A Global Overview of Aquaculture Food Production with a Focus on the Activity’s Development in Transitional Systems—The Case Study of a South European Country (Portugal)

  Ci a ion: Rocha, C.P.; Cab al, H.N.; Ma ques, J.C.; Gonçal es, A.M.M. A Global O e iew o Aquacul u e Food P oduc ion wi h a Focus on he Ac i i y’s De elopmen in T ansi ional Sys ems—The Case S udy o a Sou h Eu opean Coun y (Po ugal). J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ jmse10030417 Academic Edi o : Ca e ina Longo Recei ed: 30 Decembe 2021 Accep ed: 7 Ma ch 2022 Published: 13 Ma ch 2022 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a il- ia ions. Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Jou nal o Ma ine Science and Enginee ing Re iew A Global O e iew o Aquacul u e Food P oduc ion wi h a Focus on he Ac i i y’s De elopmen in T ansi ional Sys ems—The Case S udy o a Sou h Eu opean Coun y (Po ugal) Ca olina P. Rocha 1, Hen ique N. Cab al 2,3 , João C. Ma ques 1and Ana M. M. Gonçal es 1,4,* 1Uni e si y o Coimb a, MARE—Ma ine and En i onmen al Sciences Cen e, Depa men o Li e Sciences, Calçada Ma im de F ei as, 3000-456 Coimb a, Po ugal; ca [email p o ec ed] (C.P.R.); [email p o ec ed] (J.C.M.) 2INRAE, UR EABX, 50 A enue de Ve dun, 33612 Ces as, F ance; [email p o ec ed] 3MARE—Ma ine and En i onmen al Sciences Cen e, Facul y o Sciences, Uni e si y o Lisbon, Campo G ande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Po ugal 4Depa men o Biology and CESAM, Uni e si y o A ei o, 3810-193 A ei o, Po ugal *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +351-239-240-700 (ex . 262-286) Abs ac : Wo ld aquacul u e ood p oduc ion ises e e y yea , amoun ing, by 2018, o ano he all- ime eco d o 82.1 million onnes o a med sea ood, wi h Asia leading global p oduc ion. In Eu ope, al hough coas al coun ies p esen his o ical ishing habi s, aquacul u e is in ue expansion. No way, he leading Eu opean p oduce , is he eigh h main p oduce wo ldwide. Po ugal is a adi ional ishing coun y bu has in es ed in he de elopmen o aquacul u e o he pas decade, a aining, by 2018, 13.3 onnes p oduced, making Po ugal he 16 h main p oduce amongs Eu opean Union membe s a es ha yea . Mos Po uguese aquacul u e acili ies ope a e in coas al sys ems, eso ing o ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e ea ing echniques. In Po ugal, ma ine ood p oduc ion in ansi ional sys ems is pa icula ly in e es ing as he p ac ice has, wo ldwide, been con inuously subs i u ed by in ensi e me hods. In ac , acili ies in ansi ional sys ems ha e de eloped o e ime and p oduc s gained highe comme cial alue. Clams and oys e s co esponded, oge he , o o e h ee qua e s o o al mollusc p oduc ion in Po ugal in 2018, while gil head seab eam and Eu opean seabass made up nea ly all ish p oduc ion in coas al en i onmen s. The s a e o aquacul u e p ac ices wo ldwide is e iewed in he p esen wo k, p o iding a pa icula ocus on Po ugal, whe e conside able de elopmen o he aquacul u e sec o is expec ed. Keywo ds: aquacul u e; ea ing me hods; ansi ional sys ems; Po ugal case s udy; wo ld aquacul u e p oduc ion 1. In oduc ion Al hough da ing back housands o yea s, aquacul u e has only ecen ly expe ienced g ea de elopmen wo ldwide. I is unclea when aquacul u e p ac ices began, bu indings o e he yea s sugges he ac i i y has exis ed o cen u ies. The i s s eps in his p oduc ion may da e back o he Neoli hic age, a ound 4000 B.C., ocusing on apping aqua ic animals in small wa e bodies o hem o be a ailable a any ime needed [ 1 ]. Pic o ial eng a ings on ancien Egyp ian ombs, da ing om 2500 B.C., ep esen he ha es o ilapia om a i icial ponds; he ea ing o ca ps in China, da ing back o he i h cen u y B.C., is p obably he mos well-known e idence o ancien aquacul u e ac i i ies. In Eu ope, Romans a ened ish in anks ha we e p ima ily aimed o he ea ing o oys e s o o sal p oduc ion, bu i was only du ing he Middle Ages ha Eu opean communi ies ook he i s s eps in aqua ic animals’ ea ing, g owing ish, especially ca ps, in monas e ies’ ponds [1–3]. Aqua ic animals’ a ming in ansi ional en i onmen s also began o de elop a ound ha ime in Sou he n Eu opean coun ies, whe e coas al lagoons and ponds we e used o J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/jmse10030417 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/jmse J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 2 o 20 main ain ish b ough in by he ocean ide, usually al e na ing wi h sal p oduc ion in he same a eas. As o he a ming o molluscs, i s ea ly de elopmen da es o he 13 h cen u y, and o ganisms, especially oys e s and mussels, we e p oduced in pole cul u es, sp eading along he F ench A lan ic coas line du ing he 19 h cen u y; No he n Eu opean coun ies, on he o he hand, de eloped bo om cul u es o he ea ing o he same o ganisms [1,3]. Aquacul u e wo ldwide expe ienced signi ican de elopmen om he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, and, a ound he 1970s, awa eness o he nega i e impac s ha yea s o in ensi e ishing had caused on wild ish s ocks aised an ecological conce n. This con ibu ed o g ea e de elopmen o aquacul u e ac i i y and discussion abou i s bene i s and impo ance om ei he ecological o economical pe spec i es. Hence, a ound ha ime, aquacul u e p ac ices began o be ega ded no only as a means o ob ain sea ood complemen a y o cap u e ishe ies, bu also as a way o eleasing he o e p essu e on wild s ocks and p oducing o ganisms o es ock o e exploi ed wild s ocks. The de elopmen o ishe ies and aquacul u e enabled popula ions o sea ch o mo e di e si ied die s, which, oge he wi h he awa eness o he heal h bene i s associa ed wi h sea ood consump ion, led o an inc ease in he demand o such p oduc s. Acco ding o he Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO), sea ood p oduc ion om cap u e ishe ies has s abilized since he 1980s, whe eas aquacul u e p oduc ion has inc eased, almos hand-in-hand wi h he g ow h in sea ood consump ion wo ldwide [3]. The p esen e iew aims o ga he a concise o e iew o he s a us o aquacul u e p ac ices wo ldwide, s ess asymme ies ega ding p oduc ion ac oss he globe—be ween and wi hin con inen s—and aise ques ions abou he de elopmen o he ac i i y and i s impac a di e en scales. Mo eo e , he wo k ocuses on he case s udy o coas al aquacul u e in Po ugal, which has eso ed o ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e