abou aqua ic animals’ ea ing, he
cons uc ion o new and mo e sui able es ablishmen s, p o essional aining o a me s and
inancial suppo o p o essional o ganiza ions [
40
–
42
]. Al hough Po uguese aquacul u e
expe ienced some de elopmen in he 1980s, he p oduc ion dec eased signi ican ly in he
1990s, mainly due o a lack o c i e ia o he applica ion o he a ailable unds and issues in
he p oduc ion me hods applied, leading o he un iabili y o many aquacul u e uni s [
42
].
None heless, despi e some luc ua ions in aquacul u e p oduc ion o e he yea s, he e has
been a gene al ising end in aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal, and ue expansion in
he pas couple o yea s [6–9].
Po uguese aquacul u e ocuses on he p oduc ion o ma ine ish and mollusc species,
and mos acili ies a e loca ed on he coun y’s mainland. Al hough in ensi e aquacul u e
has gained ue impo ance ecen ly, especially ega ding ish p oduc ion, mos es ablish-
men s a e loca ed and ha e u he expanded in coas al sys ems, such as es ua ies and
coas al lagoons, along he coun y’s mainland coas line. Aquacul u e in he Po uguese
a chipelagos is ye poo ly de eloped—only he Madei a a chipelago p esen s aquacul-
u e p oduc ion, cu en ly—al hough e o s a e being made o expand he ac i i y in he
Madei a islands and p omo e he de elopmen o aquacul u e p oduc ion in he Azo es
a chipelago [6–9].
The o al ma ine aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal in 2018 was abou 13.99 housand
onnes, accoun ing o li le o e 0.50% o Eu ope’s o al aquacul u e p oduc ion [
4
–
9
,
29
].
Compa ed o o he Eu opean coun ies o he EU, Po ugal p esen s a much slowe p og ess
in aquacul u e p oduc ion and de elopmen , occupying 16 h place in he ank o o al
aquacul u e p oduc ion amongs EU membe s a es in 2018, con ibu ing wi h less han 1%
o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in e ms o olume in he EU [29,30].
The aquacul u e o ma ine o ganisms in con inen al Po ugal is essen ially ca ied ou
in es ua ies and we lands along he coas , especially in he cen e and sou h o he coun y,
eso ing o ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e ea ing me hods. Al hough he e is po en ial
o he ea ing o eshwa e o ganisms, aquacul u e ac i i y in Po ugal has ocused es-
sen ially on he p oduc ion o ma ine species since ecen de elopmen s in aquacul u e
in he 20 h cen u y. In ac , eshwa e aquacul u e in Po ugal ep esen ed 4.98% o he
o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he coun y in 2018, 10.3% less han he eshwa e aqua-
cul u e p oduc ion egis e ed in 2017. Aquacul u e p oduc ion in ma ine and es ua ine
sys ems accoun ed o he emaining 95% o he p oduc ion [
6
–
9
]. The species ea ed
in he men ioned sys ems, al hough ma ine species, equen ly en e es ua ies and o he
coas al sys ems a some poin du ing hei de elopmen , and a e, hus, well-adap ed o
he en i onmen al condi ions. This ac , along wi h he a ailabili y o ju eniles o he
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 8 o 20
g ow-ou and he high ma ke alue o such species, makes hem he i s choices o
aquacul u e p oduc ion in coas al sys ems in Po ugal [
40
–
44
]. Al hough o sho e a ms
a e beginning o be implemen ed, he e a e s ill e y ew es ablishmen s ope a ing, and
he p oduc ion om hese acili ies is ye no ably low. As o in ensi e aquacul u e sys-
ems, he e we e 23 es ablishmen s ope a ing in Po ugal in 2018, mos ly aimed o he
p oduc ion o u bo and eshwa e ainbow ou [
11
], which seem o be lowe ing in
e ms o numbe . None heless, hese acili ies achie e much highe densi ies o o ganisms
compa ed o semi-in ensi e and ex ensi e sys ems. In 2011, he o al aquacul u e p oduc-
ion in in ensi e sys ems su passed he p oduc ion in ex ensi e sys ems due o a boos
in he p oduc ion o u bo . This species is ea ed essen ially in in ensi e sys ems and, in
2011, i s p oduc ion accoun ed o 3197 onnes alone, con ibu ing o a o al p oduc ion o
3648 onnes in in ensi e sys ems, while he o al p oduc ion in ex ensi e sys ems (including
ish and molluscs), was 3504 onnes. In 2013 he p oduc ion o u bo declined om 4406 o
2353 onnes, causing he dec ease in he olume o aquacul u e p oduc s om in ensi e
ea ing sys ems, a he same ime ha mussel and oys e p oduc ion g ew signi ican ly,
enabling a new peak o p oduc ion in ex ensi e sys ems. F om hen on, ex ensi e ea ing
p oduc ion has isen e e y yea , achie ing a new coun y’s maximum in 2018 [6–9].
