ISSN 1413-389X T ends in Psychology / Temas em Psicologia – Ma ço 2018, Vol. 26, nº 1, 167-182
DOI: 10.9788/TP2018.1-07
In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y
agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing B azil, Po ugal, and Spain
Sônia Ma ia Guedes Gondim1, *
O cid.o g/0000-0003-3482-166X
José Luis Ál a o-Es amiana2
O cid.o g/0000-0002-3017-0305
Cíce o Robe o Pe ei a3, 4
O cid.o g/0000-0003-3406-3985
Leôncio Camino
O cid.o g/0000-0002-8666-7898
Ana Raquel To es4
O cid.o g/0000-0002-3161-0309
Alícia Ga ido-Luque2
O cid.o g/0000-0002-2785-5071
Elza Ma ia Techio1
O cid.o g/0000-0002-8229-7674
João Almeida Ba ei os3
O cid.o g/0000-0002-9563-6911
Raquel Lo en e-Clema es
O cid.o g/0000-0001-8940-4949
Pa ícia Elbe e h Alonso-Flo es2
O cid.o g/0000-0002-3519-6387
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1Uni e sidade Fede al da Bahia, Sal ado , BA, B asil
2Uni e sidad Complu ense de Mad id, Mad id, Spain
3Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Po ugal
4Uni e sidade Fede al da Pa aíba, João Pessoa, PB, B asil
Abs ac
This s udy analyzed whe he hos ili y owa ds o eigne s pe cei ed as compe i o s in he labo ma ke
would be ela ed o he pe cep ion o h ea (symbolic and economic) and nega i e in e g oup emo ions.
270 people be ween 18 and 63 yea s pa icipa ed. In B azil (N = 89), mos ly men (59%) and a e age
age 32.5 yea s; In Po ugal (N = 87), mos ly men (56.3%) and a e age age 39.9 yea s; in Spain (N =
94), mos ly women (53.2%) and a e age age o 32.8 yea s. The esul s ( - es , analysis o a iance
and mul iple eg essions) indica ed ha in Spain nega i e emo ions a e associa ed wi h less hos ili y
A igo
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
* Mailing add ess: Rod igo A golo, 293, Ap o. 502, Rio Ve melho, Sal ado , BA, B azil 41940-220. Phone:
(71) 9382-2233. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Financial suppo : Edi al de Ciências Humanas do Conselho Nacional de Desen ol imen o Cien ífi co e
Tecnológico (CNPq). P ojec Suppo DGU (Di eção Ge al de Uni e sidades)/CAPES (Coo denação de
Ape eiçoamen o de Pessoal de Ní el Supe io ), 2012/2013- pos -doc o al ellowship o he fi s au ho .
Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R.,
Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E.
168
owa ds immig an s; In B azil, posi i e emo ions a e associa ed wi h hos ile a i udes. In Po ugal, he
ela ionship be ween posi i e emo ions and hos ili y is posi i e, bu no signifi can . The symbolic h ea
was he bes p edic o o hos ili y only in he B azilian sample. Posi i e emo ions p edispose o a g ea e
kindness owa ds o eigne s in he h ee coun ies. The main conclusion o he s udy is ha he economic
c isis does no seem o be associa ed wi h he pe cep ion o compe i i eness o o eigne s in he local
labo ma ke and hos ili y owa ds his social g oup.
Keywo ds: Immig a ion, compa a i e s udy, in e g oup emo ions, disc imina ion.
Emoções In e g upais, Ameaças Pe cebidas e Hos ilidade
pa a com Es angei os: Compa ando B asil, Po ugal e Espanha
Resumo
O es udo analisou se a hos ilidade pa a com es angei os pe cebidos como conco en es no me cado de
abalho es a ia elacionada com a pe cepção de ameaça (simbólica e econômica) e as emoções in e g u-
pais nega i as. Pa icipa am 270 pessoas en e 18 e 63 anos, assim dis ibuídas: B asil (N = 89), idade
média de 32.5 anos, maio ia de homens (59%); Po ugal (N = 87), idade média de 39.9 anos, maio ia
de homens (56.3%); e Espanha (N=94), idade média de 32.8 anos, maio ia de mulhe es (53.2%). Os
esul ados do Tes e- , análise da a iância e eg essões múl iplas indica am que enquan o na Espanha
emoções nega i as se associam a menos hos ilidade pa a com imig an es, no B asil é a exp essão de
emoções posi i as que se encon a associada a ais a i udes hos is. Em Po ugal a elação en e emoções
posi i as e hos ilidade é posi i a, mas não signifi ca i a. A ameaça simbólica oi o melho p edi o de
hos ilidade somen e na amos a b asilei a. Emoções posi i as p edizem maio amabilidade pa a com
es angei os nas amos as dos ês países. A p incipal conclusão do es udo é que a c ise econômica não
pa ece es a associada com a pe cepção de compe i i idade do es angei o no me cado de abalho local
e a hos ilidade pa a com es e g upo social.
Pala as-cha e: Imig ação, es udo compa a i o, emoções in e g upais, disc iminação.