ea ing. These me hods a e, nowadays, almos obsole e in mos Sou he n Eu opean coun ies—which ha e ansi ioned o mos ly in ensi e me hods o p oduc ion—bu h i e in Po ugal. 2. Me hodology To cha ac e ize he s a us o aquacul u e wo ldwide, published wo k ega ding he sec o was sea ched o each con inen and deepened o majo p oducing coun ies, as well as o Po ugal, as case s udy. Two main sou ces we e used o da a analysis: (i) he Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO) egula publica ions on he s a e o ishe ies and aquacul u e [ 4 ] and FAO s a is ics [ 5 ]. Al hough he mos ecen publica ions on cap u e ishe ies and speci ic in o ma ion ega ding aquacul u e in pa icula coun ies da e o 2019 o 2020, he mos comp ehensi e da a collec ion ega ding he aquacul u e sec o wo ldwide da es o 2018 [ 4 , 5 ], which is he eason o conside ing he yea 2018 as epo ing yea in he p esen e iew; (ii) he Po uguese Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics (Es a ís icas da Pesca) (INE) [ 6 – 9 ], which cons i u es a “g ey” a ea o da a accessibili y as he published in o ma ion exis s only in Po uguese, being less accessible o a wide public. Fo simpli ica ion pu poses, he e m “sea ood” will be used in his wo k o ela e o all aqua ic animals aimed o human consump ion, including in ish species, molluscs and c us aceans. 3. A Global O e iew The olume o aquacul u e p oduc s’ supply o human consump ion su passed he supply o he same pu pose om cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 2014 [ 4 , 5 ]. In 2018, he o al wo ld aquacul u e sea ood p oduc ion accoun ed o abou 82.1 million onnes, aluing an es ima e o 250.1 billion US dolla s, wi h ish being he main cul u ed g oup, aluing abou 139.7 billion US dolla s [ 4 , 5 ]. Ma ine and coas al aquacul u e o aqua ic animals co esponded o 37.5% o o al wo ld aquacul u e, o which 56.2% was o molluscs’ p oduc ion [ 4 , 5 ]. Al hough eshwa e and diad omous ish supply su passed ha o cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 1986 and 1997, espec i ely, and despi e ma ine ish a ming being in ue expansion, i is conside ed unlikely o su pass supply om cap u e ishe ies in he nea u u e. This may be due o a ious easons, including he ac ha no J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 3 o 20 all desi ed species can be cu en ly p oduced in aquacul u e (ei he due o echnological cons ain s o unp o i abili y compa ed o cap u e ishe ies), and he public’s pe cep ion o he quali y—usually in o ganolep ic e ms—o aquacul u e p oduc s. This las possible explana ion is mos common in ishing coun ies, which, especially nowadays, may be biased by adi ional beha iou and habi s alone, coupled wi h a lack o in o ma ion abou he quali y o a med sea ood. All his in luences he accep ance o aquacul u e p oduc s, main aining he demand o cap u ed p oduc s [4,5,10,11]. Global aquacul u e p oduc ion o aqua ic animals has been g owing a an a e age a e o 5.3% in he pe iod 2001–2018, al hough a dec ease o 4.5% was eco ded be ween 2016 and 2018. This is a ibu ed o a lowe p oduc ion in China, he wo ld leading p oduce , which esul ed in a dec eased wo ld g ow h a e o 4% in 2017 and 3.2% in 2018. Al hough he es o he wo ld combined also wi nessed a slowe g ow h a e in p oduc ion, i s ill p esen ed a a e o 6.7% and 5.5% g ow h in 2017 and 2018, espec i ely [4,5]. Asia is he leading con inen in ma ine, coas al and eshwa e sea ood aquacul u e p oduc ion, bo h in e ms o olume and es ima ed i s -sale alue, p oducing in 2018 abou 88.7% o he o al olume o aquacul u e p oduc s wo ldwide. The Ame icas a e he second con inen wi h he highes p oduc ion in e ms o olume, accoun ing o 4.6% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion, ollowed by Eu ope, which con ibu ed abou 3.8% o wo ld p oduc ion. A ica p oduced abou 2.7% o he wo ld’s a med aqua ic animals in 2018 and Oceania accoun ed o he p oduc ion o less han 0.25% o o al wo ld aquacul u e p oduc s in olume in 2018 [ 4 , 5 ]. Al hough Asia is he leade in aquacul u e p oduc ion conce ning bo h olume and alue, as men ioned abo e, he p oduc s a med in The Ame icas and Eu ope especially, sus ain g ea e ma ke alue pe olume uni [ 4 ]. The con ibu ion o he di e en ypes o aquacul u e en i onmen o each con inen o al p oduc ion is ep esen ed in Figu e 1. J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 21 3. A Global O e iew The olume o aquacul u e p oduc s’ supply o human consump ion su passed he supply o he same pu pose om cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 2014 [4,5]. In 2018, he o al wo ld aquacul u e sea ood p oduc ion accoun ed o abou 82.1 million onnes, aluing an es ima e o 250.1 billion US dolla s, wi h ish being he main cul u ed g oup, aluing abou 139.7 billion US dolla s [4,5]. Ma ine and coas al aquacul u e o aqua ic animals co esponded o 37.5% o o al wo ld aquacul u e, o which 56.2% was o molluscs’ p oduc ion [4,5]. Al hough eshwa e and diad omous ish supply su passed ha o cap u e ishe ies o he i s ime in 1986 and 1997, espec i ely, and despi e ma ine ish a ming being in ue expansion, i is conside ed unlikely o su pass supply om cap u e ishe ies in he nea u u e. This may be due o a ious easons, including he ac ha no all desi ed species can be cu en ly p oduced in aquacul u e (ei he due o echnological cons ain s o unp o i abili y compa ed o cap u e ishe ies), and he public’s pe cep ion o he quali y—usually in o ganolep ic e ms—o aquacul u e p oduc s. This las possible explana ion is mos common in ishing coun ies, which, especially nowadays, may be biased by adi ional beha iou and habi s alone, coupled wi h a lack o in o ma ion abou he quali y o a med sea ood. All his in luences he accep ance o aquacul u e p oduc s, main aining he demand o cap u ed p oduc s [4,5,10,11]. Global aquacul u e p oduc ion o aqua ic animals has been g owing a an a e age a e o 5.3% in he pe iod 2001–2018, al hough a dec ease o 4.5% was eco ded be ween 2016 and 2018. This is a ibu ed o a lowe p oduc ion in China, he wo ld leading p oduce , which esul ed in a dec eased wo ld g ow h a e o 4% in 2017 and 3.2% in 2018. Al hough he es o he wo ld combined also wi nessed a slowe g ow h a e in p oduc ion, i s ill p esen ed a a e o 6.7% and 5.5% g ow h in 2017 and 2018, espec i ely [4,5]. Asia is he leading con inen in ma ine, coas al and eshwa e sea ood aquacul u e p oduc ion, bo h in e ms o olume and es