1875-399X/22 Send O de s o Rep in s o [email p o ec ed]
1
DOI: 10.2174/1875399X- 15-e220325-2021-30, 2022, 15, e1875399X2211240
The Open Spo s Sciences Jou nal
Con en lis a ailable a : h ps://openspo ssciencesjou nal.com
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Sp in Pe o mance De e minan s in High-le el Young Swimme s
Ca olina L. Ma os1, Ana T. Conceição1,2,3,*, Hugo G. Lou o1,2, Hen ique P. Nei a2,4, Ped o N. Sob ei o1,3, Bá ba a L.
Viana4 and Daniel A. Ma inho2,4
1Spo Sciences School o Rio Maio , Rio Maio , Po ugal
2Resea ch Cen e in Spo s Sciences, Heal h and Human De elopmen , CIDESD, Po ugal
3CIEQV: The Li e Quali y Resea ch Cen e, San a ém, Po ugal
4Depa men o Spo s Sciences, Uni e si y o Bei a In e io , Co ilha, Po ugal
Abs ac :
Backg ound:
Iden i ying and e alua ing he a iables ha in luence pe o mance a e essen ial o ob aining excellence in spo .
Objec i e:
This s udy aimed o iden i y which pa ame e s ha e he mos in luence on he 50 me e s ees yle ime in young compe i i e swimme s.
Me hods:
One hund ed and eigh y- ou high-le el swimme s (males, n=92: 14.60±0.56 yea s; emales, n=92: 13.53 ± 0.54 yea s) wi h 468±66 FINA poin s
in he 50 me e s ees yle sho cou se pa icipa ed in his s udy. Age, heigh , body mass, wingspan, s oke a e, s oke leng h, s oke index, u ning
ime (5 m + 10 m), ho izon al jumping, and medicine ball h owing we e assessed. The swimming pe o mance was assessed in a 50 me e s
ees yle ime ial a maximum speed in a 25 me e s swimming pool. Mul iple eg ession was pe o med o assess he ela ionship be ween one
dependen a iable (50 me e s ees yle ime) and independen a iables.
Resul s:
The esul s showed signi ican di e ences be ween bo h he gende s. In male swimme s, only he u ning ime and he ho izon al jump we e
signi ican ( 2=0.8819; p<0.001), while emales, besides he same a iables, p esen ed signi ican esul s in e ms o heigh , body mass, s oke
leng h, and s oke index ( 2=0.9013; p<0.01).
Conclusion:
In conclusion, in young male swimme s, he u ning ime and he ho izon al jump con ibu ed signi ican ly o he 50 me e s ees yle swimming
pe o mance, and in young emale swimme s, he main con ibu o s we e he u ning ime, ho izon al jump, heigh , body mass, s oke leng h, and
s oke index.
Keywo ds: Swimming, Young swimme s, Pe o mance ac o s, F ees yle, S oke, Tu ning.
A icle His o y Recei ed: Sep embe 28, 2021 Re ised: Oc obe 21, 2021 Accep ed: Decembe 29, 2021
1. INTRODUCTION
The iden i ica ion and e alua ion o he a iables ha
in luence pe o mance a e essen ial o ob aining excellence in
spo [1]. In he 1970s, a s udy [2] epo ed ha he o m and
body unc ions a e closely ela ed o each o he and decisi e in
achie ing high-le el spo s pe o mance. Fo ins ance, in
* Add ess co espondence o his au ho a he Spo s Sciences School o Rio
Maio , Poly echnic Ins i u e o San a ém, A . D . Má io Soa es, 2040-413 Rio
Maio , Po ugal; E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
swimming, Pe syn e al. [3] pos ula ed ha he shape and
dimensions o he swimme 's body and uppe limbs in luence
he amoun o p opulsi e and hyd odynamic d ag o ces
exe ed in a swimme a a gi en swimming speed. Mo e
ecen ly, Fe nandes e al. [4] ound a high a io be ween he
biac omial and bic ys al diame e s o eli e swimme s, a
decisi e ac o in p omo ing a lowe d ag coe icien . The same
s udy e i ied he leng h and su ace o he swimme s' limbs o
be high and, he e o e, posi i ely a ec ing hei p opulsi e
2 The Open Spo s Sciences Jou nal, 2022, Volume 15 Ma os e al.
capaci y. These mo phological cha ac e is ics play a majo ole
in he young swimme s’ pe o mance because he p opo ions
o he swimme 's body in luence hyd odynamic d ag and make
a di e ence be ween he eli e and he es [5].
