psyg-13-798629 July 12, 2022 Time: 7:53 # 1
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 12 July 2022
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.798629
Edi ed by:
Lenna Lo ås,
Wes e n No way Uni e si y o Applied
Sciences, No way
Re iewed by:
Amy Ne he y,
Deakin Uni e si y, Aus alia
Aina Helen Løbe g,
Wes e n No way Uni e si y o Applied
Sciences, No way
*Co espondence:
F ancesca Esposi o
.esposi o@wes mins e .ac.uk
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Cul u al Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 20 Oc obe 2021
Accep ed: 30 Ma ch 2022
Published: 12 July 2022
Ci a ion:
Esposi o F, Di Ma ino S,
B iozzo E, A cidiacono C and
O nelas J (2022) Women’s
Expe iences o Immig a ion De en ion
in I aly: Examining Immig a ion
P ocedu al Fai ness, Human Digni y,
and Heal h.
F on . Psychol. 13:798629.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.798629
Women’s Expe iences o Immig a ion
De en ion in I aly: Examining
Immig a ion P ocedu al Fai ness,
Human Digni y, and Heal h
F ancesca Esposi o1,2*, Sal a o e Di Ma ino3, E ica B iozzo4, Ca e ina A cidiacono5and
Jose O nelas4
1School o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Wes mins e , London, Uni ed Kingdom, 2Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais,
Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Po ugal, 3School o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o B ad o d, B ad o d, Uni ed Kingdom,
4Applied Psychology Resea ch Cen e Capabili ies and Inclusion, ISPA-Ins i u o Uni e si á io, Lisbon, Po ugal, 5Depa men
o Humani ies, Uni e si y o Naples Fede ico II, Naples, I aly
Recen decades ha e wi nessed a g owing numbe o s a es a ound he wo ld elying
on bo de con ol measu es, such as immig a ion de en ion, o go e n human mobili y
and con ol he mo emen s o hose classi ied as “unau ho ised non-ci izens.” In
esponse o his, an inc easing numbe o schola s om se e al disciplines, including
psychologis s, ha e begun o examine his phenomenon. In spi e o he widesp ead
conce ns aised, ew s udies ha e been conduc ed inside immig a ion de en ion si es,
p ima ily due o di icul ies in gaining access. This body o esea ch becomes e en
scan e when i comes o he expe iences o de ained women. This s udy is he i s
o i s kind o ha e su eyed 93 women con ined in an I alian immig a ion de en ion
acili y. A pa ial media ion model wi h la en a iables was es ed h ough pa ial leas
s uc u al equa ion modelling (PLS-SEM). The indings e ealed he nega i e impac ha
un ai immig a ion p ocedu es ha e on de ained women’s human digni y, which in u n
nega i ely a ec s hei sel - a ed physical and men al heal h. O e all, ou s udy sheds
ligh on he dehumanisa ion and damage o human digni y ha immig a ion de en ion
en ails, as well as i s nega i e impac on he heal h o hose a ec ed. This e idence
ein o ces he image o hese ins i u ions as si es o pe sis en injus ice, while s essing
he need o en ision al e na i e jus ice-o ien ed o ms o add ess human mobili y.
Keywo ds: immig a ion de en ion, immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, human digni y, heal h, pa ial leas s uc u al
equa ion modelling, women, I alian de en ion sys em
INTRODUCTION
Since he la e 1990s, s a es ac oss he globe ha e inc easingly used bo de con ol measu es such
as immig a ion de en ion o go e n human mobili y and con ine hose deemed “unau ho ised
non-ci izens” (Boswo h and Tu nbull, 2015;Ne he y and Sil e man, 2015;Fu man e al.,
2016;Tu nbull, 2017). These de elopmen s aise u gen conce ns in e ms o social jus ice
and he exclusiona y na u e o ci izenship as a mechanism o pe pe ua e and u he deepen
s uc u al powe di e en ials. Indeed, while people wi h ci izenship s a us can gene ally only be
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Esposi o e al. Women’s Expe ience o Immig a ion De en ion in I aly
inca ce a ed i cha ged o con ic ed o a c iminal o ence, non-
ci izens a e being sys ema ically de ained, some imes e en o
inde ini e pe iods, in he name o immig a ion p ocedu es and
na ional secu i y (Boswo h and Tu nbull, 2015;Cle eland e al.,
2018).
In esponse o hese conce ns, an inc easing numbe o
schola s om se e al disciplines, including psychologis s, ha e
u ned hei e o s owa d s udying his phenomenon. Mos o
he s udies a ailable in he medical and psychological ields ha e
been de o ed o assessing he e ec s o immig a ion de en ion
on hose subjec o his o m o con inemen (see Robjan e al.,
2009a;Boswo h, 2016;Filges e al., 2016; on We he n e al.,
2018).
Despi e he exis ing di e ences ac oss se ings and
ju isdic ions, indings om his body o clinical li e a u e
a e consis en in highligh ing he high human cos s associa ed
wi h immig a ion de en ion measu es. These p oduce a high
nega i e impac on he physical and men al heal h o de ained
adul s, adolescen s, and child en, he majo i y o whom ha e
also endu ed p e ious iolence and abuse (Robjan e al., 2009b;
Boswo h, 2016;Filges e al., 2016). A ecen sys ema ic li e a u e
e iew conduc ed by on We he n e al. (2018) ein o ced hese
indings, showing ha hey also apply o coun ies like Sweden,
whe e de en ion s anda ds a e ega ded as ela i ely benign. This
e idence aises se ious conce ns abou he use o immig a ion
de en ion and i s sho -, medium-, and long- e m impac on
indi iduals, amilies, and communi ies a la ge [on his poin
see also he socie y o communi y esea ch and ac ion (SCRA)
S a emen s by Chicco e al. (2016) and Langhou e al. (2018)].