ima ed i s -sale alue, p oducing in 2018 abou 88.7% o he o al olume o aquacul u e p oduc s wo ldwide. The Ame icas a e he second con inen wi h he highes p oduc ion in e ms o olume, accoun ing o 4.6% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion, ollowed by Eu ope, which con ibu ed abou 3.8% o wo ld p oduc ion. A ica p oduced abou 2.7% o he wo ld’s a med aqua ic animals in 2018 and Oceania accoun ed o he p oduc ion o less han 0.25% o o al wo ld aquacul u e p oduc s in olume in 2018 [4,5]. Al hough Asia is he leade in aquacul u e p oduc ion conce ning bo h olume and alue, as men ioned abo e, he p oduc s a med in The Ame icas and Eu ope especially, sus ain g ea e ma ke alue pe olume uni [4]. The con ibu ion o he di e en ypes o aquacul u e en i onmen o each con inen o al p oduc ion is ep esen ed in Figu e 1. Figu e 1. Sea ood p oduc ion o b ackish, esh and ma ine aquacul u e: pe cen age o o al p oduc ion in 2018 by aqua ic sys em in each con inen . Da a sou ces: FAO, 2020; FAOSTAT, 2022. 0 20406080100 A ica Ame icas Asia Eu ope Oceania Pe cen age (%) B ackishwa e F eshwa e Ma ine Figu e 1. Sea ood p oduc ion o b ackish, esh and ma ine aquacul u e: pe cen age o o al p oduc- ion in 2018 by aqua ic sys em in each con inen . Da a sou ces: FAO, 2020; FAOSTAT, 2022. Asia has led aquacul u e p oduc ion wo ldwide o he pas wo decades. Inland aqua- cul u e is he mos common in he con inen , ep esen ing abou 65.5% o he con inen ’s aquacul u e p oduc ion. None heless, Asia is also, by a , he leade in ma ine and coas al aquacul u e in he wo ld, accoun ing, by 2018, o 25.1 million onnes o sea ood p oduc ion, abou 81.6% o he wo ld’s o al ma ine and coas al aquacul u e p oduc ion [ 4 , 5 ]. O he en op aquacul u e p oducing coun ies, i e belong o he Asian con inen : China (abou 58% o global p oduc ion), India (8.6%), Indonesia (6.6%), Vie nam (5%) and Bangladesh (abou 3%). O hese, only Indonesia does no exceed 50% o aquacul u e p oduc s o he o al (cap u e ishe ies and aquacul u e) p oduc ion, accoun ing o 43% o a med p od- uc s. China alone has p oduced, since 1991, mo e aqua ic ood han he es o he wo ld combined. The no iceable all in China’s p oduc ion in he pe iod 2016–2018, as b ie ly men ioned be o e, is explained by he coun y’s ecen adop ion o s a egies owa ds he imp o emen o he sec o , sea ching o mo e sus ainable and eco-sound p ac ises, wi h J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 4 o 20 highe e iciency in esou ce u iliza ion, while ocusing on he economic de elopmen o u al and o he a ge ed po e y-s icken a eas [4,5]. Chile alone con ibu es abou a hi d o all aquacul u e p oduc ion in he Ame icas, being, as well, he eigh h majo p oduce in he wo ld [ 4 , 5 ]. Chilean aquacul u e ocuses mainly on he p oduc ion o bo h exo ic and na i e species o in ish, such as salmon and meag e, and o molluscs, including ed abalone, Japanese oys e and clams. These species a e qui e commonly a med ac oss he en i e con inen [ 12 ]. The Uni ed S a es o Ame ica s ands ou in e ms o eshwa e aquacul u e p oduc ion, wi h he a ming o mainly ca ish [ 13 ], con eying he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica he 14 h place o majo inland aquacul u e p oduce s wo ldwide [ 4 , 5 ]. Mos coun ies in he Ame icas, apa om Chile, ely g ea ly on ishing e o s, bu many ha e iden i ied aquacul u e as a po en ially de eloping indus y [4]. A ica is, o all i e con inen s, he one expe iencing he highes g ow h a es in aqua ic animals’ p oduc ion since 2001. The highes a e was eco ded in he pe iod 2006–2010, o o e 14% o g ow h compa ed o he p e ious pe iod. Al hough he a e ell in subsequen yea s, in he pe iod 2016–2018, he con inen s ill egis e ed a g ow h a e o e 7%, abo e all o he con inen s and he wo ld a e age. Egyp , Nige ia and Uganda ha e con ibu ed signi ican ly o ha g ow h, showing an e e - ising end in aquacul u e p oduc ion, and con ibu ing abou 91% o o al aquacul u e p oduc s o he con inen [ 4 , 5 ]. Egyp is, mo eo e , he six h main p oduce wo ldwide. Almos all p oduc ion (99%) in A ican coun ies is inland, in eshwa e sys ems, ocusing on he ea ing o ilapia and A ican ca ish. Ma icul u e con ibu es o he emaining 1% o p oduc ion bu is a sec o o which g ea e impo ance has been gi en since he ea ly 2010s [4,14,15]. The apid ise in p oduc ion in some A ican coun ies has been epo ed o be due o new in es men s, bo h public and p i a e. Nume ous small and medium scale en e p ises (SMEs) o aquacul u e ha e been se up, as well as la ge comme cial en e p ises o public suppo . Acco ding o some au ho s, he expansion o he aquacul u e sec o in some A ican coun ies is ela ed o an o e all g owing in e es and en husiasm esul an om s ong public suppo , o eign in es men and impo o expe ise, as well as awa eness aised by con e ences and he implemen a ion o he SPADA P og am (Special P og am o Aquacul u e De elopmen in A ica) [15,16]. The in es men in he aquacul u e sec o consis ed o he subs i u ion o ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e ea ing sys ems by in ensi e pond ea ing, which enabled a much highe densi y o animals, se up o ha che y and seed p oduc ion, as well as eed p oduc- ion. Egyp has he highes numbe o ha che y and seed acili ies [ 15 – 18 ], as well as all aquacul u e eed being p oduced in he coun y [ 19 – 21 ]. A SWOT analysis conduc ed by Adeleke e al. (2021) [22] showed ha bo h Egyp and Nige ia p esen well-de eloped aquacul u e sec o s, wi h h i ing p oduc ion and exis ence o ma ke oppo uni ies o p oduc low, associa ed wi h economic de elopmen . Oceania is s ill qui e unde de eloped in e ms o aquacul u e p oduc ion [ 4 , 5 ]. The con inen ’s con ibu ion o global aquacul u e in 2018 co esponded o 0.25%, consis ing mainly o he ea ing o salmonids, una and molluscs [ 4 , 5 , 22 – 27 ]. New Zealand is he majo p oducing coun y, ha ing p oduced, in 2018, o e 104 housand onnes o a med li e weigh . Aus alia ollowed, p oducing o e 96 housand onnes. Aquacul u e is de eloping in bo h coun ies; howe e , due o hei ex emely la ge Exclusi e Economic Zone (EEZ; Aus alia’s and New Zealand’s EEZs a e he hi d and ou h la ges in he wo ld), mos aqua ic animals’ p oduc ion is s ill coming om cap u e ishe ies—only abou 20% and 35% o aqua ic p oduc s a e om aquacul u e in New Zealand and Aus alia, espec i ely. Despi e he ela i ely low sha e o aquacul u e con ibu ion o aqua ic animal’s p oduc