Compe i i e swimming is a cyclic spo ha occu s in a
highly cons ained en i onmen (as wa e densi y is
app oxima ely 800 dense han ai ), causing highe ac i e d ag
han o he aqua ic ac i i ies [6]. I means ha swimme s mus
s a egically manage hei s oke leng h and s oke a e o
gua an ee high swimming speed wi h ew luc ua ions [7, 8].
To be e unde s and he biomechanical ac o s ha in luence
compe i ion, esea che s ha e been ca ying ou analyses o
p o ide c ucial in o ma ion on he managemen o he s oking
pa ame e s (i.e., s oke leng h, s oke a e, and swimming
speed) [7, 9, 10]. In a swimming ace, he a ia ion o he
s oke a e is usually associa ed wi h he a ia ion o he s oke
leng h, as swimming speed is he p oduc o s oke a e and
s oke leng h. Thus, swimme s manage hei swimming speed
o minimize he ace ime by adjus ing hei s oke a e, s oke
leng h, o bo h [11].
Besides he biomechanical ac o s, s eng h pa ame e s
ha e been ecen ly p oposed as being pa o he mul i- ac o ial
phenomena ha enhance swimming pe o mance [7, 12]. The
assessmen o speci ic muscle powe ou pu o bo h a ms and
legs seems o be essen ial in swimming [13], bu i is di icul
o assess i in he aqua ic en i onmen [14]. I has been
sugges ed ha he sho e he ace, he highe he ole o
s eng h when compa ed o echnical a iables [14 - 16]. Fo
sho swimming aces, he powe p oduc ion capaci y is
conside ed a key a iable, and physical cha ac e is ics, such as
body heigh , a m span, body composi ion, and soma o ype, can
also con ibu e o he le el o pe o mance [17]. The
mo phological cha ac e is ics la gely depend on gene ic ac o s
bu migh ha e a decisi e impac on swimming pe o mance
[18]. Ba bosa e al. [19] epo ed as es swimme s in he 11 o
13 yea s age g oup o be alle , hea ie and wi h longe limbs
han he o he s. Those swimme s showed highe s oke a e,
s oke leng h, speed, s oke index, and p opelling e iciency,
bu lowe speed luc ua ions. Ano he s udy showed [20] he
bes p edic o o he 50 me e s ees yle as he s oke a e in
bo h gende s. In male swimme s, Sil a e al. [21] ound ha
only sho dis ances wi h high in ensi y could be p edic ed
h ough he s oke index, shoulde lexibili y and in acycle
eloci y. Using an allome ic app oach, Dos San os e al. [22]
e i ied he pe cen age o body a and a m p opulsi e o ce o
be signi ican p edic o s in he young swimme s’ 50 me e s
ees yle swimming pe o mance.
Since each indi idual is on ogenically endowed wi h a sui
gene is pe sonali y, wi h a ce ain s uc u e and which, o a
g ea e o lesse deg ee, helps in he ealiza ion o his alen in
a ce ain a ea o spec um o ac i i ies, he be e he condi ions
(s uc u al and en i onmen al) o i s de elopmen , he g ea e
he esul ing exp ession, ega dless o he scope o he chosen
ac i i y [23].
Knowing igh a he beginning o he long- e m
p epa a ion and de elopmen plan as o which a e he
necessa y cha ac e is ics ha enhance he possibili y o
becoming a high-le el a hle e and mee he demands o a spo
o spo ing special y, such as swimming, p omo es an ini ial
ad an age in he model o p epa a ion as long as i is ca ied
ou p ope ly h oughou he p epa a ion p ocess [23].
P e ious s udies indica e ha heigh , body mass, wingspan,
s oke a e, s oke leng h, and s oke index can p edic he
pe o mance o swimme s, bu a ew include o he a iables,
such as he u ning ime and he s eng h o he uppe and lowe
limbs. The e o e, he aim o his s udy is o iden i y which
pa ame e s ha e he mos in luence on he 50 me e s ees yle
pe o mance o young swimme s.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Pa icipan s’ Cha ac e is ics
The s udy included 184 young swimme s, 92 male
swimme s (14.60 ± 0.56 yea s old, 1.75 ± 0.07 m and 64.06 ±
6.49 kg) and 92 emale swimme s (13.53 ± 0.54 yea s old, 1.63
± 0.06 m and 53.37 ± 4.98 kg), whose bes 50 me e s ees yle
pe o mance was classi ied wi h 468 ± 66 FINA poin s (sho
cou se). These we e high-le el swimme s, selec ed o be pa
o he Po uguese Na ional Swimming Team in he ou spo s
seasons (Table 1).