Whils he alue o his schola ship is undeniable, we
ne e heless no e ha i o en limi s i s analysis o he
consequences o de en ion o diagnosable men al heal h
symp oms (e.g., dep ession, anxie y, and pos - auma ic s ess
diso de ) (Co ey e al., 2010;Esposi o e al., 2015). This
app oach, as i is mainly cen ed on indi idual dimensions,
ca ies he isk o medicalising he li ed expe iences o de ained
people and suppo ing he pe cep ion o men al heal h ca e as
he p ima y solu ion o his phenomenon (McG ego , 2011;
Lykes, 2013). As explained elsewhe e (Esposi o e al., 2015), we
main ain ha he unde s anding o he subjec i e expe ience
o immig a ion de en ion and i s mul idimensional e ec s
equi es a communi y psychology ecological pe spec i e, which
concep ualises heal h and wellbeing as con ex -dependen and
in luenced by social jus ice (see P illel ensky, 2008, 2012). This
a gumen also inds i s oo in p e ious quali a i e indings
(Esposi o e al., 2019a), which highligh ed how, in line wi h
P illel ensky’s heo y o “wellness as ai ness”, de en ion cen es
can be iewed as en i onmen s which pe pe ua e “pe sis ing
condi ions o injus ice” (2012, p. 17).
Re iews o li e a u e in his ield (Boswo h, 2016; on
We he n e al., 2018) ha e also highligh ed ha empi ical
s udies on immig a ion de en ion a e p edominan ly quali a i e
in hei na u e and a ely ocus on he speci ic expe iences o
women (al hough, see Boswo h and Kellezi, 2014;Boswo h
e al., 2016, 2018;Canning, 2017;Esposi o e al., 2019b,
2020a;De Angelis, 2020;Abji and La ios, 2021). One no able
excep ion is ep esen ed by he quan i a i e s udy conduc ed
by Cwikel e al. (2004), which examined he men al heal h
o Russian women de ained in Is ael. The indings how
he emale pa icipan s expe ienced high a es o subs ance
abuse, dep ession, psychosoma ic symp oms, and pos - auma ic
s ess diso de (PTSD) (Cwikel e al., 2004). Howe e , he
in es iga ion did no include a iables associa ed wi h he
de en ion en i onmen and he ea men /expe iences he ein o
assessing women’s men al heal h ou comes.
Despi e his gap, ex an quali a i e esea ch indica es ha
women in de en ion ace pa icula challenges and p esen
gende -speci ic needs, ulne abili ies, and esiliencies (Boswo h
and Kellezi, 2014;Boswo h e al., 2016, 2018). Mos women
also epo expe iences o gende ed iolence, including sexual,
domes ic and/o ep oduc i e iolence (Kal e al., 2013;Esposi o
e al., 2019b). Ye , hese expe iences a e a ely acknowledged
as g ounds o p o ec ion (Esposi o e al., 2019b, 2020a,b). This
body o wo k, which is o en cha ac e ised by a eminis s ance,
sheds ligh on he gende ed aspec s o he li es o women
labelled as “unau ho ised non-ci izens” be o e, du ing and a e
hei con inemen .
Based on he abo e conside a ions, and in o de o ill he
knowledge gaps iden i ied, he p esen s udy is he i s o i s
kind o quan i a i ely analyse he heal h expe iences o 93 women
de ained o mig a ion- ela ed easons. In pa icula , we ocus on
wo key a iables, namely immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and
human digni y, which—as o he schola s ha e highligh ed—play
a key ole on he physical and men al heal h o people con ined
in de en ion acili ies.
Immig a ion P ocedu al Fai ness and
De ained People’s Heal h
Despi e he dea h o quan i a i e s udies on hese ma e s,
se e al quali a i e and heo e ical con ibu ions ha e examined
he ole o immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness on he heal h and
wellbeing o illegalised non-ci izens de ained unde immig a ion
powe s.
In he seminal pape on he “c immig a ion c isis”, S ump
(2006) a gued ha al hough he con e gence o immig a ion
and c iminal jus ice sys ems is inc easingly e iden , he
dis inc ion emains ha “ he cons i u ional igh s o non-
ci izens in immig a ion p oceedings a e a mo e limi ed han
hose o c iminal de endan s” (p. 392). O he schola s, such
as Ma y Boswo h (2014, 2019), ha e con i med S ump ’s
a gumen h ough empi ical esea ch on he ewe p o ec ions
g an ed o de ained non-ci izens. This body o c iminological
and c i ical legal schola ship shows ha he immig a ion
sys em does no o e he same le els o due p ocess and
p ocedu al ai ness as he c iminal jus ice one (on his
poin , see Wilshe , 2011;He nández, 2014;Thwai es, 2014).
This dispa a e ea men “gene a es di e en ial, and mo e
bu densome, ou comes, d awing undamen al p inciples o
equali y [and jus ice] in o ques ion” (Boswo h, 2019, p. 88).
In pa icula , in he li e a u e e iew, Boswo h (2016)
highligh s how a lack o consis en and anspa en in o ma ion
and communica ion abou immig a ion cases/p ocesses has been
iden i ied as a nega i e key ac o o he men al heal h o
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Esposi o e al. Women’s Expe ience o Immig a ion De en ion in I aly
people in de en ion (Boswo h, 2016). O he schola s ha e
also eached simila conclusions h ough empi ical s udies
conduc ed in a ious na ional de en ion se ings. Fo example,
Pu hooppa ambil e al. (2015) highligh “ eeling h ea ened by
he au ho i ies o coope a e wi h depo a ion” as a c ucial s esso
in he expe ience o mig an s in Swedish immig a ion de en ion
cen es. Fu he mo e, he au ho s emphasise how elemen s o
in o ma ional jus ice, such as a lack o clea and consis en
in o ma ion and explana ions abou indi idual cases, esul in
inc eased le els o unce ain y and s ess.
People held in Aus alian immig a ion de en ion cen es
also epo ed se e al ins ances o unjus ea men s (e.g., S eel
e al., 2006;Co ey e al., 2010). In pa icula , he majo i y o
pa icipan s in he s udy conduc ed by Co ey e al. oiced a
sense o unce ain y and ulne abili y o he whims o de en ion
and immig a ion s a , and “a belie ha a bi a iness, a he
han any p inciples o jus ice, go e ned he p ocessing o hei
isa applica ions” (2010, p. 2074). These indings a e echoed
by e idence ound in Canada by Cle eland e al. (2018), which
shows ha de ained people el us a ed and demeaned in
hei in e ac ions wi h immig a ion o ice s, whose decisions
we e pe cei ed as unp edic able, a bi a y, and beyond he
pa icipan s’ con ol.