Emociones In e g upales, Amenazas Pe cibidas y Hos ilidad
con a Ex anje os: Compa ando B asil, Po ugal y España
Resumen
Es e es udio analizó si la hos ilidad hacia los ex anje os pe cibidos como compe ido es en el me cado
de abajo es a ía elacionada con la pe cepción de amenaza (simbólica y económica) y las emociones
in e g upales nega i as. Pa icipa on 270 pe sonas en e 18 y 63 años. En B asil (N = 89), mayo ía de
homb es (59%) y edad media 32.5 años; en Po ugal (N = 87), mayo ía de homb es (56.3%) y edad
media 39.9 años; en España (N = 94), mayo ía de muje es (53.2%) y edad media de 32.8 años. Los
esul ados ( es - , análisis de la a ianza y eg esiones múl iples) indica on que en España las emocio-
nes nega i as se asocian a una meno hos ilidad hacia los inmig an es; en B asil las emociones posi i-
as es án asociadas a ac i udes hos iles. En Po ugal la elación en e emociones posi i as y hos ilidad
es posi i a, pe o no signifi ca i a. La amenaza simbólica ue el mejo p edic o de hos ilidad sólo en la
mues a b asileña. Las emociones posi i as p edisponen a una mayo amabilidad hacia los ex anje os
en los es países. La p incipal conclusión del es udio es que la c isis económica no pa ece es a asociada
a la pe cepción de compe i i idad de los ex anje os en el me cado labo al local y la hos ilidad hacia
es e g upo social.
Palab as cla e: Inmig ación, es udio compa ado, emociones in e g upales, disc iminación.
In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing
B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 169
The wo ldwide c isis and globaliza ion
ha e con ibu ed o he cu en discussion
abou he phenomenon o mig a ion ac oss he
wo ld. Despi e being a ecu ing heme, he
con empo a y scena io o changes in mig a ion
fl ows be ween coun ies b ings new elemen s o
he discussion on global mig a ion (e.g., Boski,
2013; Ce u i & Pa ado, 2015; Collie , 2013;
Hun e , Luna, & No on, 2015), especially o
he psychology o in e g oup ela ionships.
The e a e g owing social demands o a be e
unde s anding o a i udes owa ds o eigne s
and aking ac ion o educe confl ic s be ween
immig an s and na i es o he ecei ing
coun ies. Among o he opics o in e es a e he
economic and social benefi s o he coun ies
ha send immig an s (e.g., An ónio & Polica po,
2001; Mul ey, 2011), o he ecei ing coun ies,
and also o he immig an s hemsel es (e.g.,
Wagne , Ch is , & Hei meye , 2010).
Da a eleased by he Wo ld Bank e eal
he impo ance o economic mig a ion o he
coun ies o o igin, whose emi ances sen om
ab oad con ibu e o local socio-economic de el-
opmen (e.g., Po es, 2009). Bu , i on one hand,
he mig a ion p ocesses con ibu e o he de el-
opmen o he coun ies in he hope o educing
economic inequali ies, on he o he , hey b ing
in e nal consequences o he ecipien coun y,
pa icula ly in imes o economic c isis, in which
he s uggle o fi nd jobs and o access o goods
and se ices o e ed by hese go e nmen s is
associa ed wi h nega i e a i udes, p ejudice,
and disc imina o y beha io agains o eigne s
(e.g., Da ido & Meuleman, 2012; Facchini &
Mayda, 2012; Gang, Ri e a-Ba iz, & Yun, 2013;
Ma kaki & Longhi, 2012; Semyono , Raijman,
& Go odzeisky, 2006; Snide man, Hagendoo n,
& P io , 2004).
In his sense, he p ima y objec i e o his
s udy is o analyze o wha ex en he hos ili y
in dealing wi h o eigne s is ela ed o pe cei ed
h ea (symbolic and economic) and nega i e in-
e g oup emo ions o na i es owa ds o eigne s
pe cei ed as s ong compe i o s in he job ma -
ke . The second objec i e is o analyze whe he
he ela ionships o h ea and in e g oup emo-
ions (posi i e and nega i e) wi h hos ili y and
iendliness a y depending on he na ional
con ex o h ee coun ies in di e en socioeco-
nomic si ua ions. Da a om 2012 eleased by he
Wo ld Bank e eal ha he e a e di e ences in
he human de elopmen index o Po ugal (HDI
= 0.81), B azil (HDI = 0.73), and Spain (HDI =
0.88). Howe e , Spain and Po ugal we e mo e
a ec ed by he global fi nancial c isis o 2008
han B azil, since he la e has achie ed signifi -
can economic g ow h in ecen yea s, while he
o he wo ha e expe ienced a educ ion in eco-
nomic ac i i y. The main hypo hesis o be es ed
in his s udy is ha he impac o he h ea on
in e g oup hos ili y will be g ea e in he wo
coun ies in c isis han in B azil. Al hough his
si ua ion is changing since B azil is acing a
deep economic and poli ical c isis, he s udy was
made a he end o he economic cycle and he
da a p esen ed co esponds o his specifi c pe i-
od we a e e e ing o. This s udy con ibu es o
he explana ion o in e g oup ela ions, pa icu-
la ly in imes o economic c isis and compe i ion
o sca ce esou ces, highligh ing he di e si y
among coun ies (Fais , 2016). In addi ion, i can
help in social suppo policies o o eigne s who
mig a e o wo k.