ion in Aus alia, i is he coun y’s as es de eloping p ima y ac i i y. Fa ming o aqua ic animals in Aus alia ocuses on he a ening s ages o Sou he n Blue in una in o sho e cages, p oduc ion o salmonids om ini ial s ages (b oods ock p oduc ion insho e and o sho e), p awn ea ing in pond s a ions, mussels in opes in ma ine wa e s, as well as on he p oduc ion o abalone, oys e s and o he in ish (such as ba amundi) []. New Zealand’s J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 5 o 20 aquacul u e ocuses mainly on he ea ing o h ee species: g een shell mussels, paci ic oys e and Chinook salmon [23–28]. Aquacul u e p oduc ion in Eu ope in 2018 ep esen ed nea ly 4% o he wo ld’s aquacul u e p oduc ion, wi h an ou pu o abou 3.1 million onnes. Ma ine species make up mos o he Eu opean aquacul u e, accoun ing, by 2018, o abou 83.5% o he con inen ’s o al p oduc ion [ 4 , 29 ], hus lea ing mos Eu opean aquacul u e o be ca ied ou in ma ine and coas al en i onmen s. Fish and molluscs we e he main g oups ea ed, ep esen ing nea ly he whole o he aquacul u e p oduc ion in Eu ope in 2018; he p oduc ion o c us aceans and o he aqua ic animals ep esen ed a mino slice o Eu ope’s p oduc ion. Highly p oducing Eu opean coun ies ocus mainly on he p oduc ion o ma icul u e in ish species, such as coldwa e salmonids, as is he case o No way and he Uni ed Kingdom o G ea B i ain, and o he ma ine species, such as seabass and seab eam. No way is he leading Eu opean coun y in aquacul u e p oduc ion, wi h an ou pu o mo e han 50% o he o al p oduc ion in Eu ope by olume in 2018 (abou 1.4 million onnes o li e weigh ) and he se en h main aquacul u e p oduce wo ldwide [ 4 , 29 , 30 ]. I s p oduc ion ocuses mainly on he ea ing o A lan ic salmon, which has been highly op imized o allow maximum p oduc ion, adap ing o a he ough condi ions [31]. Spain, he Uni ed Kingdom and F ance we e he ollowing op Eu opean p oduce s, accoun ing, oge he , o abou 22.3% o he o al Eu opean p oduc ion in 2018 [ 30 ]. The Russian Fede a ion alls in i h place o majo aquacul u e p oduce s in Eu ope—al hough he coun y ex ends h ough wo con inen s, he au ho s ha e chosen o include he in- o ma ion as pa o he Eu opean p oduc ion da a, simila ly o he FAO. The Russian Fede a ion ocuses mainly on he p oduc ion o eshwa e species; i is pa icula ly in e es - ing o no e he ecen de elopmen o s u geon aquacul u e, which enabled he expansion o black ca ia p oduc ion, especially appealing o in e na ional ma ke s [32] Sou he n Eu opean coun ies—Spain, I aly, G eece, Tu key and Po ugal—ha e a long his o y in aquacul u e p oduc ion and a e esponsible o he sha e o p oduc ion o ma ine in ish, some eshwa e ish and molluscs, which ake he la ges sha e o he p oduc ion. Apa om Po ugal, all o he coun ies ha e gene ally op imized hei ea ing me hods in he pas ew decades o maximize ou pu s, eso ing o echnological de elopmen s o in ensi e ea ing me hods [4,29,30,33–36]. Spain, F ance and I aly, al hough p oducing a numbe o comme cially impo an ma ine, diad omous and eshwa e in ish species, s and ou om he es o he Eu opean p oducing coun ies due o he highes sha e o each na ion’s o al aquacul u e p oduc ion being mollusc a ming [ 4 , 33 – 36 ]. Spanish sha e p oduc ion o bi al es co esponded, in 2018, o 82.5% o o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he coun y, consis ing mainly o mussels, oys e s, clams and abalone [ 33 , 34 ]. F ance’s sha e o bi al es was 78.2%, while I aly’s was 65%. F ance ocused 64% o i s bi al es’ p oduc ion on oys e s and nea ly 34% in mussel p oduc ion [35]. G eece and Tu key a e he main Eu opean p oduce s o Eu opean seabass and gil head seab eam, bu hese a e also ex emely impo an species in Spain, I aly and Po ugal. Spain has he pa icula i y o being he second majo p oduce o A lan ic Blue in una in he wo ld, only p eceded by Japan. Fish a e cap u ed in he Medi e anean a e hei mig a ion o spawning, being subjec ed o a sys em o pa ial aquacul u e, whe e ish a e ed wi h highly nu i ious and a y eeds, o es o e hei high-quali y a con en , and hen be ma ke ed o he whole wo ld [29,30,33–36]. The con ibu ion o each species’ g oup o aquacul u e p oduc ion in he main Eu o- pean p oducing coun ies is ep esen ed in Figu e 2. A lan ic salmon (Salmo sala , Linnaeus 1758) was he main species ea ed, especially in No way, which is he majo salmon p oduce wo ldwide, accoun ing o 1.28 million onnes p oduced in 2018, ollowed by he Uni ed Kingdom, he hi d main p oduce o he species in he wo ld, wi h a p oduc ion o 156 housand onnes in ha yea . Rainbow ou (Onco hynchus mykiss, Walbaum 1792) was he second species mos ea ed, wi h No way and F ance as he main p oduce s, ollowed by gil head seab eam (Spa us au a a, J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 6 o 20 Linnaeus, 1758) and Eu opean seabass (Dicen a chus lab ax, Linnaeus 1758), bo h mainly p oduced by Tu key and G eece, occupying hi d and ou h places, espec i ely, as main species ea ed [ 29 , 30 ]. Conce ning molluscs’ p oduc ion, mussels we e he leade in e ms o olume p oduced, co esponding o abou wo- hi ds o molluscs’ p oduc ion in Eu- ope, ea ed especially in Spain, ollowed by oys e p oduc ion, wi h F ance as he main p oducing coun y [4,30]. J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 21 G eece and Tu key a e he main Eu opean p oduce s o Eu opean seabass and gil - head seab eam, bu hese a e also ex emely impo an species in Spain, I aly and Po u- gal. Spain has he pa icula i y o being he second majo p oduce o A lan ic Blue in una in he wo ld, only p eceded by Japan. Fish a e cap u ed in he Medi e anean a e hei mig a ion o spawning, being subjec ed o a sys em o pa ial aquacul u e, whe e ish a e ed wi h highly nu i ious and a y eeds, o es o e hei high-quali y a con en , and hen be ma ke ed o he whole wo ld [29,30,33–36]. The con ibu ion o each species’ g oup o aquacul u e p oduc ion in he main Eu- opean p oducing coun ies is ep esen ed in Figu e 2. Figu e 2. Aquacul u e ish p oduc ion o he main p oducing coun ies in Eu ope in e ms o ol- ume: pe cen age o Eu opean o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in 2018. Values abo e each column ep- esen he aquacul u e p oduc ion o each coun y in e ms o pe cen age o he o al Eu opean aq- uacul u e p oduc ion in 2018. Da a sou ce: FAO, 2020. A lan ic salmon (Salmo sala , Linnaeus 1758) was he main species ea ed, especially in No way, which is he majo salmon p oduce wo ldwide, accoun ing o 1.28 million onnes p oduced in 2018, ollowed by he Uni ed Kingdom, he hi d main p oduce o he species in he wo ld, wi h a p oduc ion o 156 housand onnes in ha yea . Rainbow ou (Onco hynchus mykiss, Walbaum 1792) was he second species mos ea ed, wi h No - way and F ance as he main p oduce s, ollowed by gil head seab eam (Spa us au a a, Lin- naeus, 1758) and Eu opean seabass (Dicen a chus lab ax, Linnaeus 1758), bo h mainly p o- duced by Tu key and G eece, occupying hi d and ou h places, espec i ely, as main species ea ed [29,30]. Conce ning molluscs’ p oduc ion, mussels we e he leade in e ms o olume p oduced, co esponding o abou wo- hi ds o molluscs’ p oduc ion in Eu- ope, ea ed especially in Spain, ollowed by oys e p oduc ion, wi h F ance as he main p oducing coun y [4,30]. 