Intergroup Emotions, Perceived Threats and Hostility against Foreigners: Comparing Brazil, Portugal, and Spain

ISSN 1413-389X T ends in Psychology / Temas em Psicologia – Ma ço 2018, Vol. 26, nº 1, 167-182 DOI: 10.9788/TP2018.1-07 In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing B azil, Po ugal, and Spain Sônia Ma ia Guedes Gondim1, * O cid.o g/0000-0003-3482-166X José Luis Ál a o-Es amiana2 O cid.o g/0000-0002-3017-0305 Cíce o Robe o Pe ei a3, 4 O cid.o g/0000-0003-3406-3985 Leôncio Camino O cid.o g/0000-0002-8666-7898 Ana Raquel To es4 O cid.o g/0000-0002-3161-0309 Alícia Ga ido-Luque2 O cid.o g/0000-0002-2785-5071 Elza Ma ia Techio1 O cid.o g/0000-0002-8229-7674 João Almeida Ba ei os3 O cid.o g/0000-0002-9563-6911 Raquel Lo en e-Clema es O cid.o g/0000-0001-8940-4949 Pa ícia Elbe e h Alonso-Flo es2 O cid.o g/0000-0002-3519-6387 –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 1Uni e sidade Fede al da Bahia, Sal ado , BA, B asil 2Uni e sidad Complu ense de Mad id, Mad id, Spain 3Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Po ugal 4Uni e sidade Fede al da Pa aíba, João Pessoa, PB, B asil Abs ac This s udy analyzed whe he hos ili y owa ds o eigne s pe cei ed as compe i o s in he labo ma ke would be ela ed o he pe cep ion o h ea (symbolic and economic) and nega i e in e g oup emo ions. 270 people be ween 18 and 63 yea s pa icipa ed. In B azil (N = 89), mos ly men (59%) and a e age age 32.5 yea s; In Po ugal (N = 87), mos ly men (56.3%) and a e age age 39.9 yea s; in Spain (N = 94), mos ly women (53.2%) and a e age age o 32.8 yea s. The esul s ( - es , analysis o a iance and mul iple eg essions) indica ed ha in Spain nega i e emo ions a e associa ed wi h less hos ili y A igo –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– * Mailing add ess: Rod igo A golo, 293, Ap o. 502, Rio Ve melho, Sal ado , BA, B azil 41940-220. Phone: (71) 9382-2233. E-mail: [email p o ec ed] Financial suppo : Edi al de Ciências Humanas do Conselho Nacional de Desen ol imen o Cien ífi co e Tecnológico (CNPq). P ojec Suppo DGU (Di eção Ge al de Uni e sidades)/CAPES (Coo denação de Ape eiçoamen o de Pessoal de Ní el Supe io ), 2012/2013- pos -doc o al ellowship o he fi s au ho . Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R., Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E. 168 owa ds immig an s; In B azil, posi i e emo ions a e associa ed wi h hos ile a i udes. In Po ugal, he ela ionship be ween posi i e emo ions and hos ili y is posi i e, bu no signifi can . The symbolic h ea was he bes p edic o o hos ili y only in he B azilian sample. Posi i e emo ions p edispose o a g ea e kindness owa ds o eigne s in he h ee coun ies. The main conclusion o he s udy is ha he economic c isis does no seem o be associa ed wi h he pe cep ion o compe i i eness o o eigne s in he local labo ma ke and hos ili y owa ds his social g oup. Keywo ds: Immig a ion, compa a i e s udy, in e g oup emo ions, disc imina ion. Emoções In e g upais, Ameaças Pe cebidas e Hos ilidade pa a com Es angei os: Compa ando B asil, Po ugal e Espanha Resumo O es udo analisou se a hos ilidade pa a com es angei os pe cebidos como conco en es no me cado de abalho es a ia elacionada com a pe cepção de ameaça (simbólica e econômica) e as emoções in e g u- pais nega i as. Pa icipa am 270 pessoas en e 18 e 63 anos, assim dis ibuídas: B asil (N = 89), idade média de 32.5 anos, maio ia de homens (59%); Po ugal (N = 87), idade média de 39.9 anos, maio ia de homens (56.3%); e Espanha (N=94), idade média de 32.8 anos, maio ia de mulhe es (53.2%). Os esul ados do Tes e- , análise da a iância e eg essões múl iplas indica am que enquan o na Espanha emoções nega i as se associam a menos hos ilidade pa a com imig an es, no B asil é a exp essão de emoções posi i as que se encon a associada a ais a i udes hos is. Em Po ugal a elação en e emoções posi i as e hos ilidade é posi i a, mas não signifi ca i a. A ameaça simbólica oi o melho p edi o de hos ilidade somen e na amos a b asilei a. Emoções posi i as p edizem maio amabilidade pa a com es angei os nas amos as dos ês países. A p incipal conclusão do es udo é que a c ise econômica não pa ece es a associada com a pe cepção de compe i i idade do es angei o no me cado de abalho local e a hos ilidade pa a com es e g upo social. Pala as-cha e: Imig ação, es udo compa a i o, emoções in e g upais, disc iminação. Emociones In e g upales, Amenazas Pe cibidas y Hos ilidad con a Ex anje os: Compa ando B asil, Po ugal y España Resumen Es e es udio analizó si la hos ilidad hacia los ex anje os pe cibidos como compe ido es en el me cado de abajo es a ía elacionada con la pe