The Role o he Pe cei ed Th ea
The e is a b oad adi ion o s udies o he
indi idual a iables in explaining p ejudice and
hos ili y (e.g., Facchini & Mayda, 2012; Gang
e al., 2013; Quillian, 1995). Fo example, sel -
in e es heo y pos ula es ha people de elop
nega i e a i udes owa d social ca ego ies wi h
which hey a e in compe i ion o in confl ic , as
in he case o compe i ion o jobs. Simila ly,
a se o heo ies, known as heo ies o ealis ic
confl ic s o in e es (e.g., She i , Ha ey, Whi e,
Hood, & She i , 1961), has gi en li le a en ion
o he ac o s o an indi idual na u e o highligh
he ole o confl ic s o in e es in disc imina ion.
Acco ding o Le ine and Campbell (1972), he
wo heo e ical p inciples common o ealis ic
confl ic heo ies a e o assume ha he g oups
ha e incompa ible goals and ha hey compe e
o sca ce esou ces. Fu he mo e, in e g oup
hos ili y would inc ease in si ua ions o g ea e
confl ic o in e es , since each o he pa ies o
Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R.,
Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E.
170
he confl ic can only achie e hei goals i hey
de ea he o he pa y. In addi ion, hese heo ies
assume ha confl ic s o in e es con ibu e o
inc eased h ea pe cep ion, making he occu -
ence o in e g oup hos ili y mo e likely.
Acco dingly, in e g oup hos ili y is mo e
likely o occu when wo g oups wan o achie e
he same goal, and whe e only one g oup can
succeed (e.g., nega i e in e dependence con-
ex ). These hypo heses we e es ed in h ee fi eld
expe imen s conduc ed by She i e al. (1961).
In hese s udies, he s uc u e o ela ions be-
ween g oups (compe i ion s. coope a ion) was
manipula ed, esul ing in g ea e disc imina ion
in he con ex s o compe i ion (i.e., nega i e in-
e dependence). In he con ex s o coope a ion
(i.e., posi i e in e dependence, o supe o dina e
goals), on he con a y, he e was a dec ease in
agg essi eness and, o e all, educed hos ili y
agains membe s o he “ou g oup”. These e-
sul s we e seen in o he fi eld expe imen s (e.g.,
Agee , 1990 ci ed in Pla ow & Hun e , 2001)
and in he labo a o y (Blake & Mou on, 1961).
They ha e also ecei ed empi ical suppo and
ecological alidi y in s udies conduc ed wi h
ep esen a i e popula ion samples om a ious
Eu opean coun ies, as exemplifi ed in he s udy
by Quillian (1995), which used he Eu oba om-
e e Su ey da abase, and mo e ecen ly, he
s udy by Bello (2013) using da a om he Eu o-
pean Social Su ey.
O majo impo ance o he a gumen
o his a icle, he psychological p ocess ha
sus ains he e ec s ob ained in hese s udies is
he de elopmen o a sense ha membe s o he
ou g oup pose a h ea o he goal o he ing oup
o achie e i s goal. The pe cep ion o h ea ,
hen, would be he cause o hos ili y agains
membe s o he ou g oup. Objec i ely, he h ea
pe cep ion is a cen al ac o o unde s anding
“in e g oup” ensions. The ac i e psychological
p inciple in he e ec o he h ea on hos ili y
is he pe cep ion ha he ou g oup can dec ease
he well-being o he ing oup, and his jus ifi es
de ending he in e es s o he ing oup h ough
hos ile beha io owa ds ou g oup membe s,
pe cei ed as he sou ce o h ea (e.g., Pe ei a,
Vala, & Cos a-Lopes, 2010).
Conside ing he ole o confl ic s o in e es
and he pe cep ion o h ea in in e g oup hos il-
i y, he ollowing hypo heses we e p oposed:
H1: The pe cei ed h ea (economic, sym-
bolic, and secu i y- ela ed) om g oups o o -
eigne s will be highe in coun ies ha su e
g ea e impac om he economic c isis (Po u-
gal and Spain).
H2: The pe cei ed h ea om o eign
g oups is a p edic o o hos ili y owa d he
o eigne , especially in he wo coun ies mo e
a ec ed by he economic c isis.
The assump ion is ha sca ce jobs ac i a e
he pe cep ion o compe i ion om o eign
g oups, which come o be seen as a h ea o
he su i al and s anding o he na ional g oup.
Ano he assump ion is ha he e would be g ea e
simila i y be ween he indica o s o Spain and
Po ugal, due o he socio-economic c isis hey
a e acing, di e ing om B azil, which despi e
ha ing a lowe Human De elopmen Index
(HDI) han hese wo coun ies, a he ime o
his s udy, s ill expe ienced mo e a o able
economic imes.