Al hough he numbe o es ablishmen s using in ensi e sys ems o p oduc ion is
lowe han hose using ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e sys ems, he compa ison be ween
he olume o p oduc ion om each sys em shows ha he p oduc ion capaci y is much
g ea e in in ensi e sys ems.
Aquacul u e p oduc ion in ma ine and ansi ional wa e s in Po ugal su passed
eshwa e p oduc ion o he i s ime in 1996. I has been he main con ibu o o he o al
aquacul u e p oduc ion in he coun y e e since, ep esen ing, in 2018, 95% o he o al
aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal, and eaching, by ha yea , i s peak in p oduc ion o
he ime ame issued.
Al hough in ensi e aquacul u e has ecen ly shown high p oduc ion ou pu s o a
small numbe o es ablishmen s, semi-in ensi e and ex ensi e aquacul u e a e he mos
commonly used p oduc ion me hods in Po ugal. These me hods ha e been abandoned in
mos Eu opean coun ies while pe se e ing in Po ugal, and e en expe iencing de elop-
men s in e ms o echniques, ea ing s a egies and cul u e cha ac e is ics. Aquacul u e
p oduc ion in he Po uguese a chipelagos is ca ied ou along he coas o he islands, in
ma ine wa e , and, hus, he sys ems a e no exac ly ansi ional sys ems, compa ed o he
eali y on he mainland. Aquacul u e p oduc ion in ansi ional and ma ine wa e s ( om
o sho e and in ensi e p oduc ion cap u ing di ec ly in ma ine wa e s) in mainland Po u-
gal appea s in o icial na ional publica ions as a whole, and, hus, he p oduc ion e e ed
o in he nex sec ion will p o ide he sum o he aquacul u e p oduc ion in bo h sys ems.
The numbe s will co espond almos en i ely o ansi ional en i onmen s’ p oduc ion, as
ma ine o sho e p oduc ion is essen ially negligible, as a o e men ioned.
4.1. P oduc ion in Coas al Sys ems
Fo adminis a i e pu poses, mainland Po ugal may be di ided in o i e main egions:
No h, Cen e, Lisbon and Tagus Valley, Alen ejo and Alga e; he e a e eigh main a eas
o aquacul u e in es ua ine sys ems in Po ugal, which a e ep esen ed in Figu e 3.
One o he mos impo an i e s in Po ugal is in he no h o he coun y’s mainland—
he Dou o i e . Howe e , i s es ua ine sys em is o small dimensions and no e y sui able
o he es ablishmen o aquacul u e a ms. Thus, eshwa e aquacul u e is he mos
ep esen a i e in his egion, whe eas p oduc ion in ansi ional wa e s accoun ed o
a mean o only 4% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion du ing he pe iod
be ween 1999 and 2018 [6–9].
A he cen e o Po ugal, he e a e wo impo an a eas o aquacul u e in ansi ional
wa e s: he Vouga es ua y and he Mondego es ua y.
The Vouga es ua y o ms a complex coas al lagoon wi h se e al na u al ponds, con-
sis ing o an impo an we land, known as Ria de A ei o. This sys em co e s abou 11 ha
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 9 o 20
and has been a Na u a 2000 ne wo k si e since 2014, lis ed as a Special P o ec ion A ea si e
unde he Bi ds Di ec i e. Ri e Vouga uns h ough a mlands and u banized a eas, such
as he ci y o A ei o, du ing i s cou se, being subjec ed o he inpu o many pollu an s om
uno and domes ic was ewa e [
45
], and a highly moni o ed si e in an e o o main ain
i s in eg i y and good s a us, none heless.
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 21
in bo h sys ems. The numbe s will co espond almos en i ely o ansi ional en i on-
men s’ p oduc ion, as ma ine o sho e p oduc ion is essen ially negligible, as a o e men-
ioned.
4.1. P oduc ion in Coas al Sys ems
Fo adminis a i e pu poses, mainland Po ugal may be di ided in o i e main e-
gions: No h, Cen e, Lisbon and Tagus Valley, Alen ejo and Alga e; he e a e eigh main
a eas o aquacul u e in es ua ine sys ems in Po ugal, which a e ep esen ed in Figu e 3.