cepción de amenaza (simbólica y económica) y las emociones in e g upales nega i as. Pa icipa on 270 pe sonas en e 18 y 63 años. En B asil (N = 89), mayo ía de homb es (59%) y edad media 32.5 años; en Po ugal (N = 87), mayo ía de homb es (56.3%) y edad media 39.9 años; en España (N = 94), mayo ía de muje es (53.2%) y edad media de 32.8 años. Los esul ados ( es - , análisis de la a ianza y eg esiones múl iples) indica on que en España las emocio- nes nega i as se asocian a una meno hos ilidad hacia los inmig an es; en B asil las emociones posi i- as es án asociadas a ac i udes hos iles. En Po ugal la elación en e emociones posi i as y hos ilidad es posi i a, pe o no signifi ca i a. La amenaza simbólica ue el mejo p edic o de hos ilidad sólo en la mues a b asileña. Las emociones posi i as p edisponen a una mayo amabilidad hacia los ex anje os en los es países. La p incipal conclusión del es udio es que la c isis económica no pa ece es a asociada a la pe cepción de compe i i idad de los ex anje os en el me cado labo al local y la hos ilidad hacia es e g upo social. Palab as cla e: Inmig ación, es udio compa ado, emociones in e g upales, disc iminación. In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 169 The wo ldwide c isis and globaliza ion ha e con ibu ed o he cu en discussion abou he phenomenon o mig a ion ac oss he wo ld. Despi e being a ecu ing heme, he con empo a y scena io o changes in mig a ion fl ows be ween coun ies b ings new elemen s o he discussion on global mig a ion (e.g., Boski, 2013; Ce u i & Pa ado, 2015; Collie , 2013; Hun e , Luna, & No on, 2015), especially o he psychology o in e g oup ela ionships. The e a e g owing social demands o a be e unde s anding o a i udes owa ds o eigne s and aking ac ion o educe confl ic s be ween immig an s and na i es o he ecei ing coun ies. Among o he opics o in e es a e he economic and social benefi s o he coun ies ha send immig an s (e.g., An ónio & Polica po, 2001; Mul ey, 2011), o he ecei ing coun ies, and also o he immig an s hemsel es (e.g., Wagne , Ch is , & Hei meye , 2010). Da a eleased by he Wo ld Bank e eal he impo ance o economic mig a ion o he coun ies o o igin, whose emi ances sen om ab oad con ibu e o local socio-economic de el- opmen (e.g., Po es, 2009). Bu , i on one hand, he mig a ion p ocesses con ibu e o he de el- opmen o he coun ies in he hope o educing economic inequali ies, on he o he , hey b ing in e nal consequences o he ecipien coun y, pa icula ly in imes o economic c isis, in which he s uggle o fi nd jobs and o access o goods and se ices o e ed by hese go e nmen s is associa ed wi h nega i e a i udes, p ejudice, and disc imina o y beha io agains o eigne s (e.g., Da ido & Meuleman, 2012; Facchini & Mayda, 2012; Gang, Ri e a-Ba iz, & Yun, 2013; Ma kaki & Longhi, 2012; Semyono , Raijman, & Go odzeisky, 2006; Snide man, Hagendoo n, & P io , 2004). In his sense, he p ima y objec i e o his s udy is o analyze o wha ex en he hos ili y in dealing wi h o eigne s is ela ed o pe cei ed h ea (symbolic and economic) and nega i e in- e g oup emo ions o na i es owa ds o eigne s pe cei ed as s ong compe i o s in he job ma - ke . The second objec i e is o analyze whe he he ela ionships o h ea and in e g oup emo- ions (posi i e and nega i e) wi h hos ili y and iendliness a y depending on he na ional con ex o h ee coun ies in di e en socioeco- nomic si ua ions. Da a om 2012 eleased by he Wo ld Bank e eal ha he e a e di e ences in he human de elopmen index o Po ugal (HDI = 0.81), B azil (HDI = 0.73), and Spain (HDI = 0.88). Howe e , Spain and Po ugal we e mo e a ec ed by he global fi nancial c isis o 2008 han B azil, since he la e has achie ed signifi - can economic g ow h in ecen yea s, while he o he wo ha e expe ienced a educ ion in eco- nomic ac i i y. The main hypo hesis o be es ed in his s udy is ha he impac o he h ea on in e g oup hos ili y will be g ea e in he wo coun ies in c isis han in B azil. Al hough his si ua ion is changing since B azil is acing a deep economic and poli ical c isis, he s udy was made a he end o he economic cycle and he da a p esen ed co esponds o his specifi c pe i- od we a e e e ing o. This s udy con ibu es o he explana ion o in e g oup ela ions, pa icu- la ly in imes o economic c isis and compe i ion o sca ce esou ces, highligh ing he di e si y among coun ies (Fais , 2016). In addi ion, i can help in social suppo policies o o eigne s who mig a e o wo k. The Role o he Pe cei ed Th ea The e is a b oad adi ion o s udies o he indi idual a iables in explaining p ejudice and hos ili y (e.g., Facchini & Mayda, 2012; Gang e al., 2013; Quillian, 1995). Fo example, sel - in e