Finally, in hei quan i a i e s udy on quali y o li e in B i ish
de en ion cen es, Boswo h and Kellezi (2012, 2015) poin o he
lack o p ocedu al ai ness on he pa o immig a ion s a as one
o he mos nega i e aspec s o immig a ion de en ion. Rega dless
o he speci ic acili y hey ound hemsel es in, de ained people
made a clea dis inc ion be ween cus odial s a and immig a ion
o ice s, demons a ing mo e nega i e iews on he la e .
Human Digni y and De ained People’s
Heal h
As in he case o he un ai ness o immig a ion p ocedu es,
mig an people’s accoun s o he lack o human digni y
expe ienced in immig a ion de en ion se ings is a ecu ing opic
in mos quali a i e esea ch in his ield. Fo ins ance, all he
de ained people in e iewed by Co ey e al. (2010) indica ed he
loss o libe y, as well as he s a kness and dep i a ion o he
de en ion en i onmen , as majo causes o psychological ha m.
They also epo ed mul iple ins ances o unjus and inhumane
ea men , such as being handcu ed and s ip-sea ched, which
hey ound c iminalising, puni i e, and humilia ing.
Beyond hese speci ic examples, he o e all dehumanisa ion
pe ading de en ion en i onmen s and cha ac e ising de en ion-
ela ed p ac ices con ibu es o people’s sen imen o a lack
o human digni y. An example o his can be ound in he
p ac ice o calling people by numbe a he han by name, which
has been desc ibed as qui e common ac oss di e en se ings
and ju isdic ions (Co ey e al., 2010; bu also Boswo h, 2014;
Pu hooppa ambil e al., 2015;Esposi o e al., 2019a).
Poo li ing condi ions a e also ecu en ly ci ed as a
majo s esso o de ained people, as epo ed by pa icipan s
in e iewed in Sweden by Pu hooppa ambil e al. (2015), in
addi ion o he people we me in ou quali a i e s udy in he
Rome de en ion cen e (Esposi o e al., 2019a). These condi ions
include a deg aded s a e o acili ies and do mi o ies, lack o
hygiene and inadequa e sani a y acili ies, o e c owding (see
also S eel e al., 2006), lack o i ems, ac i i ies and li ing space,
and poo -quali y ood. Complain s abou ood a e pa icula ly
equen in de en ion, since de ained people ha e e y a ying
die s, which a e also linked o hei di e en cul u al habi s and
eligious belie s. Hence, i is no su p ising ha ood is one o he
main ac o s igge ing p o es s wi hin hese si es (Esposi o e al.,
2020b).
Repo s om people in de en ion also highligh how hey a e
usually subjec o measu es which signal hei social deg ada ion,
and unde line he shock and humilia ion associa ed wi h hem
(Cle eland e al., 2018). These measu es, which make people eel
as i hey a e b anded as “c iminals”, include handcu ing (see also
S eel e al., 2004), anspo in p ison ans, exposu e o sea ches,
and he con isca ion o pe sonal possessions. Pa ly co obo a ing
his e idence, Boswo h and Kellezi (2015) ound ha 41% o
hei pa icipan s conside ed ha hei wo h and humani y we e
no upheld in de en ion. This clea e idence o he lack o human
digni y, as he au ho s no e, “poin s o a sizeable legi imacy de ici
among he con ined” (Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015, p. 5).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Gi en he abo e conside a ions, in his s udy we es ed he
hypo hesis ha he lack o human digni y in immig a ion se ings
media es he ela ionship be ween immig a ion p ocedu al
ai ness and he sel - a ed physical and men al heal h o de ained
women. The ollowing subsec ions will desc ibe he p ocedu es,
ools, and analyses used o es ou hypo hesis.
S udy Con ex
In I aly, he p ac ice o de aining non-ci izens unde immig a ion
powe s began in he 1990s, inally being o malised by he
Consolida ed Immig a ion Ac (Law 40/1998, also known as
he Tu co-Napoli ano Law). Howe e , he I alian de en ion
sys em has been changing o e ime. A he ime o w i ing
(Oc obe 2021), he e a e 10 de en ion cen es in ope a ion,
sca e ed h oughou he coun y—namely in Tu in, Milan,
G adisca d’Isonzo (Go izia), Pon e Gale ia (Rome), T apani-
Milo, Cal anisse a, Ba i, B indisi Res inco, Palazzo San Ge asio
(Po enza), and Macome (Nuo o). People awai ing iden i ica ion
and/o possibly depo a ion, including asylum seeke s, can
be de ained o up o 90 days, which is ex endable o a
u he 30 days (un il Oc obe 2020, he maximum e m o
de en ion was 180 days).
The Pon e Gale ia cen e in Rome was amongs he i s
de en ion cen es o be opened in I aly, and is also he la ges one.
While ini ially i s o icial capaci y was 354 places, a he ime o
w i ing he acili y can hold up o 210 people (130 men and 80
women). No ably, his is he only de en ion cen e in I aly whe e
women can cu en ly be de ained.
Like all I alian de en ion cen es, he managemen o Pon e
Gale ia is en us ed o a p i a e sec o o ganisa ion (cu en ly
Alba os Social Coope a i e), which is cha ged wi h p o iding
de ained people wi h basic assis ance, including psychosocial
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and medical ca e, legal ad ice, and cul u al linguis ic media ion.
The e is an on-si e immig a ion o ice in cha ge o handling
immig a ion cases, main aining ela ionships wi h consula
au ho i ies, and implemen ing depo a ion decisions. Mili a y
pe sonnel pa ol he ou side a eas o he cen e, while an
in e - o ce police uni —composed o policemen, ca abinie i and
inance police—is in cha ge o main aining o de and secu i y
inside he cen e.
Since opening, Pon e Gale ia has been he si e o epo ed
iolence and abuse. Th ee people in pa icula ha e paid he
cos o his sys em wi h hei li es, namely Mohamed Ben Said,
Salah Soudani and Nab uka Mimuni1: he i s wo allegedly died
due o medical negligence, while he la e commi ed suicide,
ollowing he decision in a ou o an imminen depo a ion o
Tunisia (Galieni and Guido, 2019). In addi ion o hese agedies,
o e he yea s he cen e has been he hea e o ecu ing
igh iola ions and injus ices, including he inadequacy o he
law ulness assessmen o de en ion and poo quali y o judges’
and lawye s’ pe o mances; sca ci y o in o ma ion p o ided o
de ained people on hei igh s and he p ocedu es o en o cing
hem; insalub ious li ing condi ions; insu icien heal hca e;
excessi e secu i y es ic ions (e.g., bans on a as numbe o
i ems and possessions); poo quali y o ood; lack o ac i i ies and
aliena ion; neglec o si ua ions o inc eased ulne abili y (such
as people acing men al heal h challenges o wi h expe ience
o o u e and gende ed iolence); and e en episodes o police
iolence (e.g., Medici Pe I Di i i Umani [MEDU], 2012;
Lascia eCIEn a e, 2016;Bo de C iminologies - Landscapes o
Bo de Con ol, 2020).