4. Aquacul u e in Po ugal Po ugal is a adi ional ishing coun y, wi h a as Exclusi e Economic Zone (EEZ)— he 20 h la ges EEZ in he wo ld—and a wo ld-known adi ion o high sea ood consump ion, bo h in e ms o quan i y and di e si y o p oduc s [6–9]. Po uguese ish consump ion pe capi a in 2018 was 61.5 kg, making Po ugal he majo consume wi hin he Eu opean Union membe s a es and he hi d majo consume wo ldwide, p eceded only by Ko ea and No way [4,29,30]. A seasonal ise in ish consump ion can also be as- socia ed wi h in ense ou ism du ing summe mon hs, which demands a signi ican ex a supply o such p oduc s. The combina ion o an ex emely high demand o sea ood, as- socia ed o geog aphic, abundance o ma ine esou ces and adi ional easons [37], esul 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 No way Spain Russian Fede a ion UK F ance Thousand onnes Diad omous in ish F eshwa e in ish Ma ine in ish Molluscs 10% 7% 7% 46% 8% Figu e 2. Aquacul u e ish p oduc ion o he main p oducing coun ies in Eu ope in e ms o olume: pe cen age o Eu opean o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in 2018. Values abo e each column ep esen he aquacul u e p oduc ion o each coun y in e ms o pe cen age o he o al Eu opean aquacul u e p oduc ion in 2018. Da a sou ce: FAO, 2020. 4. Aquacul u e in Po ugal Po ugal is a adi ional ishing coun y, wi h a as Exclusi e Economic Zone (EEZ)— he 20 h la ges EEZ in he wo ld—and a wo ld-known adi ion o high sea ood consump- ion, bo h in e ms o quan i y and di e si y o p oduc s [ 6 – 9 ]. Po uguese ish consump ion pe capi a in 2018 was 61.5 kg, making Po ugal he majo consume wi hin he Eu opean Union membe s a es and he hi d majo consume wo ldwide, p eceded only by Ko ea and No way [ 4 , 29 , 30 ]. A seasonal ise in ish consump ion can also be associa ed wi h in ense ou ism du ing summe mon hs, which demands a signi ican ex a supply o such p oduc s. The combina ion o an ex emely high demand o sea ood, associa ed o geog aphic, abundance o ma ine esou ces and adi ional easons [ 37 ], esul in he impo o almos wo- hi ds o aqua ic animals o human consump ion. In 2018, Po ugal impo ed 336.5 housand onnes o sea ood o human consump ion, co esponding almos en i ely o in ish impo s. Cod (including di e en species o he genus Gadus) is he main impo ed in ish, ei he esh, ozen o sa ed, co esponding o 37% o o al in ish impo s [ 5 ]. The species does no exis in Po uguese wa e s bu has emained a c ucial ing edien in he coun y’s ea ing habi s, also encou aged by he high-quali y nu i ious p o ile o he ish, pa icula ly i s con en in omega-3 a y acids. In ac , un il ecen imes, p o iding “cod li e oil” o child en as an omega-3 a y acids’ supplemen was e y common in Po ugal [38,39]. Al hough cap u e ishe ies con inue o play a i al ole in he Po uguese economy, aquacul u e has o a long ime exis ed in he coun y. Ac i e udimen al aquacul u e me hods a e hough o ha e been p ac iced o cen- u ies in mainland Po ugal, consis ing essen ially o he imp isonmen o ish ju eniles ha used ansi ional sys ems as nu se y a eas in sal wo ks and ponds in we lands, le ing hem g ow o be ha es ed when a a desi able size o consump ion. Aquacul u e in con inen al Po ugal emained almos exclusi ely a amilia ac i i y un il a ound he beginning o he J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 7 o 20 20 h cen u y when i began o be ega ded as a po en ial comme cial ac i i y ha could con ibu e o he coun y’s economy. Rainbow ou and eshwa e species we e he i s o be a med a a comme cial le el, bu aquacul u e in Po ugal la e e ol ed o he ea ing o mainly ma ine species. Despi e he men ioned ini ial ad ances in aquacul u e in Po ugal, he ac i i y had a slow de elopmen o e he yea s, as ishing has always played an impo an ole in he adi ion and economy o he coun y [ 40 ]. Be o e he 1970s, 80% o ish aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal was o mulle s; hen, du ing he 1980s, he p oduc ion was mos ly o eshwa e ainbow ou and bi al es in in e idal zones. The aquacul u e o ma ine species did no expe ience ue de elopmen un il he 1990 decade, ocusing a i s on he ea ing o gil head seab eam and Eu opean seabass, and mo e ecen ly on he ea ing o u bo (Scoph halmus maximus, Linnaeus 1758) and sole (Solea spp.) [41]. The de elopmen o aquacul u e in Po ugal ook place a e he coun y became a membe s a e o he Eu opean Union (EU) in 1986 (a ha ime, named Eu opean Economic Commission). Because aquacul u e was a key componen o he EU’s Blue G ow h Agenda, communi y unds we e a ibu ed o Po ugal as a membe s a e o he de elopmen o he ac i i y and he Po uguese Go e nmen i sel in es ed in aquacul u e de elopmen as well. The inancial suppo gi en was in ended o he de elopmen o esea ch p o- g ammes ha could enhance knowledge and know-how abou aqua ic animals’ ea ing, he cons uc ion o new and mo e sui able es ablishmen s, p o essional aining o a me s and inancial suppo o p o essional o ganiza ions [ 40 – 42 ]. Al hough Po uguese aquacul u e expe ienced some de elopmen in he 1980s, he p oduc ion dec eased signi ican ly in he 1990s, mainly due o a lack o c i e ia o he applica ion o he a ailable unds and issues in he p oduc ion me hods applied, leading o he un iabili y o many aquacul u e uni s [ 42 ]. None heless, despi e some luc ua ions in aquacul u e p oduc ion o e he yea s, he e has been a gene al ising end in aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal, and ue expansion in he pas couple o yea s [6–9]. Po uguese aquacul u e ocuses on he p oduc ion o ma ine ish