Table 1. Summa y o he dis ibu ion o swimme s by
season and age.
Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Season 4 To al
15 yea s emale 11 15 10 10 46 92
14 yea s emale 17 13 6 10 46
15 yea s male 18 14 14 7 53 92
16 yea s male 13 15 2 11 41
To al 59 57 32 38 184
2.2. Expe imen al Design
2.2.1. Measu es and P ocedu es
Da a collec ion was conduc ed du ing he Na ional aining
camp ha is ca ied ou once pe season o wo days. Du ing
hese days, ou e alua ion sessions we e implemen ed o
assess an h opome ic a iables ( i s session), d yland s eng h
(second and hi d sessions) and swimming pe o mance ( ou h
session).
2.3. Da a Collec ion
2.3.1. An h opome ic E alua ion
A e he swimme s a i ed a he pool, hey es ed o 5
minu es, and hen hei body mass, heigh and wingspan we e
e alua ed. To measu e he heigh (in me e s), a digi al
s adiome e wi h a scale o 0.001m was used (SECA, 242,
Hambu g, Ge many). The body mass was measu ed wi h a
digi al scale (TANITA, BC-730, Ams e dam, Ne he lands). Fo
he measu emen o he wingspan, a p ecision measu ing ape
wi h a scale o 0.001m was used on he wall in he ho izon al
posi ion, and hen he swimme s posi ioned hemsel es wi h
hei backs o he wall and hei heels agains i and, wi h he
a ms ex ended ho izon ally, he measu emen was ca ied ou
om he end o he middle inge o he o he middle inge
[24].
Sp in Pe o mance De e minan s in High-le el Young Swimme s The Open Spo s Sciences Jou nal, 2022, Volume 15 3
2.3.2. D yland S eng h E alua ion
To e alua e he d yland s eng h o he lowe limbs, h ee
ho izon al jumps we e pe o med, wi h h ee minu es o es
in e al. The swimme s we e ins uc ed o place he ee a
shoulde wid h on he ma k, being allowed o mo e he uppe
limbs be o e he impulse. The dis ance om he ini ial posi ion
o whe e he ee landed was measu ed [25]. The a e age alue
and he maximum alue ob ained in he h ee jumps we e used
o u he analysis.
In a di e en session, he e alua ion o he uppe limbs’
s eng h was pe o med by h owing a 3kg medicine ball. To
pe o m he e alua ion, each subjec sa on he loo wi h
his/he back agains he wall and held he ball in on o
him/he wi h bo h hands (close o he ches ) o achie e he
wides ampli ude, speed and dis ance as possible and wi hou
o a ing he o so and hip du ing he execu ion o he
mo emen s. The e alua o checked he h owing posi ion as
well as he ob ained ange. Th ee a emp s we e made wi h a
es pe iod o one minu e be ween each one, and he dis ance
om he ini ial posi ion o whe e he ball ouched he g ound
was measu ed [25]. The a e age and maximum alues in he
h ee h ows we e eco ded o u he analysis.
2.3.3. Swimming E alua ion
In he ollowing session, he swimme s’ swimming
pe o mance e alua ion was conduc ed a e a ypical wa m-up
[26]. Each swimme pe o med a 50 me e s ees yle
simula ion a maximum speed in a 25 me e s indoo pool. All
he ime measu emen s we e eco ded using a ch onome e
(FINIS, 3x100, Cali o nia, USA). The o al ime and u ning
ime (5 me e s + 10 me e s) we e eco ded. The ime and s oke
a e we e measu ed be ween 5 me e s and 20 me e s, and hen
he s oke leng h and he s oke index we e calcula ed. The
swimming speed (in m/s) was calcula ed by he ime aken
be ween 5 and 20 me e s. The s oke leng h, in me e s, was
calcula ed by equa ion 1.
Equa ion 1: No. o s okes di ided by he leng h o he
pool.
The s oke index was calcula ed by he mul iplica ion o
he swimming speed by he s oke leng h [27], and he highe
he alue o his a iable, he be e he a hle e’s e iciency
[28].
2.4. S a is ical Analysis
The da a we e ea ed by gende . All he assump ions we e
gua an eed, using global alida ion o linea model
assump ions, es ing skewness, ku osis, link unc ion and
he e oscedas ici y [29] be o e he mul iple eg ession was
pe o med o assess he ela ionship be ween one dependen
a iable and se e al independen a iables [30] (Table 2).