The Role o In e g oup Emo ions
I is ecognized ha he ype o emo ion o
he indi idual is ela ed o dis inc beha io al in-
en ions owa ds o he s (F idja, Kuipe s, & e
Shu e, 1989). Ange leads o agg ession agains
he o he pe son, while guil mo i a es epa a-
o y beha io . Bu emo ions can also be con-
side ed a he g oup le el, wi h implica ions o
beha io al in en ions o g oup membe s owa ds
o he social g oups (ou g oups). The assessmen
p ocess fi lls an impo an ole in hese ela ion-
ships, since he way he o he g oup is e alua ed
igge s emo ions ha ac i a e ce ain ac ion en-
dencies.
The pe cep ion o an ou g oup h ea is as-
socia ed wi h nega i e in e g oup emo ions,
and hus, i could be a gued ha such nega i e
emo ions also con ibu e o inc eased hos ili y
owa d he g oup o o eigne s who compe e
in he domes ic labo ma ke . This sugges s a
egula ing ole o emo ions a he g oup le el,
wi h epe cussions on in e g oup ela ions (Mai-
ne , Mackie, & Smi h 2006). Howe e , acco d-
In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing
B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 171
ing o he iew o he au ho s o his a icle, he
emo ions could also ac independen ly o he
pe cei ed h ea . In his case, posi i e a i udes
owa d o eigne s would be associa ed wi h pos-
i i e in e g oup emo ions and would be espon-
sible o iendliness owa d such people, e en in
si ua ions o highe compe i ion o sca ce jobs
in he domes ic ma ke .
To sus ain ou a gumen s in he bi-dimen-
sional pe spec i e o in e g oup emo ions (nega-
i e and posi i e), we dis ance ou sel es some-
wha om he o iginal app oach o in e g oup
emo ions heo y (IET), whose ocus is o explo e
he ole o disc e e emo ions (e.g., ea , guil )
in in e g oup ela ions. Howe e , we con e ge
wi h he IET whe e i a fi ms ha g oup le el
emo ions a e ac i a ed by a p ocess o sel -ca e-
go iza ion (sel -s e eo yping) ha makes people
see hemsel es as membe s o a g oup ac ing and
mo ing collec i ely. The pe cep ion o belong-
ing o a g oup ac i a es social iden i y, by mak-
ing each membe ac as hey hink ha membe s
o hei g oup do. The g oup he e o e becomes
pa o he sel and comes o guide he beha io
owa ds membe s o he o he g oup (ou g oup).
In summa y, wo psychological o ces
would be con ibu ing o sus ain hese ela ion-
ships be ween g oup emo ions and ac ion en-
dencies owa ds o he g oups: he in e g oup ap-
p aisal p ocess (how he o he g oup is iewed)
and emo ional sel -s e eo yping (inco po a ion
o an emo ion ha is belie ed o be he g oup’s;
Mackie, Smi h, & Ray 2008). The consequences
o his wo old p ocess would be he ale ness,
pe cep ion, in o ma ion p ocessing, judgmen ,
decision making, and closeness ( iendliness) o
dis ance (hos ili y) beha io s owa d he o he
g oups.
In o de o p edic he capaci y o in e g oup
emo ions in a wo-dimensional pe spec i e, he
s udy being desc ibed in his a icle, a he han
emphasizing he ela ionship be ween disc e e
nega i e emo ions and he ypes o beha io al
endencies owa ds ou g oups, explo ed he
p edic i e powe o nega i e and posi i e emo-
ions in he beha io al in en ions o hos ili y and
iendliness owa d o eigne s in he wo kplace.
The assump ion was ha , in addi ion o es ing
he s eng h o he associa ion be ween pe -
cei ed h ea , nega i e in e g oup emo ions, and
hos ili y owa d g oups o o eigne s, wha could
also be explo ed was he explana o y powe o
he posi i e and nega i e in e g oup emo ions
in iendliness (p osocial beha io ) and hos ili y
beha io owa d hese same g oups.
Based on his unde s anding, he ollowing
hypo heses we e o mula ed:
H3 (a) Nega i e in e g oup emo ions o-
wa ds o eigne s is a p edic o o he pe cei ed
hos ili y owa d he o eigne (a oidance beha -
io ), (b) Posi i e in e g oup emo ions owa d
o eigne s is a p edic o o he pe cei ed iend-
liness owa d he o eigne (in e g oup engage-
men beha io ).
Me hod
Pa icipan s
The s udy included pa icipan s om h ee
coun ies: B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. In each
coun y, na ional ci izens aged be ween 18 and
63 yea s old pa icipa ed in his esea ch. In
B azil, 89 people pa icipa ed, he majo i y being
men (59%). The a e age age o esponden s was
32.57 yea s (SD = 10.61), anging om 18 o 63
yea s. Rega ding educa ional le el, 54.6% (n =
38) had a college and a g adua e deg ee. Fi e
pa icipan s (5.6%) had a leas one o eign pa en
and 15 (16.9%) had a leas one g andpa en o
ano he na ionali y. As o occupa ional s a us,
74% (n = 66) we e ac i e in he labo ma ke .