and mollusc species, and mos acili ies a e loca ed on he coun y’s mainland. Al hough in ensi e aquacul u e has gained ue impo ance ecen ly, especially ega ding ish p oduc ion, mos es ablish- men s a e loca ed and ha e u he expanded in coas al sys ems, such as es ua ies and coas al lagoons, along he coun y’s mainland coas line. Aquacul u e in he Po uguese a chipelagos is ye poo ly de eloped—only he Madei a a chipelago p esen s aquacul- u e p oduc ion, cu en ly—al hough e o s a e being made o expand he ac i i y in he Madei a islands and p omo e he de elopmen o aquacul u e p oduc ion in he Azo es a chipelago [6–9]. The o al ma ine aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal in 2018 was abou 13.99 housand onnes, accoun ing o li le o e 0.50% o Eu ope’s o al aquacul u e p oduc ion [ 4 – 9 , 29 ]. Compa ed o o he Eu opean coun ies o he EU, Po ugal p esen s a much slowe p og ess in aquacul u e p oduc ion and de elopmen , occupying 16 h place in he ank o o al aquacul u e p oduc ion amongs EU membe s a es in 2018, con ibu ing wi h less han 1% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in e ms o olume in he EU [29,30]. The aquacul u e o ma ine o ganisms in con inen al Po ugal is essen ially ca ied ou in es ua ies and we lands along he coas , especially in he cen e and sou h o he coun y, eso ing o ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e ea ing me hods. Al hough he e is po en ial o he ea ing o eshwa e o ganisms, aquacul u e ac i i y in Po ugal has ocused es- sen ially on he p oduc ion o ma ine species since ecen de elopmen s in aquacul u e in he 20 h cen u y. In ac , eshwa e aquacul u e in Po ugal ep esen ed 4.98% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he coun y in 2018, 10.3% less han he eshwa e aqua- cul u e p oduc ion egis e ed in 2017. Aquacul u e p oduc ion in ma ine and es ua ine sys ems accoun ed o he emaining 95% o he p oduc ion [ 6 – 9 ]. The species ea ed in he men ioned sys ems, al hough ma ine species, equen ly en e es ua ies and o he coas al sys ems a some poin du ing hei de elopmen , and a e, hus, well-adap ed o he en i onmen al condi ions. This ac , along wi h he a ailabili y o ju eniles o he J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 8 o 20 g ow-ou and he high ma ke alue o such species, makes hem he i s choices o aquacul u e p oduc ion in coas al sys ems in Po ugal [ 40 – 44 ]. Al hough o sho e a ms a e beginning o be implemen ed, he e a e s ill e y ew es ablishmen s ope a ing, and he p oduc ion om hese acili ies is ye no ably low. As o in ensi e aquacul u e sys- ems, he e we e 23 es ablishmen s ope a ing in Po ugal in 2018, mos ly aimed o he p oduc ion o u bo and eshwa e ainbow ou [ 11 ], which seem o be lowe ing in e ms o numbe . None heless, hese acili ies achie e much highe densi ies o o ganisms compa ed o semi-in ensi e and ex ensi e sys ems. In 2011, he o al aquacul u e p oduc- ion in in ensi e sys ems su passed he p oduc ion in ex ensi e sys ems due o a boos in he p oduc ion o u bo . This species is ea ed essen ially in in ensi e sys ems and, in 2011, i s p oduc ion accoun ed o 3197 onnes alone, con ibu ing o a o al p oduc ion o 3648 onnes in in ensi e sys ems, while he o al p oduc ion in ex ensi e sys ems (including ish and molluscs), was 3504 onnes. In 2013 he p oduc ion o u bo declined om 4406 o 2353 onnes, causing he dec ease in he olume o aquacul u e p oduc s om in ensi e ea ing sys ems, a he same ime ha mussel and oys e p oduc ion g ew signi ican ly, enabling a new peak o p oduc ion in ex ensi e sys ems. F om hen on, ex ensi e ea ing p oduc ion has isen e e y yea , achie ing a new coun y’s maximum in 2018 [6–9]. Al hough he numbe o es ablishmen s using in ensi e sys ems o p oduc ion is lowe han hose using ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e sys ems, he compa ison be ween he olume o p oduc ion om each sys em shows ha he p oduc ion capaci y is much g ea e in in ensi e sys ems. Aquacul u e p oduc ion in ma ine and ansi ional wa e s in Po ugal su passed eshwa e p oduc ion o he i s ime in 1996. I has been he main con ibu o o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he coun y e e since, ep esen ing, in 2018, 95% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal, and eaching, by ha yea , i s peak in p oduc ion o he ime ame issued. Al hough in ensi e aquacul u e has ecen ly shown high p oduc ion ou pu s o a small numbe o es ablishmen s, semi-in ensi e and ex ensi e aquacul u e a e he mos commonly used p oduc ion me hods in Po ugal. These me hods ha e been abandoned in mos Eu opean coun ies while pe se e ing in Po ugal, and e en expe iencing de elop- men s in e ms o echniques, ea ing s a egies and cul u e cha ac e is ics. Aquacul u e p oduc ion in he Po uguese a chipelagos is ca ied ou along he coas o he islands, in ma ine wa e , and, hus, he sys ems a e no exac ly ansi ional sys ems, compa ed o he eali y on he mainland. Aquacul u e p oduc ion in ansi ional and ma ine wa e s ( om o sho e and in ensi e p oduc ion cap u ing di ec ly in ma ine wa e s) in mainland Po u- gal appea s in o icial na ional publica ions as a whole, and, hus, he p oduc ion e e ed o in he nex sec ion will p o ide he sum o he aquacul u e p oduc ion in bo h sys ems. The numbe s will co espond almos en i ely o ansi ional en i onmen s’ p oduc ion, as ma ine o sho e p oduc ion is essen ially negligible, as a o e men ioned. 4.1. P oduc ion in Coas al Sys ems Fo adminis a i e pu poses, mainland Po ugal may be di ided in o i e main egions: No h, Cen e, Lisbon and Tagus Valley, Alen ejo and Alga e; he e a e eigh main a eas o aquacul u e in es ua ine sys ems in Po ugal, which a e ep esen ed in Figu e 3. One o he mos impo an i e s in Po ugal is in he no h o he coun y’s mainland— he Dou o i e . Howe e , i s es ua ine sys em is o small dimensions and no e y sui able o he es ablishmen o aquacul u e a ms. Thus, eshwa e aquacul u e is he mos ep esen a i e in his egion, whe eas p oduc ion in ansi ional wa e s accoun ed o a mean o only 4% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion du ing he pe iod be ween 1999 and 2018 [6–9]. A he cen e o Po ugal, he e a e wo impo an a eas o aquacul u e in ansi ional wa e s: he Vouga es ua y and he Mondego es ua y. The Vouga es ua y o ms a complex coas al lagoon wi h se e al na u al ponds, con- sis ing o an impo an we land, known as Ria de A ei o. This sys em co e s abou 11 ha J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 9 o 20 and has been a Na u a 2000 ne wo k si e since 2014, lis ed as a Special P o ec ion A ea si e unde he Bi ds Di ec i e. Ri e Vouga uns h ough a mlands and u banized a eas, such as he ci y o A ei o, du ing i s cou se, being subjec ed o he inpu o many pollu an s om uno and domes ic was ewa e [ 45 ], and a highly moni o ed si e in an e o o main ain i s in eg i y and good s a us, none heless. J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 21 in bo h sys ems. The numbe s will co espond almos en i ely o ansi ional en i on- men s’ p oduc ion, as ma ine o sho e p oduc ion is essen ially negligible, as a o e men- ioned. 