The dependen a iable was he ime in he 50 me e s
ees yle. The independen a iables used o p edic he ime
we e he age in yea s on es day; he heigh in me e s
measu ed by a digi al s adiome e (SECA, 242, Hambu g,
Ge many); he body mass in kilog ams measu ed by a digi al
scale (TANITA, BC-730, Ams e dam, Ne he lands); he
wingspan in me e s measu ed wi h a p ecision measu ing ape;
s oke a e in cycles pe minu e measu ed wi h a ch onome e ,
h ee s okes cycles; s oke leng h in me e s calcula ed by
equa ion 1; s oke index gi en by mul iplying he swimming
speed by he s oke leng h; he u ning ime in seconds
measu ed 5 me e s be o e u ning, plus 10 me e s a e wa ds;
he ho izon al jump, lowe limbs in me e s, gi en by he middle
dis ance be ween he h ee execu ions; medicine ball h ow, in
me e s, gi en by he middle dis ance be ween he h ee
execu ions. All analyses we e de eloped in R e sion 4.0.3,
using he package g lma30 e sion 1.0 o es ing he Linea
Model Assump ions, S a s [31] o he linea model, and dply
[32] e sion 1.0.3 o da a manipula ion. Based on hese
a iables, he esea che s in ended o p edic he ime o
pe o me s in 50 me e s ees yle using equa ions desc ibed
below in he pape .
3. RESULTS
Table 2 p o ides he desc ip i e da a (mean (SD) o all
a iables analysed in bo h he gende s.
Table 2. Va iables analyzed o each subjec o he sample
and desc ip i e s a is ics.
Va iable Desc ip ion Min. Max. Mean (SD*)
Age Age o he pa icipan s in
yea s
12 16 14.08 (0.76)
Heigh Heigh in me e s 1.49 1.90 1.69 (0.08)
Weigh Weigh in kilog ams 42.70 82.60 58.86(77.85)
Wingspan Wingspan in me e s 1.47 1.98 1.73 (0.10)
50m ees yle Time 25.91 36.35 29.43 (2)
50m F ees yle
SR
50m ees yle S oke a e
(cycles/min) in he
dis ance 5-20m
37.14 65.50 51.15 (4.73)
50m F ees yle
SL
50m ees yle S oke
leng h (me e es)
1.35 2.96 1.97(0.22)
50m F ees yle
SI
50m ees yle S oke
index
1.99 7.52 3.31(0.58)
Tu ning Time Tu ning ime om 5m o
10m (s)
6.45 11.28 8.81 (0.65)
No e: * SD-s anda d de ia ion.
A e pe o ming mul iple eg ession, he esea che s
obse ed ha in he male gende , he model ha bes explains
he ime in he 50 me e s ees yle is composed o he
a iables: u ning ime and ho izon al jump in d yland
( 2=0.8819, esidual s anda d e o : 0.6936). These wo
a iables explain 88% o he ime in he 50 me e s ees yle
(Table 3).
Table 3. Summa y o he es ima ed pa ame e s ob ained
om he s epwise eg ession analysis p edic ing he 50
me e s F ees yle o male swimme s.
Coe icien s (Male) Es ima ed
Pa ame e s
S d. E o P- alue
Cons an 12.59 1.75 <0.001
Tu ning Time 5m+10m (s) 2.28 0.15 <0.001
Ho izon al Jump (m) -1.36 0.26 <0.001
Fo emale swimme s, he in es iga o s ound a model ha
explains 90% o he ime in he 50 me e s ees yle ( 2=0,9013,
esidual s anda d e o : 0.3954). This model includes he
4 The Open Spo s Sciences Jou nal, 2022, Volume 15 Ma os e al.
heigh , body mass, s oke leng h, s oke index, u ning ime and
he ho izon al jump in d yland (Table 4).
Table 4. Summa y o he es ima ed pa ame e s ob ained
om he s epwise eg ession analysis p edic ing he 50
me e s F ees yle o male swimme s.
Coe icien s (Female) Es ima ed
Pa ame e s
S d. E o P- alue
Cons an 6.23 6.51 0.341
Heigh (m) 3.74 1.12 0.001
Body mass (kg) -0.03 0.02 0.01
S oke leng h (m) 11.27 3.04 <0.001
S oke Index (m2/s) -6.04 1.06 <0.001
Tu ning Time 5m+10m (s) 1.64 0.15 <0.001
Ho izon al Jump (m) -0.63 0.26 0.01
The e o e, he equa ion es ablished o males is ep esen ed
as ollows:
50 m ees yle ime (s) = 12.60+(2.29× u ning ime) -
(1.37×ho izon al jump) + 0.69
Whe e, he u ning ime is measu ed in seconds and he
ho izon al jump in me e s.