es heo y pos ula es ha people de elop nega i e a i udes owa d social ca ego ies wi h which hey a e in compe i ion o in confl ic , as in he case o compe i ion o jobs. Simila ly, a se o heo ies, known as heo ies o ealis ic confl ic s o in e es (e.g., She i , Ha ey, Whi e, Hood, & She i , 1961), has gi en li le a en ion o he ac o s o an indi idual na u e o highligh he ole o confl ic s o in e es in disc imina ion. Acco ding o Le ine and Campbell (1972), he wo heo e ical p inciples common o ealis ic confl ic heo ies a e o assume ha he g oups ha e incompa ible goals and ha hey compe e o sca ce esou ces. Fu he mo e, in e g oup hos ili y would inc ease in si ua ions o g ea e confl ic o in e es , since each o he pa ies o Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R., Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E. 170 he confl ic can only achie e hei goals i hey de ea he o he pa y. In addi ion, hese heo ies assume ha confl ic s o in e es con ibu e o inc eased h ea pe cep ion, making he occu - ence o in e g oup hos ili y mo e likely. Acco dingly, in e g oup hos ili y is mo e likely o occu when wo g oups wan o achie e he same goal, and whe e only one g oup can succeed (e.g., nega i e in e dependence con- ex ). These hypo heses we e es ed in h ee fi eld expe imen s conduc ed by She i e al. (1961). In hese s udies, he s uc u e o ela ions be- ween g oups (compe i ion s. coope a ion) was manipula ed, esul ing in g ea e disc imina ion in he con ex s o compe i ion (i.e., nega i e in- e dependence). In he con ex s o coope a ion (i.e., posi i e in e dependence, o supe o dina e goals), on he con a y, he e was a dec ease in agg essi eness and, o e all, educed hos ili y agains membe s o he “ou g oup”. These e- sul s we e seen in o he fi eld expe imen s (e.g., Agee , 1990 ci ed in Pla ow & Hun e , 2001) and in he labo a o y (Blake & Mou on, 1961). They ha e also ecei ed empi ical suppo and ecological alidi y in s udies conduc ed wi h ep esen a i e popula ion samples om a ious Eu opean coun ies, as exemplifi ed in he s udy by Quillian (1995), which used he Eu oba om- e e Su ey da abase, and mo e ecen ly, he s udy by Bello (2013) using da a om he Eu o- pean Social Su ey. O majo impo ance o he a gumen o his a icle, he psychological p ocess ha sus ains he e ec s ob ained in hese s udies is he de elopmen o a sense ha membe s o he ou g oup pose a h ea o he goal o he ing oup o achie e i s goal. The pe cep ion o h ea , hen, would be he cause o hos ili y agains membe s o he ou g oup. Objec i ely, he h ea pe cep ion is a cen al ac o o unde s anding “in e g oup” ensions. The ac i e psychological p inciple in he e ec o he h ea on hos ili y is he pe cep ion ha he ou g oup can dec ease he well-being o he ing oup, and his jus ifi es de ending he in e es s o he ing oup h ough hos ile beha io owa ds ou g oup membe s, pe cei ed as he sou ce o h ea (e.g., Pe ei a, Vala, & Cos a-Lopes, 2010). Conside ing he ole o confl ic s o in e es and he pe cep ion o h ea in in e g oup hos il- i y, he ollowing hypo heses we e p oposed: H1: The pe cei ed h ea (economic, sym- bolic, and secu i y- ela ed) om g oups o o - eigne s will be highe in coun ies ha su e g ea e impac om he economic c isis (Po u- gal and Spain). H2: The pe cei ed h ea om o eign g oups is a p edic o o hos ili y owa d he o eigne , especially in he wo coun ies mo e a ec ed by he economic c isis. The assump ion is ha sca ce jobs ac i a e he pe cep ion o compe i ion om o eign g oups, which come o be seen as a h ea o he su i al and s anding o he na ional g oup. Ano he assump ion is ha he e would be g ea e simila i y be ween he indica o s o Spain and Po ugal, due o he socio-economic c isis hey a e acing, di e ing om B azil, which despi e ha ing a lowe Human De elopmen Index (HDI) han hese wo coun ies, a he ime o his s udy, s ill expe ienced mo e a o able economic imes. The Role o In e g oup Emo ions I is ecognized ha he ype o emo ion o he indi idual is ela ed o dis inc beha io al in- en ions owa ds o he s (F idja, Kuipe s, & e Shu e, 1989). Ange leads o agg ession agains he o he pe son, while guil mo i a es epa a- o y beha io . Bu emo ions can also be con- side ed a he g oup le el, wi h implica ions o beha io al in en ions o g oup membe s owa ds o he social g oups (ou g oups). The assessmen p ocess fi lls an impo an ole in hese ela ion- ships, since he way he o he g oup is e alua ed igge s emo ions ha ac i a e ce ain ac ion en- dencies. The pe cep ion o an ou g oup h ea is as- socia ed wi h nega i e in e g oup emo ions, and hus, i could be a gued ha such nega i e emo ions also con ibu e o inc eased hos ili y owa d he g oup o o eigne s who