Pa icipan s
This s udy employed a con enience sample o 93 pa icipan s,
who we e held a Pon e Gale ia de en ion cen e du ing he
pe iod o ou ieldwo k. The main demog aphic cha ac e is ics
o he pa icipan s a e epo ed in Table 1.
As can be seen om he able, he en i e y o ou sample is
cons i u ed by women. This choice is no only jus i ied by he
a gumen s we p esen ed in he in oduc ion o his wo k (i.e.,
he pauci y o esea ch conduc ed wi h his g oup), bu also
by p agma ic easons. In ac , a he ime o ou ieldwo k, he
men’s sec ion was closed ollowing an up ising and subsequen
a son. This esul ed in only se en men pa icipa ing in ou
quan i a i e s udy, a condi ion which would ha e made ou
sample un ep esen a i e o bo h men and women’s de en ion
expe iences. We he e o e op ed o emo e hese cases om
u he analyses. The pa icipan s epo ed a mean age o abou
35 yea s and a s anda d de ia ion o abou 10, which indica es
ha 68% o pa icipan s’ ages anged be ween 25 and 45.
In e ms o educa ional le el, his anged om ha ing no
schooling (31%), o possessing a uni e si y deg ee (30%). The e
was also signi ican a iabili y as o ma i al s a us, wi h being
1While his pape was unde e iew, ano he indi idual agically died, a 26-
yea -old Tunisian man named Wissem Ben Abdella i . On 28 h No embe 2021,
Wissem died a he San Camillo hospi al in Rome a e being ans e ed he e om
Pon e Gale ia de en ion cen e. An in es iga ion is cu en ly unde way o es ablish
whe he he hea a ack ha p o oked his dea h may ha e been caused by he use
o es ain measu es.
TABLE 1 | Demog aphic cha ac e is ics o pa icipan s.
Range Mean (SD)
Age (yea s) 18–62 34.9 (10.9)
Time spen in I aly (mon hs) 11–12,77 24.5 (15.2)
Time spen in de en ion (days) 3–199 31.2 (34.9)
Ma i al s a us
Single 49 (52.7%)
Ma ied/in a ela ionship 19 (20.4%)
Sepa a ed/di o ced/widowed 22 (23.7)
O he 1 (1.1%)
Missing 2 (2.2%)
Child en
Yes 48 (51.6%)
No 45 (48.4%)
Coun y o ci izenship ( op i e)a
Nige ia 39 (41.9%)
China 7 (7.5%)
Uk aine 5 (5.4%)
Romania 4 (4.3%)
B azil 3 (3.2%)
Res o he wo ld 35 (37.6%)
Educa ional le el
None 31 (33.3%)
P ima y school 14 (15.1%)
Middle school/high school 38 (40.9%)
Highe educa ion 9 (9.7%)
Missing 1 (1.1%)
Legal s a us*
Asylum seeke s 57 (61.3%)
T a icking su i o s 1 (1.1%)
Illegalised non-ci izen 27 (29.3%)
Missing 8 (8.6%)
aThe e we e 33 di e en na ionali ies p esen among he people de ained.
*Asylum seeke : a pe son who is seeking in e na ional p o ec ion bu whose claim
has no ye been inally de e mined (ei he because i has ye o be p ocessed o
because he pe son is appealing agains a nega i e decision); T a icking su i o :
a pe son who applied o p o ec ion as a “ ic im o a icking”; Illegalised non-
ci izen: a pe son who does no belong o any o he abo e ca ego ies and does no
possess au ho isa ion o s ay in he coun y. Legal s a us ca ego ies we e based
on pa icipan s’ de ini ions o hei legal si ua ion.
single ep esen ing he mos p e alen condi ion (50%), ollowed
by being ma ied o in a de ac o union (23%), sepa a ed
o di o ced (19%) and widowed (5%). A leas hal o he
sample (52%) had child en. The majo i y o pa icipan s (70%)
did no ha e any amily membe s in I aly. Na ionali y was
as ly he e ogeneous, wi h pa icipan s coming om a leas
34 di e en coun ies ac oss ou con inen s: Eu ope, A ica,
Asia, and Ame ica.
P ocedu es and Measu es
This pape is pa o a la ge esea ch p ojec , which was
de eloped o e a pe iod o nea ly h ee yea s (2014–2017).
In o med by a communi y psychology ecological pe spec i e
(Esposi o e al., 2015), his sus ained engagemen opened up
a space o o ge ela ionships o us and collabo a ion wi h
di e en pa icipan s, including de ained people, s a membe s,
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NGO p ac i ione s and ac i is s. The quali a i e pa o his s udy,
which in ol ed obse a ions and in e iews wi h de ained people
and p ac i ione s, has been published elsewhe e (Esposi o e al.,
2019a). This a icle p esen s he analysis o ou quan i a i e da a,
which we e collec ed ollowing up he quali a i e s udy.
In e ms o da a collec ion, a p o ocol was adminis e ed by wo
esea che s who we e o e all p o icien in se e al languages (i.e.,
I alian, English, Po uguese, Spanish, and F ench). In hose a e
cases whe e esponden s spoke o he languages, such as A abic
and Manda in, we elied on he suppo p o ided by on-si e
olun ee in e p e e s om BeF ee, a local eminis NGO which
p o ides suppo o women de ained in he cen e. This choice
was made o ensu e answe s o he su ey we e accu a e, as well
as he ull pa icipa ion o all de ained women, including hose
wi h a low le el o o mal educa ion and/o poo command o
he I alian language.
Be o e aking pa in he s udy, all pa icipan s we e p o ided
wi h a de ailed explana ion o he s udy’s aims and p ocedu es,
along wi h he oppo uni y o ask ques ions and cla i ica ions.