The equa ion de e mined o emales is ep esen ed as
ollows:
50 m ees yle ime (s) = 6.22 + (3.74×heigh ) -
(0.03×body mass) + (11.27×s oke leng h) - (6.04×s oke
index) + (1.63× u ning ime) - (0.63×ho izon al jump) + 0.40
Whe e, he heigh is measu ed in me e s, he body mass in
kilog ams, he s oke leng h in me e s, he s oke index in m2/s,
he u ning ime in seconds, and he ho izon al jump in me e s.
4. DISCUSSION
The aim o his s udy was o iden i y which pa ame e s
ha e he mos in luence on he 50 me e s ees yle pe o mance
in young swimme s. The main ou comes e ealed u ning ime
and he ho izon al jump as he bes p edic o s o he 50 me e s
ime in male swimme s, and he u ning ime, ho izon al jump,
heigh , body mass, s oke leng h and s oke index as he bes
p edic o s o he 50 me e s ime in emale swimme s.
The esul s ob ained ela ed o male swimme s pa ially
ag ee wi h p e ious indings. Geladas e al. [33] e e , in
males, he uppe limbs leng h, he ho izon al jump, and he g ip
s eng h ( 2= 0.59, p < 0.01) as signi ican p edic o s o he 100
me e s ees yle pe o mance. Mo eo e , Ba bosa e al. [19]
sugges ed heigh , body mass, wingspan, s oke a e, s oke
leng h and s oke index o be ac o s ha in luence he
pe o mance. In he cu en s udy, he wingspan and he s oke
a e did no e eal o be ele an in he sp in swimming
pe o mance. These esul s a e in e es ing, conside ing ha
p e ious esea ch sugges ed ha a iables, such as heigh and
a m span, posi i ely co ela e wi h 50 me e s o 100 me e s
ees yle pe o mance [33, 34]. An h opome ic a iables a e
usually associa ed wi h he pe o mance o swimme s;
howe e , hey could also ha e a concu en e ec on o he
domains ela ed o swimming echniques and comp omise
esul s [35]. Fo ins ance, a la ge unk ans e se su ace and
body su ace a ea could esul in highe d ag [36]. Mo eo e ,
body changes caused by g ow h can ake some ime o bene i
pe o mance [37].
The cu en esul s could also be explained by he
pa icipan s’ cha ac e is ics. Fo example, he male swimme s
we e p obably homogeneous in body size, body composi ion,
uppe limb muscle powe , biomechanical a iables (s oke
leng h, s oke index, s oke a e) and pe o mance. These
ac o s oge he migh ha e in luenced he esul s, and hus, in
swimme s wi h simila body size, body composi ion, uppe
limb muscle powe , s oke leng h, and s oke index, he lowe
limb muscle powe can be he di e en ial ac o in he 50m
ees yle swimming. Fu he mo e, in he cu en s udy,
ho izon al jump was ound o be a de e minan a iable o
bo h male and emale swimme s. This could highligh he
in luence o s eng h on swimming pe o mance, ega dless o
gende . Indeed, a p e ious s udy indica ed he s eng h and he
powe cha ac e is ics o he lowe limbs as p edic o s o
swimming pe o mance ha allow o dis inguish swimme s
wi h di e en le els o pe o mance [38].
Rega dless o he di e ences in he explana o y a iables
o males and emales, bo h highligh ed he in luence o lowe
limbs powe and u ning pe o mance on sp in swimming
pe o mance. Coaches, swimme s and esea che s can he e o e
unde s and he impo ance o s eng h aining p og ams
ocused on he de elopmen o lowe limbs powe , con ibu ing
o he imp o emen o swimme s’ pe o mance [39, 40].
Mo eo e , some speci ic ac ions, such as u ns, assume a high
ele ance in he swimming sp in pe o mance and should be
pa o he aining p og ams. Conside ing ha he u ning
phase is a g ea pa o he 50 m swimming [40], i is expec ed
ha he u ning ime would in luence sp in pe o mance.
Howe e , hese esul s highligh ha he a iance in 50 m
pe o mance could be explained by he a iance in u ning
pe o mance. Thus, u ning ac ions should be emphasised
du ing swimming aining in hese ages.