compe e in he domes ic labo ma ke . This sugges s a egula ing ole o emo ions a he g oup le el, wi h epe cussions on in e g oup ela ions (Mai- ne , Mackie, & Smi h 2006). Howe e , acco d- In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 171 ing o he iew o he au ho s o his a icle, he emo ions could also ac independen ly o he pe cei ed h ea . In his case, posi i e a i udes owa d o eigne s would be associa ed wi h pos- i i e in e g oup emo ions and would be espon- sible o iendliness owa d such people, e en in si ua ions o highe compe i ion o sca ce jobs in he domes ic ma ke . To sus ain ou a gumen s in he bi-dimen- sional pe spec i e o in e g oup emo ions (nega- i e and posi i e), we dis ance ou sel es some- wha om he o iginal app oach o in e g oup emo ions heo y (IET), whose ocus is o explo e he ole o disc e e emo ions (e.g., ea , guil ) in in e g oup ela ions. Howe e , we con e ge wi h he IET whe e i a fi ms ha g oup le el emo ions a e ac i a ed by a p ocess o sel -ca e- go iza ion (sel -s e eo yping) ha makes people see hemsel es as membe s o a g oup ac ing and mo ing collec i ely. The pe cep ion o belong- ing o a g oup ac i a es social iden i y, by mak- ing each membe ac as hey hink ha membe s o hei g oup do. The g oup he e o e becomes pa o he sel and comes o guide he beha io owa ds membe s o he o he g oup (ou g oup). In summa y, wo psychological o ces would be con ibu ing o sus ain hese ela ion- ships be ween g oup emo ions and ac ion en- dencies owa ds o he g oups: he in e g oup ap- p aisal p ocess (how he o he g oup is iewed) and emo ional sel -s e eo yping (inco po a ion o an emo ion ha is belie ed o be he g oup’s; Mackie, Smi h, & Ray 2008). The consequences o his wo old p ocess would be he ale ness, pe cep ion, in o ma ion p ocessing, judgmen , decision making, and closeness ( iendliness) o dis ance (hos ili y) beha io s owa d he o he g oups. In o de o p edic he capaci y o in e g oup emo ions in a wo-dimensional pe spec i e, he s udy being desc ibed in his a icle, a he han emphasizing he ela ionship be ween disc e e nega i e emo ions and he ypes o beha io al endencies owa ds ou g oups, explo ed he p edic i e powe o nega i e and posi i e emo- ions in he beha io al in en ions o hos ili y and iendliness owa d o eigne s in he wo kplace. The assump ion was ha , in addi ion o es ing he s eng h o he associa ion be ween pe - cei ed h ea , nega i e in e g oup emo ions, and hos ili y owa d g oups o o eigne s, wha could also be explo ed was he explana o y powe o he posi i e and nega i e in e g oup emo ions in iendliness (p osocial beha io ) and hos ili y beha io owa d hese same g oups. Based on his unde s anding, he ollowing hypo heses we e o mula ed: H3 (a) Nega i e in e g oup emo ions o- wa ds o eigne s is a p edic o o he pe cei ed hos ili y owa d he o eigne (a oidance beha - io ), (b) Posi i e in e g oup emo ions owa d o eigne s is a p edic o o he pe cei ed iend- liness owa d he o eigne (in e g oup engage- men beha io ). Me hod Pa icipan s The s udy included pa icipan s om h ee coun ies: B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. In each coun y, na ional ci izens aged be ween 18 and 63 yea s old pa icipa ed in his esea ch. In B azil, 89 people pa icipa ed, he majo i y being men (59%). The a e age age o esponden s was 32.57 yea s (SD = 10.61), anging om 18 o 63 yea s. Rega ding educa ional le el, 54.6% (n = 38) had a college and a g adua e deg ee. Fi e pa icipan s (5.6%) had a leas one o eign pa en and 15 (16.9%) had a leas one g andpa en o ano he na ionali y. As o occupa ional s a us, 74% (n = 66) we e ac i e in he labo ma ke . Mos o hem, 53.93% (n = 48), wo ked o had wo ked wi h o eigne s, bu wo k expe ience ab oad was modes (n = 10), and no exceeding ou yea s. In Po ugal, 87 people pa icipa ed in he su ey, he majo i y being men (56.31%). The a e age age o esponden s was 39.94 yea s (SD = 11.50), anging om 20 o 73 yea s. Rega ding educa ional le el, 62% (n = 54) had a college and a g adua e deg ee. Th ee pa icipan s (3.4%) had a leas one o eign pa en and fi e (5.7%) had a leas one g andpa en o ano he na ionali y. As o occupa ional s a us, 67.81% (n = 59) we e ac i e in he labo ma ke . Mos o hem, 62% (n = 54), wo ked o had wo ked wi h o eign- Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R., Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E. 172 e s, and 21% (n = 19) had expe ience wo king ab oad, and o 14 (16%) o hem his expe ience exceeded one yea . In Spain, 94 people pa icipa ed in he su ey, he majo i y being women (53.2%). The a e age age o esponden s was 32.84 yea s (SD = 11.23), anging om 18 o 60 yea s. Rega ding educa ional le