Mos o hem, 53.93% (n = 48), wo ked o had
wo ked wi h o eigne s, bu wo k expe ience
ab oad was modes (n = 10), and no exceeding
ou yea s.
In Po ugal, 87 people pa icipa ed in he
su ey, he majo i y being men (56.31%). The
a e age age o esponden s was 39.94 yea s (SD
= 11.50), anging om 20 o 73 yea s. Rega ding
educa ional le el, 62% (n = 54) had a college and
a g adua e deg ee. Th ee pa icipan s (3.4%) had
a leas one o eign pa en and fi e (5.7%) had
a leas one g andpa en o ano he na ionali y.
As o occupa ional s a us, 67.81% (n = 59) we e
ac i e in he labo ma ke . Mos o hem, 62%
(n = 54), wo ked o had wo ked wi h o eign-

Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R.,
Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E.
172
e s, and 21% (n = 19) had expe ience wo king
ab oad, and o 14 (16%) o hem his expe ience
exceeded one yea .
In Spain, 94 people pa icipa ed in he
su ey, he majo i y being women (53.2%). The
a e age age o esponden s was 32.84 yea s (SD
= 11.23), anging om 18 o 60 yea s. Rega ding
educa ional le el, 54.25% (n = 51) had a college
and a g adua e deg ee. Fou een pa icipan s
(14.9%) had a leas one o eign pa en and
12 (12.8%) had a leas one g andpa en o
ano he na ionali y. As o occupa ional s a us,
54.25% (n=51) we e ac i e in he labo ma ke .
Mos o hem, 53.19% (n = 50), wo ked o had
wo ked wi h o eigne s, and 37.2% (n = 35) had
expe ience wo king ab oad, 33 (32%) o hem
wi h expe ience o o e one yea .
Ins umen s
Measu e o Pe cei ed Th ea . The mea-
su e was adap ed om he scale de eloped by
S ephan and S ephan (2000) o pe cei ed h ea
o poli ical secu i y (“The a i al o hese people
can cause an inc ease o c ime in he coun y”),
economic secu i y (e.g., “The esou ces and
economic de elopmen o B azilians (Po u-
guese, Spania ds) a e h ea ened by o eigne s
who come o wo k in he coun y”) and sym-
bolic secu i y (e.g., “ou eedom and igh s a e
h ea ened by o eigne s who come o wo k in
he coun y”). The measu e has six i ems o be
answe ed on a fi e-poin Like scale anging
om (1) “S ongly disag ee” o (5) “s ongly
ag ee”. Among he i ems, wo e e o he pe -
cei ed economic h ea , h ee a e ela ed o he
pe cei ed symbolic h ea , and one is abou he
pe cei ed h ea o poli ical secu i y. This i ems
we e alida ed in Po ugal and Spain by Pe ei a
e al. (2010) and in B azil by Pe ei a and Vala
(2011). In he cu en s udy, he in e nal consis-
ency o he measu e p esen ed he ollowing in-
dica o s: α=0.65 (B azil), α=0.81 (Po ugal), and
α=0.70 (Spain).
Measu e o In e g oup Emo ions and Feel-
ings. The measu e o eelings in in e g oup ela-
ions was based on p e ious s udies on a ibu-
ions o emo ions be ween leade s and ollowe s
(Gondim, Ál a o-Es amiana, Schweige -Gallo,
Sá, & Rios, 2008). The measu e has 28 i ems de-
sc ibing eelings and emo ions p esen in g oup
in e ac ions, di ided in o wo dimensions o 14
i ems each: posi i e sociabili y (e.g., iendship,
solida i y, unde s anding) and nega i e socia-
bili y (e.g., insince i y, epulsion, supe io i y).
The esponse scale is he fi e-poin Like ype,
anging om (1) “Defi ni ely no wha we eel”
o (5) “Defi ni ely is wha we eel”. The wo ding
o he ques ion is: Nex you will be p esen ed
wi h a lis o eelings (emo ions and a ec ions)
and we would like you o indica e how s ongly
you belie e ha each o hem is p esen in he
ela ionships be ween B azilians (Po uguese
o Spania ds) and he g oup o o eigne s you
named as a s ong compe i o in he job ma ke .