In he cu en s udy, some an h opome ic a iables, such
as heigh and body mass, and biomechanical a iables, such as
s oke leng h and s oke index, we e obse ed o be impo an
o emale swimme s’ pe o mance. This implies ha
pe o mance wi hin hese pa icipan s migh be p ima ily
dependen on mechanical ac o s also. I has been sugges ed
ha some mo phological cha ac e is ics, such as he a io
be ween he biac omial and bic ys al diame e s, leng h and
su ace o he swimme s' limbs, play a majo ole in he
pe o mance o young swimme s [5]. The swimme 's body can
posi i ely change he h us bu , a he same ime, inc ease he
hyd odynamic d ag [5]. Changes in an an h opome ic p o ile
a ec he echnique, which could in luence swimming
pe o mance [41]. In he cu en s udy, a ia ions in
an h opome ic a iables and kinema ics we e obse ed o be
de e minan s o pe o mance.
Among he a iables conside ed o analysis, i.e., heigh ,
body mass, wingspan, ho izon al jump, medicine ball h owing,
s oke leng h, s oke index, and s oke a e, he a iance in
sp in pe o mance o he male pa icipan s was explained by
lowe limbs muscle powe and u ning ime. This does no
mean ha he o he a iables a e no ele an . In ac , i was
Sp in Pe o mance De e minan s in High-le el Young Swimme s The Open Spo s Sciences Jou nal, 2022, Volume 15 5
p e iously ecognized ha swimming pe o mance is no
exclusi ely dependen on a small se o de e mining a iables
bu depends on he in e ac ion o se e al ac o s [37].
Mo eo e , in emale swimme s, he di e ence in pe o mance
was in luenced by he a ia ion in an h opome ic a iables
(i.e., heigh and body mass), s oke echnique (s oke index and
leng h), u ning ime and lowe limbs muscle powe . These
di e ences would allow he coaches and swimme s o
ecognize he impo ance o lowe limbs powe ( ha can also
in luence u ning ime) o sp in pe o mance. Fu he mo e,
an h opome ics and he swimming echnique could
di e en ia e emale swimme s o his age.
The ac ha some o hese a iables we e no signi ican
should be con ex ualized o ou sample and cha ac e is ics. I
should be no ed ha o he ac o s no assessed in he p esen
s udy, such as ae obic and anae obic capaci y, and some
an h opome ic measu es, migh also ha e in luenced he 50
me e s pe o mance. In addi ion, we should no dis ega d he
impo ance o uppe limbs powe and/o swimming echnique
p e iously sugges ed o in luence swimming pe o mance [42].
Due o he limi a ions o he s udy (absence o gold s anda d
assessmen s o uppe and lowe limbs muscle powe , body
composi ion, and biological ma u a ion), he esul s should be
in e p e ed wi h cau ion.
CONCLUSION
I may be s a ed ha he ime in 50 me e s ees yle can be
p edic ed by he u ning ime and he ho izon al jump in male
young swimme s, and by he heigh , body mass, s oke leng h,
s oke index, u ning ime and ho izon al jump in emale young
swimme s. Thus, he s udy’s esea che s conclude ha some
an h opome ic cha ac e is ics, s oking pa ame e s and
s eng h, can se e as de e minan s o he young swimme s’
pe o mance.
ETHICS APPROVAL AND CONSENT TO
PARTICIPATE
All he p ocedu es we e app o ed by he ins i u ional
e hics commi ee om he cou se wi h he s udy no.160522051.
HUMAN AND ANIMAL RIGHTS
No animals we e used ha a e he basis o his s udy. All
he epo ed expe imen s on humans we e conduc ed in
acco dance wi h he e hical s anda ds o he commi ee
esponsible o human expe imen a ion (ins i u ional and
na ional), and wi h he Helsinki Decla a ion o 1975, as e ised
in 2008 (h p://www.wma.ne /en/20ac i i ies/10e hics/10hels
inki/).
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
All subjec s we e in o med o he isks and bene i s o he
s udy, and a signed in o med consen was ob ained om hem.
AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS
The da a and ma e ials ha suppo he indings o his
esea ch a e a ailable om he co esponding au ho [A.T.C]
upon easonable eques .
FUNDING
This wo k was suppo ed by he Po uguese Founda ion o
Science and Technology, I.P., unde G an UID04045/2021.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The au ho s con i m ha his a icle's con en has no
con lic o in e es .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Decla ed none.
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