el, 54.25% (n = 51) had a college and a g adua e deg ee. Fou een pa icipan s (14.9%) had a leas one o eign pa en and 12 (12.8%) had a leas one g andpa en o ano he na ionali y. As o occupa ional s a us, 54.25% (n=51) we e ac i e in he labo ma ke . Mos o hem, 53.19% (n = 50), wo ked o had wo ked wi h o eigne s, and 37.2% (n = 35) had expe ience wo king ab oad, 33 (32%) o hem wi h expe ience o o e one yea . Ins umen s Measu e o Pe cei ed Th ea . The mea- su e was adap ed om he scale de eloped by S ephan and S ephan (2000) o pe cei ed h ea o poli ical secu i y (“The a i al o hese people can cause an inc ease o c ime in he coun y”), economic secu i y (e.g., “The esou ces and economic de elopmen o B azilians (Po u- guese, Spania ds) a e h ea ened by o eigne s who come o wo k in he coun y”) and sym- bolic secu i y (e.g., “ou eedom and igh s a e h ea ened by o eigne s who come o wo k in he coun y”). The measu e has six i ems o be answe ed on a fi e-poin Like scale anging om (1) “S ongly disag ee” o (5) “s ongly ag ee”. Among he i ems, wo e e o he pe - cei ed economic h ea , h ee a e ela ed o he pe cei ed symbolic h ea , and one is abou he pe cei ed h ea o poli ical secu i y. This i ems we e alida ed in Po ugal and Spain by Pe ei a e al. (2010) and in B azil by Pe ei a and Vala (2011). In he cu en s udy, he in e nal consis- ency o he measu e p esen ed he ollowing in- dica o s: α=0.65 (B azil), α=0.81 (Po ugal), and α=0.70 (Spain). Measu e o In e g oup Emo ions and Feel- ings. The measu e o eelings in in e g oup ela- ions was based on p e ious s udies on a ibu- ions o emo ions be ween leade s and ollowe s (Gondim, Ál a o-Es amiana, Schweige -Gallo, Sá, & Rios, 2008). The measu e has 28 i ems de- sc ibing eelings and emo ions p esen in g oup in e ac ions, di ided in o wo dimensions o 14 i ems each: posi i e sociabili y (e.g., iendship, solida i y, unde s anding) and nega i e socia- bili y (e.g., insince i y, epulsion, supe io i y). The esponse scale is he fi e-poin Like ype, anging om (1) “Defi ni ely no wha we eel” o (5) “Defi ni ely is wha we eel”. The wo ding o he ques ion is: Nex you will be p esen ed wi h a lis o eelings (emo ions and a ec ions) and we would like you o indica e how s ongly you belie e ha each o hem is p esen in he ela ionships be ween B azilians (Po uguese o Spania ds) and he g oup o o eigne s you named as a s ong compe i o in he job ma ke . In o de o add ess he ac o ial alidi y o his measu e we ca ied ou a p incipal compo- nen analysis wi h oblique o a ion which indi- ca ed, as solu ions in each o he h ee samples, he ollowing pa ame e s: B azil - wo ac o s, posi i e emo ions and nega i e emo ions, ex- plaining 43.7% o he a iance. The ac o load- ings anged om λ = 0.35 (since i y) o λ = 0.77 (unde s anding) in he posi i e sociabili y di- mension (α = 0.90), and om λ = 0.49 (guil ) o λ = 0.74 (insince i y) in nega i e sociabili y (α = 0.88); Po ugal - wo ac o s, posi i e and nega- i e emo ions, explaining 43.27% o he a i- ance. The ac o loadings anged om λ = 0.33 ( ole ance) o λ = 0.77 ( iendship) in posi i e sociabili y (α = 0.86), and om λ = 0.44 (pi y) o λ = 0.80 (shame) in nega i e sociabili y (α = 0.90); Spain - wo ac o s, posi i e and nega- i e emo ions, explaining 46.44% o he a i- ance. The ac o loadings anged om λ = 0.40 ( ole ance) o λ =0.79 (sociabili y) in posi i e sociabili y (α =0.91), and om λ = 0.34 (pi y) o λ = 0.74 (a ogance) in nega i e sociabili y (α = 0.87). This se o pa ame e s demons a e he ac o ial alidi y and eliabili y o he measu e o in e g oup Emo ions and Feelings. Measu e o Pe cei ed Hos ili y and F iend- liness o he Fo eigne in he Wo kplace. The i ems we e cons uc ed by he esea ch eam based on he li e a u e on bullying a wo k, espe- cially he wo k by Hi igoyen (2001), and in ol e beha io s o iendliness and hos ili y owa ds In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 173 o eigne s in he wo kplace ha a e a ge ed a he social g oup o o eigne s pe cei ed as com- pe i o s. The measu e consis s o 22 i ems di id- ed in o wo dimensions: F iendliness - in e g oup engagemen beha io ; and Hos ili y - in e g oup beha io s o a oidance and minimal co diali y. The wo ding o he ques ion is: Indica e how much each o hese beha io s is p esen in e- la ions be ween B azilian (Po uguese, Spanish) wo ke s and he o eigne s ha you conside ed s ong compe i o s in he domes ic labo ma - ke . The esponse scale is he fi e-poin Like s yle, anging om (1) “B azilians (Po uguese, Spania ds) defi ni ely do no do ha ” o (5) “They defi ni ely ac ha way.” We used a p incipal componen analysis wi h oblique o a ion o add ess he ac o ial alidi y o his