4.1. P oduc ion in Coas al Sys ems Fo adminis a i e pu poses, mainland Po ugal may be di ided in o i e main e- gions: No h, Cen e, Lisbon and Tagus Valley, Alen ejo and Alga e; he e a e eigh main a eas o aquacul u e in es ua ine sys ems in Po ugal, which a e ep esen ed in Figu e 3. Figu e 3. Main si es o aquacul u e p oduc ion in con inen al Po ugal—ci cles ma k he main si es o p oduc ion in coas al sys ems. One o he mos impo an i e s in Po ugal is in he no h o he coun y’s main- land— he Dou o i e . Howe e , i s es ua ine sys em is o small dimensions and no e y sui able o he es ablishmen o aquacul u e a ms. Thus, eshwa e aquacul u e is he mos ep esen a i e in his egion, whe eas p oduc ion in ansi ional wa e s accoun ed o a mean o only 4% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion du ing he pe iod be ween 1999 and 2018 [6–9]. A he cen e o Po ugal, he e a e wo impo an a eas o aquacul u e in ansi- ional wa e s: he Vouga es ua y and he Mondego es ua y. The Vouga es ua y o ms a complex coas al lagoon wi h se e al na u al ponds, con- sis ing o an impo an we land, known as Ria de A ei o. This sys em co e s abou 11 ha and has been a Na u a 2000 ne wo k si e since 2014, lis ed as a Special P o ec ion A ea si e unde he Bi ds Di ec i e. Ri e Vouga uns h ough a mlands and u banized a eas, such as he ci y o A ei o, du ing i s cou se, being subjec ed o he inpu o many pollu an s Figu e 3. Main si es o aquacul u e p oduc ion in con inen al Po ugal—ci cles ma k he main si es o p oduc ion in coas al sys ems. The Mondego es ua y has been, since 2005, a si e unde he Ramsa Con en ion on We lands. Along i s cou se, he Mondego i e uns h ough highly u banized a eas (such as he ci y o Coimb a), ag icul u al ields and indus ialized a eas, un il eaching i s 1600 ha es ua y; he es ua y i sel is su ounded by u banized (ci y o Figuei a da Foz) and indus ialized a eas. The human p essu es s a ed abo e con ibu e o he pollu ion o he i e and he es ua y, being he main sou ces o pollu ion u ban was ewa e ( ha is o en only pa ially ea ed) and chemical p oduc s (e.g., pes icides, e ilize s, eme ging con aminan s) om ag icul u al wa e uno and indus ial sewage [46]. Bo h Ria de A ei o and he Mondego es ua y a e e y sui able o aquacul u e in ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e sys ems, which a e known o ha e been p ac iced o a long ime in hese a eas, aking ad an age o non-ope a ional sal wo ks and modi ying hem o he p oduc ion o ish in semi-in ensi e sys ems and molluscs in ex ensi e sys ems. Aquacul u e in ansi ional wa e s in he Cen e egion ep esen ed a mean o abou 97% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion in he pe iod be ween 1999 and 2018, accoun ing, in 2018, o 99.4% o he o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in he egion. None heless, he e a e some conce ns o be aken in o conside a ion when ope a ing wi h ex ensi e and J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 16 o 20 he isk o high nu ien loads, o o o he chemicals (such as an ibio ics), om non- ea ed was ewa e s o su ounding en i onmen s, which can be pa icula ly signi ican in ed semi-in ensi e ea ing egimes. The ansi ion o single-species aquacul u e acili ies o in eg a ed mul i- ophic aquacul u e (IMTA) is being adop ed and es ed in some pa s o he wo ld, especially in majo p oducing coun ies looking o g eene al e na i es o hei p oduc ion [ 4 , 61 ]. These sys ems p o ide, as well as ecological bene i s, added alue o he p o i abili y o land use, as o ganisms o di e en ophic le els may be p oduced a he same ime. The use o land (o wa e , in he case o o sho e p oduc ion) is ano he majo issue posed by aquacul u e es ablishmen s, especially ega ding semi-in ensi e and ex ensi e p ac ices. Facili ies ha e implica ions in he in eg i y o ecosys ems, land and wa e u iliza ion, o en compe ing wi h o he sec o s [ 62 ], and hey impac he na u al s a e o wild communi ies and i e e sibly change habi a s. In some coun ies, such as Po ugal, o example, he con e sion o inope a i e sal pans somewha dilu es his issue, as land al eady al e ed is being eused and ehabili a ed, only o a di e en pu pose. Mo eo e , he mass p oduc ion o highly desi ed species by majo p oducing coun ies has, in he ecen yea s, esul ed in he sa u a ion o na ional and in e na ional ma ke s, causing signi ican d ops in he p ices o such species, e en in small-p oducing coun ies, a ec ing egional economies wi h socie al consequences, no o men ion he conside able amoun o was e p oduced [ 4 ]. As b ie ly men ioned be o e, he high inpu o cheape gil head seab eam and Eu opean seabass p oduced by G eece and Tu key in o Po uguese ma ke s imbalanced he local consump ion o hose p oduc s, which a e he wo main in ish species ea ed in he coun y. All hese cons ain s mus be aken in conside a ion when e alua ing he bene i s o de eloping aquacul u e p ac ices. In addi ion o he o e all accep ed bene i o aquacul u e o eleasing he p essu e o e o e exploi ed wild s ocks o mee ish ma ke demands, aquacul u e ough o de elop as a means o p omo e heal hie nu i ion en i onmen s. Tha is, as well as ul illing i s mos immedia e ole o eeding popula ions wo ldwide, which is s ill b u ally asymme ical h oughou he wo ld –, aquacul u e also po en ia es he p o ision and accessibili y o high-quali y, accessible- o-all ood due o an o e all lowe ing in p ices when compa ed o cap u ed p oduc s and he selec ion o high-quali y species o a ood sou ce ha is, in gene al, al eady conside ed heal hy [ 63 ]. This in ol es he selec ion o species wi h ich and heal hy nu i ional p o iles and he choice o high-quali y eeds (when i comes o ed p oduc ion), p e e ably o local p oduc ion, as