All pa icipan s we e also asked o sign a consen o m, which
was p o ided in a a ie y o languages (i.e., I alian, English,
Po uguese, F ench, Spanish, A abic, and Manda in). All esea ch
p ocedu es we e app o ed by he ISPA-Uni e si y Ins i u e E hics
Commission, he ins i u ion whe e he i s au ho conduc ed he
doc o al esea ch.
The p o ocol o da a collec ion comp ised an a ay o
measu es aimed a assessing se e al aspec s o women’s de en ion
expe iences om a psychosocial pe spec i e. Amongs hem,
o his s udy we used in o ma ion om he sociodemog aphic
o m, he sel - a ed physical heal h (SRPH) and sel - a ed men al
heal h (SRMH) measu es, and he Measu e o Quali y o Li e in
De en ion (MQLD) (Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015).
The MQLD, inspi ed by he “Measu e o Quali y o P ison
Li e” (MQPL) (Liebling and A nold, 2004), was de eloped
by Boswo h and colleagues wi h he aim o assessing he
expe iences and needs o people held in B i ish immig a ion
de en ion acili ies (Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015;Boswo h,
2015). The in en ion was o c ea e a quan i a i e ool o use
alongside quali a i e me hods such as pa icipan obse a ions
and in-dep h in e iews, o ga he he iewpoin s o a la ge
numbe o pa icipan s. The MQLD is composed o he
ollowing dimensions: Digni y; Sa e y; S a decency; S a help
and assis ance; Dis ess; Heal hca e; Immig a ion o ganisa ion and
consis ency; Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness; Communica ion and
au onomy; Ca e o he mos ulne able; D ugs ( o a desc ip ion
o each dimension, see Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015, pp. 2–3).
The 64 i ems composing he su ey a e measu ed on a 6-poin
Like scale (1 = S ongly disag ee, 5 = S ongly ag ee, and a inal
op ion o “Don’ know/no applicable”). A inal sec ion p o ides
pa icipan s wi h he oppo uni y o o e addi ional commen s
based on hei iews and expe iences.
The MQLD was ansla ed and adap ed o he I alian de en ion
con ex , and he pa icula cen e unde s udy, h ough a
collabo a i e and ecological p ocess, which in ol ed esea che s,
p ac i ione s wo king in he de en ion ield, and people wi h
li ed expe ience o de en ion (Esposi o e al., 2022). The esul ing
su ey— he MQLD-IT—consis s o 71 i ems, which main ained
he same measu emen p ope ies o he o iginal scale, and 13
dimensions: he 11 dimensions o he o iginal MQLD plus wo
new dimensions in oduced as a esul o he adap a ion p ocess
(Secu i y s a decency: he ex en o which he secu i y s a —i.e.,
in e o ce o ice s—a e conside ed easonable and app op ia e;
Con ac wi h he ou side: he pe cep ion o being able o ha e
con ac wi h he ou side, such as wi h amily and iends).
As in he o iginal e sion, he MQLD-IT also included some
s and-alone i ems and wo open-ended ques ions asking he
esponden s o lis he h ee bes and wo s aspec s o hei
li e in de en ion.
Fo he pu pose o his s udy, we ex ac ed wo MQLD-IT
dimensions, namely Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and Digni y.
Howe e , he dimension o Digni y, which was o iginally de ined
by Boswo h and Kellezi as “an en i onmen cha ac e ised
by kind ega d and conce n o he pe son ha ecognises
he alue and humani y o he indi idual” (2015, p. 2), was
enamed as Lack o human digni y. We did ha o wo
easons: he i s is ha mos o he i ems used in he su ey
a e nega i ely amed and he e o e hey ap in o people’s
eeling ha hei digni y wi hin he de en ion en i onmen
is no upheld. Second, we belie e ha i is impo an o
concep ually dis inguish “digni y” as one o he sub-componen s
o p ocedu al ai ness, which e e s o being ea ed wi h digni y
and espec wi h ega d o p ocedu es and decisions (see Tyle ,
2000, 1989), om “human digni y” as a undamen al human
igh , which encompasses elemen s such as digni ied s anda ds
o li ing and no being subjec ed o inhuman o deg ading
ea men , which make someone’s li e alued and wo h li ing
(Schulman, 2008;Nussbaum, 2011). In his s udy, we e e o
he la e concep ualisa ion, which i s he c i e ia o Lack o
human digni y.
I is also impo an o cla i y ha we ea ed he abo e-
men ioned dimensions in a di e en manne o how hey
we e o iginally concep ualised by Boswo h and Kellezi (2015).
In ac , he o iginal measu e ea s bo h dimensions as sub-
dimensions o he quali y o li e in de en ion, and as such
hey a e analysed as co ela ed congene ic a iables. Howe e ,
in his s udy we ake a di e en s ance in e ms o how o
concep ualise he ela ionship be ween immig a ion p ocedu al
ai ness and human digni y. In ac , we ea ed Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness and Lack o human digni y as wo dis inc , ye
ela ed measu es, whe eby he o me is modelled as a p edic o
o he la e . This choice is suppo ed by he e idence p esen ed
in he p e ious sec ions, which sugges s ha immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness migh be a de e minan o human digni y in
de en ion con ex s.
In o de o measu e de ained women’s physical and men al
heal h we elied on he SRPH and he SRMH measu es. These
measu es each include a single i em ha assesses pa icipan s’
pe cep ion o hei physical and men al sel - a ed heal h
espec i ely. Gi en he la ge co ela ion be ween hese wo
mani es a iables ( = 0.51), we decided o combine hem in o
a single componen (Sel - a ed heal h), which would explain bo h
aspec s o pa icipan s’ sel - a ed heal h.
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DATA ANALYSIS
Da a we e analysed wi hin he con ex o pa ial leas s uc u al
equa ion modelling (PLS-SEM) by means o Sma PLS so wa e
e sion 3.3.7 (Ringle e al., 2015). This app oach was p e e ed
o co a iance-based s uc u al equa ion modelling (CB-SEM) o
i s p o en abili y o be e handle complex models wi h se e al
componen s, indica o s, and ela ionships be ween a iables,
whe e he da a a e no no mally dis ibu ed, and he sample size
is ela i ely small (Hai e al., 2017;Rigdon e al., 2017). The
la e case is pa icula ly ele an in his ins ance, since ou es ed
model includes only 93 cases, which would ha e esul ed in an
unde powe ed solu ion using CB-SEM. Con e sely, he in e se
squa e oo me hod (Kock and Hadaya, 2018) e eals ha he
model we es ed needed only 35 cases o each a powe o 0.8
(Cohen, 1988, 1992), he eby a oiding incu ing a Type II e o .