In o de o add ess he ac o ial alidi y o
his measu e we ca ied ou a p incipal compo-
nen analysis wi h oblique o a ion which indi-
ca ed, as solu ions in each o he h ee samples,
he ollowing pa ame e s: B azil - wo ac o s,
posi i e emo ions and nega i e emo ions, ex-
plaining 43.7% o he a iance. The ac o load-
ings anged om λ = 0.35 (since i y) o λ = 0.77
(unde s anding) in he posi i e sociabili y di-
mension (α = 0.90), and om λ = 0.49 (guil ) o
λ = 0.74 (insince i y) in nega i e sociabili y (α =
0.88); Po ugal - wo ac o s, posi i e and nega-
i e emo ions, explaining 43.27% o he a i-
ance. The ac o loadings anged om λ = 0.33
( ole ance) o λ = 0.77 ( iendship) in posi i e
sociabili y (α = 0.86), and om λ = 0.44 (pi y)
o λ = 0.80 (shame) in nega i e sociabili y (α
= 0.90); Spain - wo ac o s, posi i e and nega-
i e emo ions, explaining 46.44% o he a i-
ance. The ac o loadings anged om λ = 0.40
( ole ance) o λ =0.79 (sociabili y) in posi i e
sociabili y (α =0.91), and om λ = 0.34 (pi y)
o λ = 0.74 (a ogance) in nega i e sociabili y (α
= 0.87). This se o pa ame e s demons a e he
ac o ial alidi y and eliabili y o he measu e
o in e g oup Emo ions and Feelings.
Measu e o Pe cei ed Hos ili y and F iend-
liness o he Fo eigne in he Wo kplace. The
i ems we e cons uc ed by he esea ch eam
based on he li e a u e on bullying a wo k, espe-
cially he wo k by Hi igoyen (2001), and in ol e
beha io s o iendliness and hos ili y owa ds
In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing
B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 173
o eigne s in he wo kplace ha a e a ge ed a
he social g oup o o eigne s pe cei ed as com-
pe i o s. The measu e consis s o 22 i ems di id-
ed in o wo dimensions: F iendliness - in e g oup
engagemen beha io ; and Hos ili y - in e g oup
beha io s o a oidance and minimal co diali y.
The wo ding o he ques ion is: Indica e how
much each o hese beha io s is p esen in e-
la ions be ween B azilian (Po uguese, Spanish)
wo ke s and he o eigne s ha you conside ed
s ong compe i o s in he domes ic labo ma -
ke . The esponse scale is he fi e-poin Like
s yle, anging om (1) “B azilians (Po uguese,
Spania ds) defi ni ely do no do ha ” o (5) “They
defi ni ely ac ha way.”
We used a p incipal componen analysis
wi h oblique o a ion o add ess he ac o ial
alidi y o his measu es. Resul s showed wo
ac o s, iendliness and hos ili y, each wi h 11
i ems in each o he h ee samples: in B azil, he
wo ac o s explained 43.7% o he a iance.
In he hos ili y dimension (α = 0.89), he ac o
loadings anged om λ = 0.47 (imi a ing hei
accen o idicule hem in on o o he s) o λ
= 0.80 (in en ionally uin some objec o hei
wo k), and in he iendliness dimension (α =
0.72), he loadings anged om λ = 0.32 (a oid
name calling) o λ = 0.73 (speak well o hem
o o he s); in Po ugal he wo ac o s explained
48% o he a iance, and ac o loadings anged
om λ = 0.58 (make h ea ening phone calls) o
λ = 0.82 (making ges u es o con emp in on
o hem - sighs, sco n ul looks, sh ugging shoul-
de s, e c.) in he hos ili y dimension (α = 0.90),
and om λ = 0.37 (a oid sp eading umo s abou
hem) o λ = 0.78 ( o ag ee wi h hem, when in
ag eemen wi h hei ideas) in he iendliness
dimension (α = 0.85). Finally, in Spain he wo
ac o s explained 49% o he a iance. The ac-
o loadings anged om λ = 0.57 (imi a ing
hei accen o idicule hem in on o o he s) o
λ = 0.85 (making ges u es o con emp in on
o hem - sighs, sco n ul looks, sh ugging shoul-
de s, e c.), in he hos ili y dimension (α = 0.91),
and om λ = 0.191 (a oid name calling) o λ =
1 The eliabili y analysis o he iendliness dimen-
sion showed no signifi can imp o emen in he
0.83 ( y wo k on he same eam as hem) in he
iendliness dimension (α = 0.82). This se o pa-
ame e s demons a e he ac o ial alidi y and
eliabili y o he measu e o pe cei ed hos ili y
and iendliness owa ds o eigne in he wo k-
place.
Measu e o Compe i ion. Pe cei ed compe-
i ion was measu ed by he ollowing ques ion:
Conside ing he ype o wo k you do (o plan o
do), could you ell us (using he scale om 1 o
5) o wha ex en you conside he membe s o
each g oup men ioned a e mo e likely o com-
pe e o a job simila o he one you ha e (o plan
o ha e), o o highe s a us in he domes ic ma -
ke , wi h 1 meaning “is no a s ong compe i o ”
up o 5 meaning “is a s ong compe i o .”