measu es. Resul s showed wo ac o s, iendliness and hos ili y, each wi h 11 i ems in each o he h ee samples: in B azil, he wo ac o s explained 43.7% o he a iance. In he hos ili y dimension (α = 0.89), he ac o loadings anged om λ = 0.47 (imi a ing hei accen o idicule hem in on o o he s) o λ = 0.80 (in en ionally uin some objec o hei wo k), and in he iendliness dimension (α = 0.72), he loadings anged om λ = 0.32 (a oid name calling) o λ = 0.73 (speak well o hem o o he s); in Po ugal he wo ac o s explained 48% o he a iance, and ac o loadings anged om λ = 0.58 (make h ea ening phone calls) o λ = 0.82 (making ges u es o con emp in on o hem - sighs, sco n ul looks, sh ugging shoul- de s, e c.) in he hos ili y dimension (α = 0.90), and om λ = 0.37 (a oid sp eading umo s abou hem) o λ = 0.78 ( o ag ee wi h hem, when in ag eemen wi h hei ideas) in he iendliness dimension (α = 0.85). Finally, in Spain he wo ac o s explained 49% o he a iance. The ac- o loadings anged om λ = 0.57 (imi a ing hei accen o idicule hem in on o o he s) o λ = 0.85 (making ges u es o con emp in on o hem - sighs, sco n ul looks, sh ugging shoul- de s, e c.), in he hos ili y dimension (α = 0.91), and om λ = 0.191 (a oid name calling) o λ = 1 The eliabili y analysis o he iendliness dimen- sion showed no signifi can imp o emen in he 0.83 ( y wo k on he same eam as hem) in he iendliness dimension (α = 0.82). This se o pa- ame e s demons a e he ac o ial alidi y and eliabili y o he measu e o pe cei ed hos ili y and iendliness owa ds o eigne in he wo k- place. Measu e o Compe i ion. Pe cei ed compe- i ion was measu ed by he ollowing ques ion: Conside ing he ype o wo k you do (o plan o do), could you ell us (using he scale om 1 o 5) o wha ex en you conside he membe s o each g oup men ioned a e mo e likely o com- pe e o a job simila o he one you ha e (o plan o ha e), o o highe s a us in he domes ic ma - ke , wi h 1 meaning “is no a s ong compe i o ” up o 5 meaning “is a s ong compe i o .” Fo B azil he ollowing g oups we e p e- sen ed: A icans (e.g., Angolans, Mozambicans), Asians (e.g., Chinese), No h Ame icans (e.g., U.S. Ame icans), La in Ame icans (e.g., Boli - ians, Pa aguayans, U uguayans, and A gen in- ians), and Eu opeans (e.g., Po uguese, Span- ia ds, Ge mans). Fo Spain he ollowing g oups we e p esen ed: A icans (e.g., Mo occans, sub-Saha an coun ies), Asians (e.g., Chinese), No h Ame icans (e.g., U.S. Ame icans), La in Ame icans (e.g., Ecuado ians, Dominicans, and A gen inians), Eu opeans (e.g., Ge mans, Eng- lish, and F ench), and Eas e n Eu opeans (e.g., Romanians, Uk ainians). Fo Po ugal he ol- lowing g oups we e p esen ed: A icans (e.g., Angolans, Mozambicans, Cape Ve deans, São Tomeans, Mo occans), Asians (e.g., Chinese), No h Ame icans (e.g., U.S. Ame icans, Cana- dians), La in Ame icans (e.g., B azilians, Boli - ians, Pa aguayans, U uguayans, A gen inians, and Venezuelans), Eu opeans (e.g., Spania ds, English, Du ch, and F ench) and Eas e n Eu o- peans (e.g., Romanians, Uk ainians). The choice o examples included in pa en heses sough o ake in o accoun he nume ical and symbolic ep esen a i eness in each o he h ee coun ies whe e he s udy was conduc ed. alpha alue wi h he emo al o he i em, which is why i was kep in he c ea ion o he a iable, iendliness owa d o eigne s. Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R., Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E. 174 Da a Collec ion P ocedu es Fo da a collec ion, an elec onic ques ion- nai e (Globalpa k’s EFS Su ey) was used. We op ed o da a collec ion ia lap op compu e s and in e ne access in he public a eas o in e - na ional ai po s in Sal ado (Bahia, B azil) and Mad id (Spain), and a he Na ional Lib a y o Po ugal. Thus he c i e ion ha collec ion be aken in public-access loca ions was me . The people p esen in he public-access a eas o he ai po s and he lib a y we e app oached by a membe o he si e esea ch eam (locals) and in i ed o fi ll ou he online ques ionnai e. The sample, he e o e, was no andom. A e confi ma ion ha he in i ed pe son was a na i e o he coun y, a membe o he esea ch eam p o ided he ini ial cla ifi ca ions and in i ed he subjec o espond o he online ques ionnai e, using he esea ch eam’s no ebook o hei own po able ia he access link. On he fi s page o he s udy, he consen o m o pa icipa ion was p esen ed, which he pa icipan had o accep o go on esponding o he su ey. The maximum su ey comple ion ime was 25 minu es. Da a Analysis P ocedu es Desc ip i e and Compa a i e Analyses (ANOVA and - es ) we e used o he pe cei ed h ea , pe cei ed compe i ion and in e g oup emo ions o o eigne s among he samples o he h ee coun ies