No missing alues we e ound in ou da ase .
Fi s , we es ed a pa ial media ion model in which
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness p edic ed bo h Sel - a ed heal h
and Lack o human digni y, and he la e in u n p edic ed Sel -
a ed heal h. Howe e , he esul s o ou analyses demons a ed
ha he pa h om Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness o Sel - a ed
heal h was no signi ican a he 5% alpha le el, β= -0.19, p= 0.15,
95% BCa CI [-0.10, 0.41], and small e ec size ( 2= 0.02). Based
on hese indings, we es ed a ull media ion model, in which
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness p edic ed only Lack o human
digni y and he la e in u n p edic ed Sel - a ed heal h.
E alua ion o he Re lec i e
Measu emen Model
To assess he measu emen model, we will i s p esen he
esul s o he eliabili y and alidi y assessmen o ou main
e lec i e componen s. These a e based on he p inciple
ha he main componen s examined—namely Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness,Sel - a ed heal h, and Lack o human
digni y—explain he a iabili y in a se ies o mani es congene ic
a iables. The componen s’ eliabili y was assessed h ough
he omega coe icien , ω(McDonald, 1999), whe eas hei
alidi y was es ablished h ough A e age Va iance Ex ac ed
(AVE). Addi ionally, he he e o ai -mono ai a io o
co ela ions (HTMT) (Hensele e al., 2015), was used o
assess disc iminan alidi y.
The i s componen we will examine is Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness, which was de ined by Boswo h and Kellezi
as “ he pe cei ed impa iali y and legi imacy o immig a ion
o ice s” (2015, p. 3). This cons uc builds on some o he
main ene s o p ocedu al jus ice (see Tyle , 1989, 2000), ha
is, he pe cep ion ha immig a ion o ice s: (a) show genuine
conce n and ea de ained people wi h digni y and espec ; (b)
a e us wo hy; and (c) a e ai in applying ea men s and
con eying in o ma ion o all de ained people indisc imina ely.
As we can see in Table 2, all he i ems used o measu e
he componen Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness p esen adequa e
s anda dised ou e loadings, wi h high composi e eliabili y
(ω= 0.84) and AVE = (0.53). Al hough he i ems “Mos o
he immig a ion s a a his Cen e a e good a explaining
he decisions ha conce n my immig a ion/asylum case” and
“Immig a ion s a ea all he de ainees he same in his Cen e”
p esen ela i ely small ou e loadings, hey a e bo h highe han
0.4, which is gene ally ega ded as he h eshold abo e which
an i em can be conside ed as “salien ” in PLS-SEM, and hei
dele ion would no subs an ial al e he alidi y and eliabili y
o hei co esponding componen (see Hai e al., 2021). In
addi ion, hey bo h con ibu e o cap u ing a ele an concep ual
aspec o immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, ha is, impa iali y in
ea men . Based on hese conside a ions, we decided o e ain
he abo e i ems.
On he o he hand, he o iginal s uc u e o he MQLD
(Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015) included ano he i em, namely “I
ha e o be ca e ul abou e e y hing I do in his Cen e, o i
can be used agains me in my immig a ion case”. Howe e , in
ou analyses his i em was dele ed due o a low ou e loading
(-0.31), which educed he componen ’s composi e eliabili y
(omega = 0.76) and b ough con e gen alidi y (AVE = 0.45)
below he ecommended h eshold.
Ha ing assessed he s a is ical p ope ies o Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness, we now u n o examine he emaining
componen s included in his s udy. As we can see in Table 2
below, bo h Sel - a ed heal h and Lack o human digni y show
sa is ac o y eliabili y and con e gen alidi y.
The second componen is based on he dimension o Digni y,
which was o iginally de ined by Boswo h and Kellezi as “an
en i onmen cha ac e ised by kind ega d and conce n o he
pe son ha ecognises he alue and humani y o he indi idual”
(2015, p. 2). As explained ea lie , howe e , in ou s udy we
decided o ename his componen as Lack o human digni y. In
addi ion, i was also necessa y o emo e h ee i ems o iginally
conside ed by Boswo h and Kellezi (2015) as pa o his
componen , namely “The e is no enough o do a his Cen e,”
“This Cen e helps me s ay in con ac wi h my amily,” and “S a
do no make acis commen s in his Cen e.” Thei emo al
was jus i ied by hei ela i ely low ou e loadings, which sligh ly
lowe ed he componen ’s eliabili y (omega = 0.80) and mos o
all i s con e gen alidi y (AVE = 0.37), b inging i below he
ecommended h eshold.
E alua ion o he S uc u al Model
To e alua e he quali y o he s uc u al model, we will i s
p esen he esul s o collinea i y and disc iminan alidi y. No
e iden sign o collinea i y was de ec ed, wi h he cons uc ’s
ole ance (VIF) alues anging om a minim o 1.15 o bo h
Sel - a ed physical heal h and Sel - a ed psychological heal h and
a maximum o 2.43 o he i em “Mos o he immig a ion s a
he e show conce n and unde s anding owa ds me.”
In e ms o disc iminan alidi y, all cases we e below he
ecommended cu -o poin o 0.9 o he HTMT (see Hensele
e al., 2015), wi h alues anging om a minimum o 0.53
be ween Sel - a ed heal h and Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness
and a maximum o 0.78 be ween Lack o human digni y and
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness. Ha ing asce ained he absence
o issues wi h ega d o collinea i y and disc iminan alidi y,
we will now p esen he main esul s o he causal ela ionships
be ween he componen s included in he model.
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TABLE 2 | Reliabili y and con e gen alidi y indexes o Sel - a ed heal h, Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, and Lack o human digni y.