Fo B azil he ollowing g oups we e p e-
sen ed: A icans (e.g., Angolans, Mozambicans),
Asians (e.g., Chinese), No h Ame icans (e.g.,
U.S. Ame icans), La in Ame icans (e.g., Boli -
ians, Pa aguayans, U uguayans, and A gen in-
ians), and Eu opeans (e.g., Po uguese, Span-
ia ds, Ge mans). Fo Spain he ollowing g oups
we e p esen ed: A icans (e.g., Mo occans,
sub-Saha an coun ies), Asians (e.g., Chinese),
No h Ame icans (e.g., U.S. Ame icans), La in
Ame icans (e.g., Ecuado ians, Dominicans, and
A gen inians), Eu opeans (e.g., Ge mans, Eng-
lish, and F ench), and Eas e n Eu opeans (e.g.,
Romanians, Uk ainians). Fo Po ugal he ol-
lowing g oups we e p esen ed: A icans (e.g.,
Angolans, Mozambicans, Cape Ve deans, São
Tomeans, Mo occans), Asians (e.g., Chinese),
No h Ame icans (e.g., U.S. Ame icans, Cana-
dians), La in Ame icans (e.g., B azilians, Boli -
ians, Pa aguayans, U uguayans, A gen inians,
and Venezuelans), Eu opeans (e.g., Spania ds,
English, Du ch, and F ench) and Eas e n Eu o-
peans (e.g., Romanians, Uk ainians). The choice
o examples included in pa en heses sough o
ake in o accoun he nume ical and symbolic
ep esen a i eness in each o he h ee coun ies
whe e he s udy was conduc ed.
alpha alue wi h he emo al o he i em, which
is why i was kep in he c ea ion o he a iable,
iendliness owa d o eigne s.
Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R.,
Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E.
174
Da a Collec ion P ocedu es
Fo da a collec ion, an elec onic ques ion-
nai e (Globalpa k’s EFS Su ey) was used. We
op ed o da a collec ion ia lap op compu e s
and in e ne access in he public a eas o in e -
na ional ai po s in Sal ado (Bahia, B azil) and
Mad id (Spain), and a he Na ional Lib a y o
Po ugal. Thus he c i e ion ha collec ion be
aken in public-access loca ions was me .
The people p esen in he public-access a eas
o he ai po s and he lib a y we e app oached
by a membe o he si e esea ch eam (locals)
and in i ed o fi ll ou he online ques ionnai e.
The sample, he e o e, was no andom. A e
confi ma ion ha he in i ed pe son was a na i e
o he coun y, a membe o he esea ch eam
p o ided he ini ial cla ifi ca ions and in i ed he
subjec o espond o he online ques ionnai e,
using he esea ch eam’s no ebook o hei own
po able ia he access link. On he fi s page o
he s udy, he consen o m o pa icipa ion was
p esen ed, which he pa icipan had o accep o
go on esponding o he su ey. The maximum
su ey comple ion ime was 25 minu es.
Da a Analysis P ocedu es
Desc ip i e and Compa a i e Analyses
(ANOVA and - es ) we e used o he pe cei ed
h ea , pe cei ed compe i ion and in e g oup
emo ions o o eigne s among he samples o
he h ee coun ies conside ed. Co ela ion
analysis es ed he ela ionship be ween he main
a iables. Mul iple eg ession analysis was used
o in es iga e he ex en o which he a iables
included in his s udy would be p edic o s o
he pe cei ed hos ili y and iendliness owa ds
o eigne s in each coun y.
E hics P ocedu es
All pa icipan s we e ins uc ed by he e-
sea che s o indi idually answe all he i ems.
The in o med consen was ob ained in he be-
ginning o he ques ionnai e om all o hem.
They we e in o med ha hei answe s we e
comple ely anonymous and ha absolu e confi -
den iali y was gua an eed in he ea men o he
da a. All Ame ican Psychological Associa ion
(APA) guidelines o esea ch wi h humans we e
ollowed.
Resul s
The desc ip i e analyses and co ela ions,
and in sequence, he esul s o he mul iple e-
g ession analysis, designed o es he p edic i e
alue o an eceden a iables in he pe cei ed
hos ili y and iendliness o o eigne s in he
wo kplace, will be p esen ed fi s .
Desc ip i e and Compa a i e Analyses
Pe cei ed Th ea om Fo eigne s. The
esul s o an ANOVA wi h epea ed measu es
e ealed ha he e was an in e ac ion e ec be-
ween coun y and he h ee ypes o h ea , F
(2, 267)= 13.72; p<.001. Mul iple compa isons
wi h Bon e oni co ec ion (wi h p<.05) indica e
ha he p ima y o eign h ea is economic, o
he h ee coun ies, especially o Spania ds (M
= 2.95; SD = 0.90), ollowed by B azilians (M
= 2.72; SD = 0.83), and he Po uguese (M =
2.45; SD = 0.85). Rega ding he o he wo ypes
o h ea (symbolic and secu i y) he coun ies
spli , as he h ea o secu i y is he second mos
impo an o Po ugal (M = 2.76; SD = 1.17) and
Spain (M = 2.50; SD = 1.25), while o B azil i
is he symbolic h ea (M = 2.39; SD = 0.72). In
hi d place appea s he symbolic h ea o Spain
(M = 2.36; SD = 0.88) and Po ugal (M = 1.92;
SD = 0.83), while o B azil i is he secu i y
h ea (M = 2.08; SD = 1.18).