conside ed. Co ela ion analysis es ed he ela ionship be ween he main a iables. Mul iple eg ession analysis was used o in es iga e he ex en o which he a iables included in his s udy would be p edic o s o he pe cei ed hos ili y and iendliness owa ds o eigne s in each coun y. E hics P ocedu es All pa icipan s we e ins uc ed by he e- sea che s o indi idually answe all he i ems. The in o med consen was ob ained in he be- ginning o he ques ionnai e om all o hem. They we e in o med ha hei answe s we e comple ely anonymous and ha absolu e confi - den iali y was gua an eed in he ea men o he da a. All Ame ican Psychological Associa ion (APA) guidelines o esea ch wi h humans we e ollowed. Resul s The desc ip i e analyses and co ela ions, and in sequence, he esul s o he mul iple e- g ession analysis, designed o es he p edic i e alue o an eceden a iables in he pe cei ed hos ili y and iendliness o o eigne s in he wo kplace, will be p esen ed fi s . Desc ip i e and Compa a i e Analyses Pe cei ed Th ea om Fo eigne s. The esul s o an ANOVA wi h epea ed measu es e ealed ha he e was an in e ac ion e ec be- ween coun y and he h ee ypes o h ea , F (2, 267)= 13.72; p<.001. Mul iple compa isons wi h Bon e oni co ec ion (wi h p<.05) indica e ha he p ima y o eign h ea is economic, o he h ee coun ies, especially o Spania ds (M = 2.95; SD = 0.90), ollowed by B azilians (M = 2.72; SD = 0.83), and he Po uguese (M = 2.45; SD = 0.85). Rega ding he o he wo ypes o h ea (symbolic and secu i y) he coun ies spli , as he h ea o secu i y is he second mos impo an o Po ugal (M = 2.76; SD = 1.17) and Spain (M = 2.50; SD = 1.25), while o B azil i is he symbolic h ea (M = 2.39; SD = 0.72). In hi d place appea s he symbolic h ea o Spain (M = 2.36; SD = 0.88) and Po ugal (M = 1.92; SD = 0.83), while o B azil i is he secu i y h ea (M = 2.08; SD = 1.18). Pe cei ed Compe i ion om G oups o Fo - eigne s. The esul s o he analysis o a iance compa ing pe cei ed compe i ion be ween na- i es and o eign g oups a e de ailed in Table 1. The esul s o he - es o he sample in each coun y, using he alue 3 ( he scale anged om 1 o 5) as he c i e ion delimi ing pe cei ed s ong compe i ion, e ealed he exis ence o signifi can di e ences in B azil be ween all he social g oups, wi h he No h Ame icans, Wes - e n Eu opeans, and Asians conside ed he s on- ges compe i o s. In Spain, all he means di e om o he midpoin , excep o Asians. Wes - e n Eu opeans and Ame icans a e he s onges compe i o s o he Spania ds. Fo Po ugal, all In e g oup Emo ions, Pe cei ed Th ea s and Hos ili y agains Fo eigne s: Compa ing B azil, Po ugal, and Spain. 175 he means di e om he midpoin o he ange, excep o he Ame icans. Wes e n Eu opeans a e he s onges compe i o s. Compa ison o means o he gene al indi- ca o o pe cei ed o eign compe i ion (o e all a e age pe cep ion o compe i ion, aking in o accoun all a ge g oups) be ween coun ies p o ed o be signifi can , F (2, 269) = 10.34, p<.001, B azil holding fi s place (M = 3.12; SD = 0.79), ollowed by Spain (M = 2.89; SD =0.79), and las ly Po ugal (M = 2.56; SD = 0.84). All he di e ences be ween he a e ages a e signifi - can acco ding o he Bon e oni es wi h p<.05. In e g oup Emo ions. The esul s o he analysis o a iance compa ing he posi i e and nega i e emo ions o na i es in ela ion o o eigne s pe cei ed as s onge compe i o s showed signifi can di e ences only o nega i e emo ions, F (2, 269) = 3.63; p<.05, wi h he B a- zilians showing he highes mean (M= 2.37; SD = 0.78), ollowed by he Spania ds (M = 2.23; SD = 0.68), and he Po uguese (M= 2.07; SD = 0.75). In he compa ison wi hin each coun y, i was ound ha in all h ee coun ies, people epo ed exp essing mo e posi i e emo ions han nega i e ones owa ds o eign compe i o s: B azilians (M = 3.06, SD = 0.78), [ (88) = 5.32; p<.001], Po uguese (M = 3.08, SD = 0.63), [ (86) = 8.40; p<.001], and Spania ds (M = 2.92, SD = 0.71), [ (93) = 6.03; p<.001]. Co ela ion Analysis Table 2 p esen s he esul s o he co ela- ions be ween he main s udy a iables. The e- sul s indica e ha he economic and symbolic h ea s ha e he highes associa ion wi h he s udy a iables. The pe cep ion o iendliness is s ongly associa ed wi h posi i e in e g oup emo ions, whe eas he pe cep ion o hos ili y is s ongly associa ed wi h nega i e in e g oup emo ions. Reg ession Analysis We used mul iple eg ession analysis o in es iga e he ex en o which he s udy a iables would be p edic o s o pe cei ed hos ili y and iendliness owa ds o eigne s in each coun y, in o de o es he hypo hesis ha he ole o he pe cei ed h ea and nega i e emo ions in he a i udes owa ds immig an s (hos ili y and iendliness) would be s onge in he coun