La en a iables Mani es a iables Ou e
loadings*
Composi e
eliabili y (CR)
A e age a iance
ex ac ed (AVE)
Sel - a ed heal h How would you a e you o e all physical heal h (physical heal h) 0.80 0.81 0.68
How would you a e you o e all men al heal h (men al heal h) 0.83
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness Mos o he immig a ion s a he e show conce n and unde s anding
owa d me
0.89 0.84 0.53
Mos immig a ion s a ea me wi h espec 0.82
I us mos o he immig a ion s a in his Cen e 0.84
Mos o he immig a ion s a a his Cen e a e good a explaining
he decisions ha conce n my immig a ion/asylum case
0.50
Immig a ion s a ea all he de ainees he same in his Cen e 0.48
Remo ed mani es a iables
I ha e o be ca e ul abou e e y hing I do in his Cen e, o i can be
used agains me in my immig a ion case
−0.31 0.76 0.45
Lack o human digni y I am no being ea ed as a human being in he e 0.71 0.83 0.55
The quali y o my li ing condi ions in his Cen e is poo 0.70
The ood a his Cen e is good −0.74
In his Cen e hey do no ca e abou me, hey jus wan me o be
depo ed
0.80
Remo ed mani es a iables 0.80 0.37
The e is no enough o do a his Cen e 0.41
This Cen e helps me s ay in con ac wi h my amily −0.44
S a do no make acis commen s in his Cen e −0.54
*All alues a e signi ican a 1% alpha le el.
Ou esul s a e based on s anda dised coe icien s, and
5,000 bias-co ec ed and accele a ed boo s ap (BCa) s a is ical
signi icance se a a minimum o 5% alpha le el (p<0.05)
and con idence in e als (CI). Wi h ega d o he coe icien
o de e mina ion (R2), we ollowed s anda d ecommenda ions,
acco ding o which alues o 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 o he
endogenous la en a iables a e conside ed la ge, mode a e,
and weak, espec i ely (Hai e al., 2013, 2021). As o e ec
size, 2 alues o 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 a e conside ed small,
medium, and la ge espec i ely. Las ly, p edic i e ele ance was
assessed h ough blind olding, wi h S one-Geisse ’s Q2 alues
o 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 being indica i e o small, medium, and
la ge p edic i e ele ance, espec i ely (Geisse , 1974;S one,
1974). Figu e 1 p o ides a g aphical ep esen a ion o he
ela ionship be ween he exogenous and endogenous a iables
included in ou model.
Table 3 o e s a summa y o he main pa hs analysed. As
we can see om bo h Figu e 1 and Table 3, ou model shows
a highly signi ican and s ong nega i e e ec o Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness on Lack o human digni y,β= -0.66, p≤0.001,
95% BCa CI [-0.74, -0.53], wi h close o mode a e coe icien o
de e mina ion (R2= 0.43), la ge e ec size ( 2= 0.77) and la ge
p edic i e ele ance (Q2= 0.21). In u n, Lack o human digni y
exe s a highly signi ican nega i e e ec on Sel - a ed heal h,β= -
0.42, p≤0.001, 95% BCa CI [-0.58, -0.19], wi h a weak coe icien
o de e mina ion (R2= 0.16), medium-la ge e ec size ( 2= 0.21),
and small-medium p edic i e ele ance (Q2= 0.10).
In e ms o indi ec e ec s, we ound ha Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness has a o al highly signi ican posi i e indi ec
e ec on Sel - a ed heal h h ough Lack o human digni y,
β= 0.27, p≤0.001, 95% CI [0.12, 0.40].
DISCUSSION
The indings p esen ed in his s udy o e some e idence ha
he ela ionship be ween immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and
sel - a ed heal h in immig a ion de en ion is ully media ed
by he lack o human digni y pe pe ua ed in hese con ex s.
Wha eme ges om ou s udy is he nega i e impac ha a
lack o human digni y has on he subjec i e pe cep ion o
physical and men al heal h o women con ined inside Pon e
Gale ia de en ion cen e. Consis en wi h he e idence ga he ed
in p e ious quali a i e s udies, including ou own s udy in he
same de en ion con ex (Esposi o e al., 2019a), ou quan i a i e
indings highligh how people in hese si es o con inemen
eel highly dep i ed o hei alue and sense o humani y. This
dehumanisa ion, as a esul , has a p o ound nega i e e ec on
hei heal h and wellbeing.
These indings o e all demons a e ha immig a ion
de en ion nega i ely a ec s he women subjec o i . Addi ionally,
we ound a highly s a is ically signi ican and s ong nega i e
e ec o Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness on Lack o human
digni y. This e idence esona es wi h s udies highligh ing how
he managemen o immig a ion cases is a undamen al aspec
o de ained people, as i de e mines he e y eason o hei
con inemen as well as he possible de elopmen s and ou comes
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Esposi o e al. Women’s Expe ience o Immig a ion De en ion in I aly
FIGURE 1 | S uc u al model o ela ionship be ween Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, Lack o human digni y, and Sel - a ed heal h.
TABLE 3 | S uc u al model esul s o di ec and indi ec e ec s.
Pa h S anda dised pa h
coe icien
-Values S a is ical
signi icance (p- alue)
95% boo s apped
con idence in e als
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness—Lack o human digni y −0.66 13.09 <0.001 −0.74, −0.53
Lack o human digni y—Sel - a ed heal h −0.42 4.05 <0.001 −0.58, −0.19
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness—Lack o human
digni y—Sel - a ed heal h
0.27 4.02 <0.001 0.12, 0.40
o hei own si ua ion (i.e., con inued de en ion, depo a ion, o
elease in o he communi y).
This e idence, once again, is consis en wi h indings which
eme ged om he quali a i e componen o ou esea ch
(Esposi o e al., 2019a). The la e desc ibes dehumanisa ion and
depe sonalisa ion as salien p ocesses a play in Pon e Gale ia
de en ion en i onmen , which a e pa icula ly exempli ied
by dehumanizing p ac ices such as calling de ained people
by numbe a he han by name. Ou pa icipan s also
emphasised he lack o in o ma ion and communica ion
expe ienced wi h on-si e immig a ion o ice s whom, on
se e al occasions, hey ne e me . As a esul , de ained
people s uggled o ollow wha was happening wi h hei
immig a ion/asylum cases and expe ienced high le els o
un ai ness and unce ain y.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE
RECOMMENDATIONS
One o he main limi a ions o his s udy is ep esen ed by
he na u e o he sample. Fi s o all, we should be mind ul
ha we adop ed a con enience sample ha was ob ained om
a speci ic immig a ion de en ion cen e in I aly; his means
ha cau ion should be aken in gene alising he esul s o
e e y de en ion cen e in he coun y, and e en mo e o
ex end hem o he es o he wo ld. We sugges ha u u e
s udies should explo e he ela ionship be ween immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness, human digni y, and heal h/wellbeing in o he
con ex s and wi h mo e ep esen a i e samples, o asce ain
whe he ou indings can be ex ended elsewhe e. We should
also be mind ul ha he a iabili y o pa icipan s in e ms o
coun y o o igins and spoken languages posed an addi ional
challenge o he esea ch. Al hough e e y possible measu e
was aken o make he su ey as accessible as possible,
we canno exclude ha some in o ma ion migh ha e been
los in ansla ion.