Pe cei ed Compe i ion om G oups o Fo -
eigne s. The esul s o he analysis o a iance
compa ing pe cei ed compe i ion be ween na-
i es and o eign g oups a e de ailed in Table 1.
The esul s o he - es o he sample in
each coun y, using he alue 3 ( he scale anged
om 1 o 5) as he c i e ion delimi ing pe cei ed
s ong compe i ion, e ealed he exis ence o
signifi can di e ences in B azil be ween all he
social g oups, wi h he No h Ame icans, Wes -
e n Eu opeans, and Asians conside ed he s on-
ges compe i o s. In Spain, all he means di e
om o he midpoin , excep o Asians. Wes -
e n Eu opeans and Ame icans a e he s onges
compe i o s o he Spania ds. Fo Po ugal, all
In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing
B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 175
he means di e om he midpoin o he ange,
excep o he Ame icans. Wes e n Eu opeans
a e he s onges compe i o s.
Compa ison o means o he gene al indi-
ca o o pe cei ed o eign compe i ion (o e all
a e age pe cep ion o compe i ion, aking in o
accoun all a ge g oups) be ween coun ies
p o ed o be signifi can , F (2, 269) = 10.34,
p<.001, B azil holding fi s place (M = 3.12; SD
= 0.79), ollowed by Spain (M = 2.89; SD =0.79),
and las ly Po ugal (M = 2.56; SD = 0.84). All
he di e ences be ween he a e ages a e signifi -
can acco ding o he Bon e oni es wi h p<.05.
In e g oup Emo ions. The esul s o he
analysis o a iance compa ing he posi i e
and nega i e emo ions o na i es in ela ion o
o eigne s pe cei ed as s onge compe i o s
showed signifi can di e ences only o nega i e
emo ions, F (2, 269) = 3.63; p<.05, wi h he B a-
zilians showing he highes mean (M= 2.37; SD
= 0.78), ollowed by he Spania ds (M = 2.23;
SD = 0.68), and he Po uguese (M= 2.07; SD
= 0.75). In he compa ison wi hin each coun y,
i was ound ha in all h ee coun ies, people
epo ed exp essing mo e posi i e emo ions
han nega i e ones owa ds o eign compe i o s:
B azilians (M = 3.06, SD = 0.78), [ (88) = 5.32;
p<.001], Po uguese (M = 3.08, SD = 0.63),
[ (86) = 8.40; p<.001], and Spania ds (M = 2.92,
SD = 0.71), [ (93) = 6.03; p<.001].
Co ela ion Analysis
Table 2 p esen s he esul s o he co ela-
ions be ween he main s udy a iables. The e-
sul s indica e ha he economic and symbolic
h ea s ha e he highes associa ion wi h he
s udy a iables. The pe cep ion o iendliness
is s ongly associa ed wi h posi i e in e g oup
emo ions, whe eas he pe cep ion o hos ili y
is s ongly associa ed wi h nega i e in e g oup
emo ions.
Reg ession Analysis
We used mul iple eg ession analysis o
in es iga e he ex en o which he s udy a iables
would be p edic o s o pe cei ed hos ili y and
iendliness owa ds o eigne s in each coun y,
in o de o es he hypo hesis ha he ole o
he pe cei ed h ea and nega i e emo ions in
he a i udes owa ds immig an s (hos ili y and
iendliness) would be s onge in he coun ies
mo e a ec ed by he fi nancial c isis han in
B azil. To ca y ou his p oposal, we used he
dummy a iable coding sys em o he coun ies
a iable: Dummy 1 (B azil = 0, Po ugal = 0,
Spain = 1); Dummy 2 (B azil = 0, Po ugal =
1, Spain = 0). In his coding sys em, B azil is
used as he e e ence g oup agains which each
o he o he wo coun ies is compa ed. The
o he a iables we included in he analyses
Table 1
Compa ison o Pe cei ed Compe i ion among he Six G oups o Fo eigne s by Coun y
B azil Spain Po ugal
M (SD)M (SD)M (SD)
US Ame icans 3.84 (1.21)*3 3.63 (1.26)* 3.17 (1.37)*
Wes e n Eu opeans 3.72 (1.20)*2 3.90 (1.27)* 3.44 (1.33)*
La inos 2.61 (1.14) 2.63 (1.19) 2.43 (1.18)
A icans 1.94 (1.15) 1.81 (1.10) 1.89 (0.94)
Asians 3.51 (1.44)**1 2.89 (1.43)** 2.18 (1.27)**
Eas e n Eu opeans _ 2.49 (1.17) 2.31 (1.13)
No e. In he B azilian su ey only he Wes e n Eu opean g oup (Ge mans, Po uguese, Spania ds, F ench, e c.) was p esen ed.
The scale anges om 1 o 5.1 size o e ec 0.13, 2 size o e ec 0.04, 3 size o e ec 0.06.
* p< .05 and ** p< .001 in he di e ences be ween coun ies.
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Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E.
182
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