ies mo e a ec ed by he fi nancial c isis han in B azil. To ca y ou his p oposal, we used he dummy a iable coding sys em o he coun ies a iable: Dummy 1 (B azil = 0, Po ugal = 0, Spain = 1); Dummy 2 (B azil = 0, Po ugal = 1, Spain = 0). In his coding sys em, B azil is used as he e e ence g oup agains which each o he o he wo coun ies is compa ed. The o he a iables we included in he analyses Table 1 Compa ison o Pe cei ed Compe i ion among he Six G oups o Fo eigne s by Coun y B azil Spain Po ugal M (SD)M (SD)M (SD) US Ame icans 3.84 (1.21)*3 3.63 (1.26)* 3.17 (1.37)* Wes e n Eu opeans 3.72 (1.20)*2 3.90 (1.27)* 3.44 (1.33)* La inos 2.61 (1.14) 2.63 (1.19) 2.43 (1.18) A icans 1.94 (1.15) 1.81 (1.10) 1.89 (0.94) Asians 3.51 (1.44)**1 2.89 (1.43)** 2.18 (1.27)** Eas e n Eu opeans _ 2.49 (1.17) 2.31 (1.13) No e. In he B azilian su ey only he Wes e n Eu opean g oup (Ge mans, Po uguese, Spania ds, F ench, e c.) was p esen ed. The scale anges om 1 o 5.1 size o e ec 0.13, 2 size o e ec 0.04, 3 size o e ec 0.06. * p< .05 and ** p< .001 in he di e ences be ween coun ies. Gondim, S. M. G., Ál a o-Es amiana, J. L., Pe ei a, C. R., Camino, L., To es, A. R., Ga ido-Luque, A., Techio, E. M., Ba ei os, J. A., Lo en e-Clema es, R., Alongo-Flo es, P. E. 182 Eu opean coun ies? An analysis a he egional le el. Ins i u e o Social & Economic Resea ch (ISER), 25. doi:10.1093/mig a ion/mn 015. Re- ie ed omh ps://www.ise .essex.ac.uk/publi- ca ions/wo king-pape s/ise /2012-25 Mul ey, G. (2011). Immig a ion unde new labou : Policy and e ec s. Jou nal o E hnic and Mig a- ion S udies, 37, 1477-1493. doi:10.1080/13691 83X.2011.623622 Pe ei a, C. R., & Vala, J. (2011). A legi imação da disc iminação em di e en es con ex os no ma- i os [The legi ima ion o disc imina ion in di e en e no ma i e con ex s]. In E. M. Techio & M. E. Lima (Eds.), Cul u a e p odução das di e enças: Es e eó ipos e p econcei o [Cul u e and cons uc ion o di e ences: S e eo ypes and p ejudice] (pp. 363-404). B asília, DF: Tech- noPoli ik. Pe ei a, C., Vala, J., & Cos a-Lopes, R. (2010). F om p ejudice o disc imina ion: The legi imizing ole o pe cei ed h ea in disc imina ion agains immig an s. Eu opean Jou nal o Social Pschol- ogy, 40, 1231-1250. doi:10.1002/ejsp.718 Pla ow, M. J., & Hun e , J. A. (2001). Realis ic in- e g oup confl ic : P ejudice, powe and p o es . In M. Augous inos & K. J. Reynolds (Eds.), Unde s anding he psychology o p ejudice and acism (pp. 195-214). London: Sage. doi:h p:// dx.doi.o g/10.4135/9781446218877.n12 Po es, A. (2009). Mig a ion and de elopmen : Rec- onciling opposi e iews. E hnic and Racial S ud- ies, 32, 5-22. doi:10.1080/01419870802483668 Quillian, L. (1995). P ejudice as a esponse o pe - cei ed g oup h ea : Popula ion composi ion and an i-immig an and acial p ejudice in Eu ope. Ame ican Sociological Re iew, 60, 586-611. doi:10.2307/2096296 Semyono , M., Raijman, R., & Go odzeisky, A. (2006). The ise o an i- o eigne sen- imen in Eu opean socie ies, 1988-2000. Ame ican Sociological Re iew, 71, 426-449. doi:10.1177/000312240607100304 She i , M., Ha ey, O. J, Whi e, B. J., Hood, W. R., & She i , C. W. (1961). In e g oup confl ic and coope a ion: The obbe s ca e expe imen . No - man, OK: Uni e si y o Oklahoma Book Ex- change. Simai, S., & Baeninge , R. (2011). The na ional my h o ecep i i y in B azil. Ame iQues s, 8, 1-12. Re ie ed omh p://ejou nals.lib a y. ande bil .edu/index.php/ame iques s/a icle/ iew/245/1338 Snide man, P. M., Hagendoo n, L., & P io , M. (2004). P edisposing ac o s and si ua ional ig- ge s exclusiona y eac ions o immig an mino - i ies. The Ame ican Poli ical Science Re iew, 98, 35-49. doi:10.1017/S000305540400098X S ephan, W. G., & S ephan, C. (2000). An in eg a ed h ea heo y o p ejudice. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing p ejudice and disc imina ion (pp.23- 45). Mahwah, NJ: Law ence E lbaum. Vala, J., Lopes, D., & Lima. M. O. (2008). Black immig an s in Po ugal: Luso- opicalism and p ejudice. Jou nal o Social Issues, 64, 287-302. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00562.x Wagne , U., Ch is , O., & Hei meye , W. (2010). E hnocen ism and bias owa ds immig an s. In J. F. Do idio, M. Hews one, P. Glick, & V. M. Esses (Eds.),Handbook o P ejudice, S e eo yp- ing, and Disc imina ion (pp.361-376).Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage. Recei ed: 23/09/2016 1s e ision: 14/02/2016 Accep ed: 15/02/2016 __________________________________________________________________________________________ © The Au ho (s), 2018. Open Access. This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons license, and indica e i changes we e made.