Figu e 3. Main si es o aquacul u e p oduc ion in con inen al Po ugal—ci cles ma k he main si es
o p oduc ion in coas al sys ems.
One o he mos impo an i e s in Po ugal is in he no h o he coun y’s main-
land— he Dou o i e . Howe e , i s es ua ine sys em is o small dimensions and no e y
sui able o he es ablishmen o aquacul u e a ms. Thus, eshwa e aquacul u e is he
mos ep esen a i e in his egion, whe eas p oduc ion in ansi ional wa e s accoun ed
o a mean o only 4% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion du ing he pe iod
be ween 1999 and 2018 [6–9].
A he cen e o Po ugal, he e a e wo impo an a eas o aquacul u e in ansi-
ional wa e s: he Vouga es ua y and he Mondego es ua y.
The Vouga es ua y o ms a complex coas al lagoon wi h se e al na u al ponds, con-
sis ing o an impo an we land, known as Ria de A ei o. This sys em co e s abou 11 ha
and has been a Na u a 2000 ne wo k si e since 2014, lis ed as a Special P o ec ion A ea si e
unde he Bi ds Di ec i e. Ri e Vouga uns h ough a mlands and u banized a eas, such
as he ci y o A ei o, du ing i s cou se, being subjec ed o he inpu o many pollu an s
Figu e 3.
Main si es o aquacul u e p oduc ion in con inen al Po ugal—ci cles ma k he main si es
o p oduc ion in coas al sys ems.
The Mondego es ua y has been, since 2005, a si e unde he Ramsa Con en ion
on We lands. Along i s cou se, he Mondego i e uns h ough highly u banized a eas
(such as he ci y o Coimb a), ag icul u al ields and indus ialized a eas, un il eaching
i s 1600 ha es ua y; he es ua y i sel is su ounded by u banized (ci y o Figuei a da Foz)
and indus ialized a eas. The human p essu es s a ed abo e con ibu e o he pollu ion o
he i e and he es ua y, being he main sou ces o pollu ion u ban was ewa e ( ha is
o en only pa ially ea ed) and chemical p oduc s (e.g., pes icides, e ilize s, eme ging
con aminan s) om ag icul u al wa e uno and indus ial sewage [46].
Bo h Ria de A ei o and he Mondego es ua y a e e y sui able o aquacul u e in
ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e sys ems, which a e known o ha e been p ac iced o a long
ime in hese a eas, aking ad an age o non-ope a ional sal wo ks and modi ying hem
o he p oduc ion o ish in semi-in ensi e sys ems and molluscs in ex ensi e sys ems.
Aquacul u e in ansi ional wa e s in he Cen e egion ep esen ed a mean o abou 97%
o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion in he pe iod be ween 1999 and 2018,
accoun ing, in 2018, o 99.4% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion. None heless,
he e a e some conce ns o be aken in o conside a ion when ope a ing wi h ex ensi e and
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 16 o 20
he isk o high nu ien loads, o o o he chemicals (such as an ibio ics), om non- ea ed
was ewa e s o su ounding en i onmen s, which can be pa icula ly signi ican in ed
semi-in ensi e ea ing egimes. The ansi ion o single-species aquacul u e acili ies o
in eg a ed mul i- ophic aquacul u e (IMTA) is being adop ed and es ed in some pa s
o he wo ld, especially in majo p oducing coun ies looking o g eene al e na i es o
hei p oduc ion [
4
,
61
]. These sys ems p o ide, as well as ecological bene i s, added alue
o he p o i abili y o land use, as o ganisms o di e en ophic le els may be p oduced
a he same ime. The use o land (o wa e , in he case o o sho e p oduc ion) is ano he
majo issue posed by aquacul u e es ablishmen s, especially ega ding semi-in ensi e and
ex ensi e p ac ices. Facili ies ha e implica ions in he in eg i y o ecosys ems, land and
wa e u iliza ion, o en compe ing wi h o he sec o s [
62
], and hey impac he na u al s a e
o wild communi ies and i e e sibly change habi a s. In some coun ies, such as Po ugal,
o example, he con e sion o inope a i e sal pans somewha dilu es his issue, as land
al eady al e ed is being eused and ehabili a ed, only o a di e en pu pose.