well as poli ical op ions owa ds he se ing o achie able p ices, while p ope ly compensa ing p oduce s. All in all, he aim is an in eg a ed economic s a egy ha enables he p oduc ion and consump ion o locally p oduced goods ha bene i s coun ies economically, socially and en i onmen ally. Las (bu no a all leas ), he e is also he necessi y o de e mine whe he u he de elopmen o aquacul u e p ac ices bene i e e y eali y—hence he need o a coun y- scale s a egy de ini ion o he p ac ice. Whiche e solu ion is ound—mo e in ensi e aquacul u e o highe ood p oduc- ion, o he ede ini ion o cap u e ishe ies o eco-sound p ac ices o p ese e small-scale ishing— he ex emely high demands o sea ood ma ke s wo ldwide, pa icula ly con- cen a ed in he No he n hemisphe e, pose a se ious sus ainabili y issue a many le els. Aquacul u e expansion, ega dless o e o s o u n o mo e sus ainable p ac ises, will always ake up land and wa e esou ces, esul in mo e o less con olled nu ien s and o he chemicals’ loads o su ounding wa e bodies and he o e a ching p oduc ion o ood ha is asymme ically dis ibu ed ac oss he globe, exceeding he need (and p oducing was e) in a ew places, bu lacking in a lo mo e. Human die s in he commonly called de eloped coun ies usually exceed he amoun o nu ien s needed pe day, bu con inue demanding exceeding ood, o en p esen ing highe o e han consump ion. This gene a es g ea deals o was e om non-ea en p oduc s, a eali y ha u gen ly needs o be eassessed and edesigned. The con inui y o he o e demand and was e o ood p oduc s is ep ehensible, especially as i is an issue widely iden i ied and discussed. Howe e , such habi s con inue o nega i ely impac he access J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 17 o 20 o ood in less de eloped a eas. S a egies mus be de ined o encou age ea ing habi s ha a e mo e en i onmen ally sound, al hough i may mean lowe p o i s in expanding indus ies, such as aquacul u e. On he o he hand, ac ion mus be aken a go e nmen al and ins i u ional le els o o e ake deepening asymme ies ega ding ood accessibili y be ween so-called de eloped and de eloping coun ies, especially conce ning he balancing o ood dis ibu ion, which will necessa ily educe ood was e, a he same ime ha s eps a e aken owa ds lowe ing malnu i ion ac oss he globe. Al hough his heme has o a long ime been discussed, being one o he main conce ns decla ed by he Uni ed Na ions (UN) and associa ed o many Sus ainable De elopmen Goals se in he UN’s 2030 Agenda [ 64 ], i emains one o he mos se ious social calami ies o ou wo ld, a he expense o as -g owing in e na ional ma ke s. 6. Conclusions Aquacul u e con inues o de elop wo ldwide, wi h some coun ies and egions p e- sen ing uly as expansions, u ning he sec o in o a ele an con ibu o o na ional economies. Howe e , po en ial issues posed by aquacul u e, ei he en i onmen ally o in a socio-economic pe spec i e, ha e been somewha o e looked, and need o be eassessed. As one o he leading ish consume s pe capi a in he wo ld, i would be expec ed ha Po ugal had al eady u he de eloped aquacul u e p ac ices as a means o ma ching he ma ke demand and complemen cap u e ishe ies, bu p oduc ion is s ill a om ma ching such needs. Mo eo e , he mos app ecia ed ish by he Po uguese popula ion—cod—does no occu in he Po uguese ishing a ea, and canno , ei he , be a med (a leas o he ime being), making impo s una oidable. Mos o he aquacul u e acili ies in Po ugal ocus on he p oduc ion o ma ine ish and bi al e molluscs, essen ially ca ied ou in es ua ies and coas al lagoons, in ex ensi e and semi-in ensi e sys ems. Al hough acili ies using in ensi e p oduc ion sys ems a e mo e e icien in he ea ing o o ganisms and could a ain g ea e p oduc ion numbe s, hey a e only used o a small numbe o ish species. In con inen al Po ugal, aquacul u e p oduc ion in coas al sys ems eached a li le o e 13 housand onnes in 2018, he g ea es p oduc ion o he pe iod issued— om 1999 o 2018— ep esen ing abou 95% o he coun y’s o al aquacul u e p oduc ion. O sho e a ming in Po ugal is in de elopmen bu , o he p esen ime, i eso s o a ew cages and longline sys ems o bi al e molluscs’ p oduc ion on he sou h coas o Alga e, ope a ing since 2008. Fish p oduc ion in semi-in ensi e sys ems accoun s o only abou 5% o he o al aquacul u e in coas al sys ems in con inen al Po ugal and ocuses mainly on he p oduc- ion o gil head seab eam and Eu opean seabass, mos ly ea ed in he cen e and sou h o con inen al Po ugal. Mos ma ine ish p oduc ion is cu en ly being ca ied ou in in ensi e sys ems; howe e , he de elopmen o semi-in ensi e acili ies and he g ow h in p oduc ion in some o hese sys ems (and hei in oduc ion in he ma ke s) dese es o be men ioned as i is a gued ha his mean o p oduc ion e ains ish cha ac e is ics close o hose ound in wild caugh ish. Mollusc p oduc ion ep esen ed abou 67% o o al aquacul u e p oduc ion in 2018, ocusing on he ea ing o clams, oys e s and mussels, almos exclusi ely ea ed in ex ensi e egimes in coas al a eas. Al hough a small p oducing coun y, anking 20 h in e ms o aquacul u e olume p oduc ion in Eu ope, aquacul u e p oduc ion in Po ugal has been showing a ising end o e he yea s, and esea ch abou aquacul u e’s me hodologies and bes p ac ices is being de eloped. I is a sec o ha is gi en g ea e impo ance e e y yea and should con inue o expand and de elop h oughou he ollowing yea s. Au ho Con ibu ions: C.P.R., H.N.C., J.C.M., A.M.M.G. concei ed he wo ks’ ou line; C.P.R. w o e he o iginal ex d a ; H.N.C., J.C.M., A.M.M.G. e iewed and edi ed he ex d a ; H.N.C., J.C.M., A.M.M.G. supe ised he p oduc ion o he ex un il i s inal e sion. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . J. Ma . Sci. Eng. 2022,10, 417 18 o 20 Funding: This s udy was suppo ed by Fundação pa a a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) wi hin he scope o he p ojec s UIDB/04292/2020 g an ed o MARE—Ma ine and En i onmen al Sciences Cen e and UIDP/50017/2020+UIDB/50017/2020 (by FCT/MTCES) g an ed o CESAM—Cen e o En i onmen al and Ma ine S udies. Ca olina P. Rocha hanks he FCT o he inancial suppo g an ed h ough he doc o al g an SRFH/BD/140922/2018. Ana M. M. Gonçal es acknowledges he Uni e si y o Coimb a o he con ac IT057-18-7253. Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable. In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable. 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