Tu ning o ou main indings, we should be mind ul ha
hese a e he esul o a co ela ional s udy and as such no
de ini i e causal ela ion can be asce ained. In addi ion, he
models we es ed in ou s udy, al hough heo e ically sound
and s a is ically adequa e o desc ibe he da a, a e only some
o he possible al e na i es a ailable. O he hypo heses could
be explo ed in u u e esea ch. Fo example, gi en he high
co ela ion and ela i ely low disc iminan alidi y be ween
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and Lack o human digni y, i
could be possible o es he hypo hesis ha hese wo a iables
migh in ac o m a highe -o de cons uc , which in u n
can explain a ia ions in de ained people’s sel - epo ed physical
and men al heal h.
Addi ionally, we should poin ou ha e en when eplica ing
he model used in his s udy, we should conside ha lack
o human digni y canno be ea ed as he only p edic o o
heal h ou comes in immig a ion de en ion cen es. Fu u e s udies
should he e o e include mo e exogenous a iables ha can
explain de ained people’s heal h and wellbeing. In he same
ein, a iables o he han immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness can
be esponsible o he lack o human digni y pe pe ua ed in
de en ion con ex s, and as such u u e s udies should explo e
o he possible de e minan s.
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Esposi o e al. Women’s Expe ience o Immig a ion De en ion in I aly
CONCLUSION
We lose ou digni y in he e. (Fela)
S a es a ound he globe a e implemen ing inc easingly
s ingen policies in o de o de e , so and con ol hose
en e ing and li ing in hei e i o ies. These policies, which can
be ega ded as a o m o s uc u al iolence agains pa icula
g oups o non-ci izens, p ima ily acialised people om low-
income coun ies (Cle eland e al., 2018), ha e also in ol ed a
g owing use o o icial and uno icial o ms o mig a ion- ela ed
inca ce a ion. No ably, he li es o hese people a e cons an ly
jeopa dised by he isk o a es , de en ion, and depo a ion.
O e all, his e idence shows a di e en ace o social jus ice
and ci izenship. In ac , he exclusiona y na u e o ci izenship
u ns his s a us in o a powe ool, which is used o egula e
and disc imina e access o igh s and eedoms—sys ema ically
p ecluded o some g oups. In his con ex , ci izenship, which
is usually ega ded as a “posi i e” and “desi able” o m o
inclusion in o socie y, becomes a means o pe pe ua e injus ice,
dispossession, and ma ginalisa ion (Tambakaki, 2015;Cook and
Seglow, 2016).
In his global scena io, I aly is no excep ion, as ecen
legisla ions ha e inc eased he numbe o de en ion acili ies and
he people con ined he ein, as well as allowed o he de en ion
o people seeking asylum (Bo de C iminologies - Landscapes
o Bo de Con ol, 2020). These es ic i e measu es, as ou
s udy clea ly highligh s, ake a huge human oll, conside ing he
damaging impac hey ha e on human digni y, which in u n
nega i ely impac s people’s heal h and wellbeing. This e idence
ein o ce he image o immig a ion de en ion cen es as si es
ha pe pe ua e “pe sis ing condi ions o injus ice” (P illel ensky,
2012, p. 17).
We belie e ha he indings p esen ed in his a icle a e
o u mos social and poli ical impo ance, and al hough hey
highligh he nega i e e ec o un ai immig a ion p ocedu es
on de ained women’s human digni y and heal h, hey should
no be in e p e ed as an in i a ion o simply p o ide ai e
immig a ion p ocedu es in hese con ex s. In his a icle, indeed,
we align ou a gumen wi h decades o esea ch, ac i ism,
and legal challenges, which ha e ad oca ed o a adical
ans o ma ion o he immig a ion and de en ion sys ems (e.g.,
Acca do and Guido, 2016;Lascia eCIEn a e, 2016;Ga cía
He nández, 2017;Boochani, 2018;Boochani e al., 2020;Bo de
C iminologies - Landscapes o Bo de Con ol, 2020). In ha
ega d, ou indings ein o ce he message ha immig a ion
de en ion causes unnecessa y and ha m ul impac s on hose
con ined, who, i is impo an o ei e a e, a e de ained only
o hei s a us as unau ho ised, o a he illegalised, non-
ci izens. The e o e, we ad oca e o al e na i e amewo ks
and s a egies o concep ualise and app oach human mobili y,
all based on he p inciples o social jus ice, digni y, and
indi idual/communal wellness.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be
made a ailable upon eques , wi hou undue ese a ion.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The s udies in ol ing human pa icipan s we e e iewed and
app o ed by E hics Commi ee o he ISPA–Uni e si y Ins i u e.
The pa ien s/pa icipan s p o ided hei w i en in o med
consen o pa icipa e in his s udy.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
FE led he design o he s udy and da a collec ion, and w o e mos
sec ions o he a icle. SD led he analysis and au ho ed he da a
analysis and limi a ions and u u e ecommenda ions sec ions as
well as ela ed ables and igu es, and con ibu ed h oughou .
EB was esponsible o da a en y and con ibu ed o se e al
sec ions o his a icle, including he ma e ials and me hods and
s udy con ex . JO and CA p o ided supe ision o he s udy and
comp ehensi e eedback on his a icle. All au ho s con ibu ed
o he in ellec ual con en and app o ed he inal e sion o he
manusc ip o be published and ag eed o be accoun able o all
aspec s o he wo k.
FUNDING
FE’s doc o al esea ch, on which his a icle elies,
was suppo ed by he Po uguese Founda ion o
Science and Technology (SFRH/BD/87854/2012), and
he subsequen wo k was suppo ed by he Po uguese
Founda ion o Science and Technology (g an numbe :
CEECIND/00924/2018/CP1541/CT0004).
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F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 9July 2022 | Volume 13 | A icle 798629