Mo eo e , he mass p oduc ion o highly desi ed species by majo p oducing coun ies
has, in he ecen yea s, esul ed in he sa u a ion o na ional and in e na ional ma ke s,
causing signi ican d ops in he p ices o such species, e en in small-p oducing coun ies,
a ec ing egional economies wi h socie al consequences, no o men ion he conside able
amoun o was e p oduced [
4
]. As b ie ly men ioned be o e, he high inpu o cheape
gil head seab eam and Eu opean seabass p oduced by G eece and Tu key in o Po uguese
ma ke s imbalanced he local consump ion o hose p oduc s, which a e he wo main
in ish species ea ed in he coun y. All hese cons ain s mus be aken in conside a ion
when e alua ing he bene i s o de eloping aquacul u e p ac ices.
In addi ion o he o e all accep ed bene i o aquacul u e o eleasing he p essu e o e
o e exploi ed wild s ocks o mee ish ma ke demands, aquacul u e ough o de elop as a
means o p omo e heal hie nu i ion en i onmen s. Tha is, as well as ul illing i s mos
immedia e ole o eeding popula ions wo ldwide, which is s ill b u ally asymme ical
h oughou he wo ld –, aquacul u e also po en ia es he p o ision and accessibili y o
high-quali y, accessible- o-all ood due o an o e all lowe ing in p ices when compa ed
o cap u ed p oduc s and he selec ion o high-quali y species o a ood sou ce ha is, in
gene al, al eady conside ed heal hy [
63
]. This in ol es he selec ion o species wi h ich
and heal hy nu i ional p o iles and he choice o high-quali y eeds (when i comes o
ed p oduc ion), p e e ably o local p oduc ion, as well as poli ical op ions owa ds he
se ing o achie able p ices, while p ope ly compensa ing p oduce s. All in all, he aim is
an in eg a ed economic s a egy ha enables he p oduc ion and consump ion o locally
p oduced goods ha bene i s coun ies economically, socially and en i onmen ally.
Las (bu no a all leas ), he e is also he necessi y o de e mine whe he u he
de elopmen o aquacul u e p ac ices bene i e e y eali y—hence he need o a coun y-
scale s a egy de ini ion o he p ac ice.
Whiche e solu ion is ound—mo e in ensi e aquacul u e o highe ood p oduc-
ion, o he ede ini ion o cap u e ishe ies o eco-sound p ac ices o p ese e small-scale
ishing— he ex emely high demands o sea ood ma ke s wo ldwide, pa icula ly con-
cen a ed in he No he n hemisphe e, pose a se ious sus ainabili y issue a many le els.
Aquacul u e expansion, ega dless o e o s o u n o mo e sus ainable p ac ises, will
always ake up land and wa e esou ces, esul in mo e o less con olled nu ien s and
o he chemicals’ loads o su ounding wa e bodies and he o e a ching p oduc ion o ood
ha is asymme ically dis ibu ed ac oss he globe, exceeding he need (and p oducing
was e) in a ew places, bu lacking in a lo mo e.
Human die s in he commonly called de eloped coun ies usually exceed he amoun
o nu ien s needed pe day, bu con inue demanding exceeding ood, o en p esen ing
highe o e han consump ion. This gene a es g ea deals o was e om non-ea en p oduc s,
a eali y ha u gen ly needs o be eassessed and edesigned. The con inui y o he
o e demand and was e o ood p oduc s is ep ehensible, especially as i is an issue widely
iden i ied and discussed. Howe e , such habi s con inue o nega i ely impac he access

J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 17 o 20
o ood in less de eloped a eas. S a egies mus be de ined o encou age ea ing habi s
ha a e mo e en i onmen ally sound, al hough i may mean lowe p o i s in expanding
indus ies, such as aquacul u e. On he o he hand, ac ion mus be aken a go e nmen al
and ins i u ional le els o o e ake deepening asymme ies ega ding ood accessibili y
be ween so-called de eloped and de eloping coun ies, especially conce ning he balancing
o ood dis ibu ion, which will necessa ily educe ood was e, a he same ime ha
s eps a e aken owa ds lowe ing malnu i ion ac oss he globe. Al hough his heme has
o a long ime been discussed, being one o he main conce ns decla ed by he Uni ed
Na ions (UN) and associa ed o many Sus ainable De elopmen Goals se in he UN’s
2030 Agenda [
64
], i emains one o he mos se ious social calami ies o ou wo ld, a he
expense o as -g owing in e na ional ma ke s.
6. Conclusions
Aquacul u e con inues o de elop wo ldwide, wi h some coun ies and egions p e-
sen ing uly as expansions, u ning he sec o in o a ele an con ibu o o na ional
economies. Howe e , po en ial issues posed by aquacul u e, ei he en i onmen ally o in a
socio-economic pe spec i e, ha e been somewha o e looked, and need o be eassessed.
As one o he leading ish consume s pe capi a in he wo ld, i would be expec ed ha
Po ugal had al eady u he de eloped aquacul u e p ac ices as a means o ma ching he
ma ke demand and complemen cap u e ishe ies, bu p oduc ion is s ill a om ma ching
such needs. Mo eo e , he mos app ecia ed ish by he Po uguese popula ion—cod—does
no occu in he Po uguese ishing a ea, and canno , ei he , be a med (a leas o he ime
being), making impo s una oidable.
Mos o he aquacul u e acili ies in Po ugal ocus on he p oduc ion o ma ine ish
and bi al e molluscs, essen ially ca ied ou in es ua ies and coas al lagoons, in ex ensi e
and semi-in ensi e sys ems. Al hough acili ies using in ensi e p oduc ion sys ems a e
mo e e icien in he ea ing o o ganisms and could a ain g ea e p oduc ion numbe s,
hey a e only used o a small numbe o ish species.
In con inen al Po ugal, aquacul u e p oduc ion in coas al sys ems eached a li le
o e 13 housand onnes in 2018, he g ea es p oduc ion o he pe iod issued— om 1999
o 2018— ep esen ing abou 95% o he coun y’s o al aquacul u e p oduc ion.
O sho e a ming in Po ugal is in de elopmen bu , o he p esen ime, i eso s o
a ew cages and longline sys ems o bi al e molluscs’ p oduc ion on he sou h coas o
Alga e, ope a ing since 2008.
Fish p oduc ion in semi-in ensi e sys ems accoun s o only abou 5% o he o al
aquacul u e in coas al sys ems in con inen al Po ugal and ocuses mainly on he p oduc-
ion o gil head seab eam and Eu opean seabass, mos ly ea ed in he cen e and sou h
o con inen al Po ugal. Mos ma ine ish p oduc ion is cu en ly being ca ied ou in
in ensi e sys ems; howe e , he de elopmen o semi-in ensi e acili ies and he g ow h in
p oduc ion in some o hese sys ems (and hei in oduc ion in he ma ke s) dese es o be
men ioned as i is a gued ha his mean o p oduc ion e ains ish cha ac e is ics close o
hose ound in wild caugh ish.
Mollusc p oduc ion ep esen ed abou 67% o o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in 2018,
ocusing on he ea ing o clams, oys e s and mussels, almos exclusi ely ea ed in ex ensi e
egimes in coas al a eas.
Al hough a small p oducing coun y, anking 20 h in e ms o aquacul u e olume
p oduc ion in Eu ope, aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal has been showing a ising end
o e he yea s, and esea ch abou aquacul u e’s me hodologies and bes p ac ices is being
de eloped. I is a sec o ha is gi en g ea e impo ance e e y yea and should con inue o
expand and de elop h oughou he ollowing yea s.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
C.P.R., H.N.C., J.C.M., A.M.M.G. concei ed he wo ks’ ou line; C.P.R. w o e
he o iginal ex d a ; H.N.C., J.C.M., A.M.M.G. e iewed and edi ed he ex d a ; H.N.C., J.C.M.,
A.M.M.G. supe ised he p oduc ion o he ex un il i s inal e sion. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 18 o 20
Funding:
This s udy was suppo ed by Fundação pa a a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) wi hin he
scope o he p ojec s UIDB/04292/2020 g an ed o MARE—Ma ine and En i onmen al Sciences
Cen e and UIDP/50017/2020+UIDB/50017/2020 (by FCT/MTCES) g an ed o CESAM—Cen e
o En i onmen al and Ma ine S udies. Ca olina P. Rocha hanks he FCT o he inancial suppo
g an ed h ough he doc o al g an SRFH/BD/140922/2018. Ana M. M. Gonçal es acknowledges
he Uni e si y o Coimb a o he con ac IT057-18-7253.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
Da a on a med and cap u ed p oduc s we e mainly e ie ed om
FishS a J (so wa e a ailable o download a h ps://www. ao.o g/ ishe y/en/s a is ics/so wa e/
ishs a j/en) and Es a ís icas da Pesca (da a shee s a ailable o download a h ps://www.ine.p /
xpo al/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOES ipo=ea&PUBLICACOEScoleccao=
107656&selTab= ab0&xlang=p ).
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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